The impact of new transport technologies on intra-urban mobility: a view from the past.

Colin Pooley, Jean Turnbull and Mags Adams, Department of Geography Lancaster Uni ersity Lancaster LA! "#$ %!&'" &()*)+ c,pooley-lancaster,ac,u. Paper presented to the Alternati e Mobility /utures conference, Lancaster Uni ersity, January '%%", Introduction The t0enty1first century has been characterised as a period in 0hich ne0 forms of mobility both produce and change societies 2Thrift, !((34 Urry, '%%%5, Lo01cost airlines, 0idespread car o0nership and ne0 mobile communications allo0 people to tra el further, more 6uic.ly and more fre6uently and enable transactions that pre iously re6uired face to face contact to be underta.en at a distance or e en on the mo e, These processes of time1space compression and time space con ergence 2Pred, !(*)4 7ar ey, !(+(4 !((%4 Thrift, !((%4 Gregory, !(("5, it is argued, are producing ne0 challenges at both the societal and indi idual le els as people, organisations and go ernments ad8ust to the conse6uences of a ne0 mobility 2Cairncross, !((*4 Adams, !(((4 Urry, '%%%5, This paper does not challenge these arguments, but it does suggest that fe0 of these processes are ne0, 9 ery generation has had to cope 0ith ne0 forms of transport technology, and to negotiate the impacts of ne0 mobilities on society, This paper focuses on intra1urban mobility: the most common form of e eryday mobility for most people, ;t is argued, first, that o er the past century or so there has been fre6uent change in e eryday mobility in cities both through the introduction of ne0 transport technologies, and through the spread of e<isting technologies to ne0 sectors of the population, ;n any urban population, there is thus a constant process of appraising and changing mobility options, =econd, it is argued that despite ne0 forms of transport, indi idual mobility aspirations ha e changed little since the late1nineteenth century 0ith most people see.ing to achie e the same goals 0ithin the constraints imposed upon them, These themes are illustrated through a series of case studies of intra1urban mobility in $ritish cities from the !++%s to the present, Data are dra0n from three main sources: indi idual diaries4 oral history inter ie0s and archi al e idence, Details of the sources and methods used to collect data are gi en else0here and are not repeated in this paper 2Pooley and Turnbull, '%%%a, '%%%b4 Pooley, Turnbull and Adams, '%%"5, 7o0e er, together, the sources pro ide significant insights into mobility in the past, and allo0 assessment of the 0ays in 0hich ne0 transport technologies ha e affected indi iduals and societies o er the last century,

Changing mobility experiences ;t is easy to demonstrate the e<tent to 0hich tra elling in cities has changed since the late nineteenth century, The 8ourney to 0or. is probably the most common form of e eryday mobility for most adults, and data relating mainly to the cities of London, Manchester and Glasgo0 illustrate the trend, >hereas in the !+(%s some &(? of all 8ourneys to 0or. 0ere underta.en on foot by the !((%s barely +? of commuters 0al.ed to 0or., Tra el by bicycle pea.ed in the !("%s 0hen it accounted for almost '%? of 8ourneys to 0or., but had fallen to only 3? in the !((%s4 tra el by tram accounted for some !3? of commuting 8ourneys in the period !+(%1!('%, but 0as negligible after !(3%4 tra el by bus pea.ed at around ')? of all commuting trips in the !("%s and @&%s, but had dropped to !%? in the !((%s and, of course, commuting by car increased from Aero in the late1 nineteenth century to !3? of commuting trips in the !(&%s and o er &'? in the !((%s 2Pooley and Turnbull, '%%%a5, All tra el modes 0ere also differentiated by gender 0ith 0omen more li.ely than men to 0al. and use buses or trams in all time periods, 0hilst both cycling and car use 0ere dominated by men 2Table !5, Throughout the last century commuters and other urban tra ellers ha e been faced 0ith ne0 transport technologies 2the bicycle, tram, trolley bus, motor bus, car5 and ha e had to ma.e decisions about 0hether and ho0 to incorporate ne0 transport opportunities into their daily tra el patterns, Although the modes of transport a ailable to urban tra ellers ha e changed substantially o er time, it can be suggested that the decision1ma.ing process that has structured transport choice has changed relati ely little, >hilst the changes in transport technology outlined abo e can be characterised as a transition from mobility forms that 0ere not only relati ely slo0 but 0hich also re6uired a degree of communal tra el and e<posure to the en ironment 20al.ing, trams, buses5 to those 2principally the pri ate car5 that are indi idualised, independent of others and pro ide personal space largely immune from e<ternal influences, it can be suggested that the reality is much more comple<, Bral e idence from the !()%s and @"%s suggests that fe0 people 0al.ed to 0or. by choice, but did so to sa e money or 0hen other transport 0as not a ailable, I soon decided to get up a bit earlier and walk because I was paying half a crown for tram fares, and I thought I cant even save up to go home. So I started walking to work and walking back. 2C!3, Manchester, /emale, !()%s5 Well, again, I think Ive probably had to walk home in snow or thick fog or something like that, but it wasnt from choice. 22C)*, Glasgo0, /emale, !("%s5, =imilarly, many 0ho used public transport felt that they had no alternati e mode of transport a ailable to them: Well tram cars was the mode of transport . That was the normal mode of transport, and it was very cheap in those days. That was the only mode of transport oud no option. 2C"(, Glasgo0, Male, !()%s5,

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Table 1: Main mode of transport for ourneys to wor! since 1"#$ by gender %&' Mode 1"#$1#1# Males >al. $icycle TramDtrolley bus $us Train 2o erground5 Underground Motor cycle CarD an =ample siAe .emales >al. $icycle TramDtrolley bus $us Train 2o erground5 Underground Motor cycle CarD an =ample siAe "",) !),' !),+ (,+ !"," !,' %,& !,3 3"3 &%,) &,% !*,+ !",' +,3 ),3 %,% %,& !(* 1#($1#+# '),' '!,3 (,% !%,+ !*,& ),' ),& !%,% !'*' '(,) (,& !),' '',' '%,) ),( %,( %,* ")) Time period 1#)$1#,# !',) '!," ),) !*,* !+,( ),+ ),( !3,) ''(! !(,* !!,* 3,' )!,* !+,! 3,3 %,3 "," !"&* 1#*$1#-# +,% &,& %,% !!,) !*,( ),( ),) "+,! '%'3 '%,3 ",% %,' '",+ !!,! *,' !,! '(,( !3** 1#"$1##" *,' *,! %,% &,+ '!,( ",% !,+ &%,( !%%% !!,3 &,! %,! !3,! !%,! 3,! !,% "(,% !!%+

=ource: Details of !',")( 8ourneys to 0or. ta.en from !,+)" indi idual life histories, =tatistics are calculated for the decade in 0hich a particular 8ourney to 0or. started, The increase in bicycle use by men during the !()%s can be seen as one e<ample of commuters see.ing a form of transport that 0as indi idualistic, pro ided independence and ga e control o er personal mobility, Cycling to 0or. 0as often 6uic.er for comple< 8ourneys, and it a oided mi<ing 0ith cro0ds of commuters on the communal tram or bus: Well it !cycling" was really the only way. #ause there was such a tremendous detour using public transport well the time factor, it was horrendous. 2C!", Manchester, Male, !()%s5

 Im afraid I never liked travelling on trams they were never very comfortable and if you went on the top deck it was very uncomfortable because there was smoking I would sooner ride a bike. 2C)', Manchester, Male, !()%s5, =uch attitudes to0ards tra el by bicycle in the !()%s are not dissimilar to the reasons that respondents ga e for using a car in the late1t0entieth century, >hereas in the !(&%s the car 0as still seen primarily as a form of transport used for leisure and pleasure, 0ith public transport utiliAed for mundane 8ourneys around to0n, by the !((%s most commuters 0ere de oted to the con enience, comfort and pri acy offered by the car: If you had access to a car at that stage you would have used that for leisure only. It would not have occurred to you to use it for work. 2C%", Manchester, male, !(&%s5, I think once you start using it !the car" I find thats the trouble, the thing seduces you. 2C*3, Glasgo0, /emale, !((%s5, Ive used it !the car" for $% odd years of having one you know . The thing about public transport is the public its not always a pleasant e&perience sharing it with some folk you know. 2C*%, Glasgo0, Male, !((%s5, ;n the conte<t of changing conceptualisations of transport modes, the trends outlined abo e can be problematised around t0o 6uestions, /irst, do they reflect changing indi idual preferences for personal mobility4 or, second, are the trends determined largely by broader technological, economic, social and cultural factors 0ith preferences remaining largely constant and indi iduals adopting ne0 transport modes as they become more 0idely a ailable, ;n other 0ords, are the changes a reflection of indi idual preferences or of the forces shaping 0ider societyE ;t can be argued that in the past the rich al0ays had access to independent, enclosed and indi idualised forms of transport, ;n the eighteenth and early1nineteenth centuries the barouche pro ided the 0ealthy 0ith relati ely comfortable, personalised transport 0ith some protection from the 0eather and the discomfort of long road 8ourneys, /or those 0ithout personal transport, a seat inside a mail coach pro ided protection from the 0eather 2and some protection from high0ay robbers5, though the tra eller 0ould ha e to accommodate un.no0n companions, A cheap seat outside a mail coach ga e no protection from the elements, $y the second half of the nineteenth century the rich tra eller might choose to tra el by train, thus trading the con enience of personalised transport for speed, though the structure of rail fares, 0ith first class carriages allo0ing a degree of pri acy and some control o er personal space, meant that the affluent tra eller could distance him or herself from the mass of the tra elling public, Bnce motorcars became a ailable the rich rapidly abandoned the train and embraced the speed, pri acy and independence offered by the automobile 2Dyos and Aldcroft, !(3(4 /reeman, !(+34 /reeman and Aldcroft, !(++5, Thus, at all times, those 0ho could afford to chose a means of transport 0hich minimised contact 0ith other people and 0hich ga e them ma<imum control o er their 8ourney and their personal space, Bnly 0hen public transport offered distinct speed ad antages could it compete 0ith more pri atised transport modes, "

;t can thus be suggested that transport modes that minimise personal control o er the 8ourney ha e al0ays been ie0ed as second best, >hat has changed is not indi idual conceptualisations of mobility, but rather the technological and economic factors that constrained transport choice for many, Thus as soon as bicycles became relati ely cheap and 0idely a ailable in the !()%s, many men ga e up 0al.ing to 0or. or abandoned the tram in fa our of a mode of transport 0hich they percei ed as combining a high degree of independence and control 0ith reasonable speed in urban areas, As more and more people ha e been able to afford to o0n a car, the mobility alues and perceptions of the rich became more firmly established in all classes, leading to the decline in use of public transport in the second half of the '%th century, Thus it is suggested that the changing e<perience of mobility outlined abo e does not reflect ne0 conceptualisations of the mobility process by the tra elling public, or a different decision1ma.ing process, but rather the impacts of technological change and greater affluence that ha e together allo0ed more and more people to share common aspirations, /ew experiences of old forms of transport Fe0 mobilities are not only constructed through inno ation and the de elopment of ne0 technologies, As outlined abo e economic and social constraints restrict tra el for many and, arguably, the e<tent to 0hich old technologies become a ailable to ne0 groups of tra ellers is as important as the de elopment of inno ati e technology that, initially at least, often has ery restricted use, Thus in the '!st century it is not air tra el that is inno ati e, but the de elopment of lo01cost airlines that ha e made this a ailable to a larger proportion of the population, =uch factors 0ere as important in the past as in the present as changes in attitudes, income and situation could open ne0 tra el horiAons for many, There is a 0ell1recogniAed gender di ide in urban transport 0ith 2as outlined abo e5 0omen consistently using slo0er and more public forms of transport, ;n this section 0e use e idence from a personal diary to e<plore some constraints on female mobility in the !++%s, to assess the e<tent to 0hich 0omen had access to ne0 tra el technologies or e<perienced ne0 mobilities through impro ed access to old forms of transport, and to e<amine the li.ely impact of these ne0 tra el e<periences on indi idual li es, 9liAabeth Lee 0as born in $ir.enhead in !+3* and her diary co ers the period !++"1(' 0hen she 0as aged !*1'&, 7er father 0as a draper and gentlemanGs outfitter and she li ed a comfortable middle class life in the semi1rural $ir.enhead suburb of Prenton, Diary e idence suggests that the e eryday mobility of 9liAabeth 0as much less constrained than might be e<pected for a young middle class female in Hictorian Merseyside, and that she had the opportunity to both e<perience ne0 transport technologies and to use old technologies for the first time, Most of 9liAabethGs e eryday mobility 0as underta.en on foot and, as a teenage girl, there appeared to be fe0 constraints imposed on 0here and 0hen she 0al.ed 2though 0hen !* she 0as occasionally reprimanded by her father for being home too late5, 7o0e er, it 0as not unusual for her to 0al. the ' miles or so from $ir.enhead to her home in Prenton on her o0n late at night, Apart from 0al.ing 9liAabeth had a number of transport opportunities open to her on Merseyside, During the

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span of the diary her father o0ned a horse and @dogcartG 2a t0o10heeled dri ing cart 0ith cross seats bac. to bac.5 and, from !+++, t0o =hetland ponies and trap, 0hilst her brother o0ned a bicycle, A horse1dra0n tram 0ent from nearby her home into $ir.enhead, horse1dra0n buses ran in $ir.enhead and Li erpool, cabs could be hired 0ith ease, the Mersey could be crossed by ferry from $ir.enhead or Coc. /erry or 2from !++35 by rail, and a net0or. of suburban rail0ay lines pro ided transport further afield, 7o0e er, 9liAabeth did not ha e e6ual access to all these forms of transport, not all 0ere e6ually con enient, and her use of the Merseyside transport net0or. changed o er time, The tram from $ir.enhead to Prenton 0as used regularly throughout the diary, though as it stopped running at !!,%% most e enings it could not be used 0hen returning home late at night from dances or parties 20hen 9liAabeth often 0al.ed5, 7o0e er, a form of transport that 0as routine for much of the period 0as initially no el to a !* year old girl using the tram alone for the first time: I went down to the shop tonight to help them in serving. 'rs. (ope was there. I came home by myself in the tram, as )apa was not coming till later. Sissy *allions brother was in the tram. 29L diary, !*D&D+"5

The significance of being able to mo e safely around a familiar community is also emphasiAed in this entry as although 9liAabeth 0as using the tram alone for the first time, there 0as at least one other passenger that she .ne0, ;n this sense it can be suggested that local public transport can be ie0ed as an integral part of a local community, and its acceptability and use is in part at least related to 0ho else 0as using the transport at a particular point in time, Bne of the most significant transport inno ations on Merseyside during the period co ered by the diary 0as the opening of the Mersey rail tunnel in !++3: prior to that the 8ourney to Li erpool 2underta.en regularly for shopping, entertainment and to isit friends5 had to be ta.en by boat, ;n the Lee household celebration of the official opening of the tunnel 0as an all male affair: 9liAabethGs father and a male friend 8oined the cro0ds 0ho 0atched the Prince of >ales officially open the @Mersey Cail0ay TunnelG on '%th January !++3, and 0ith some !%,%%% others 0al.ed through the ne0 tunnel, 7o0e er, as soon as the line 0as open for traffic 9liAabeth too. herself alone on the train to Li erpool, =he appeared most impressed by the lift and the olume of people, and ery 6uic.ly the rail0ay became her normal means of tra el to Li erpool, This 0as a trip she did fre6uently both alone and 0ith friends, +ine day. The railway under the Tunnel was opened for traffic today and I went to ,pool by it. I went up in the -lift. when I got to ,pool and there was such a frightful crush to get it. (ad a good look round ,pool and came back by train. Such a lot of gentleman in the station. It was so /olly but I got nearly s0uashed to death. 29L diary, !D'D+35,

7o0e er, the train 0as not used for all 8ourneys to Li erpool, /or instance she often used the ferry 0hen she had isitors: the ri er crossing 2as today5 being seen as a tourist

attraction pro iding an impressi e ie0 of the Li erpool 0aterfront, The rail0ay also stopped running at night 0hereas the boats pro ided '"hr operation, and thus 9liAabeth continued to use the boat 0hen returning in the early hours from dances and other entertainment in Li erpool, These trips 0ere usually underta.en in the company of friends, 0ith the 8ourney from $ir.enhead bac. to Prenton sometimes ta.en on foot and, more occasionally, in a cab 2usually 0hen a male friend paid5: Tonight -'r. 1ragg. took me to a ball at the #ity (all, ,iverpool. 'r. 2immington took 'iss (omes. 3f course we all went together. 4n/oyed myself immensely. We caught the 5.a.m. boat and came home 6all the lot of us7 in a hansom 6which is only made for two. 29L diary, '*D"D++5

The trap and dogcart 0ere used for family outings, though the constraints of a large Hictorian family 29liAabeth e entually had + younger brothers ali e and the trap 0as bought specifically to transport a gro0ing family5 also restricted the e<tent to 0hich e en this means of transport could be used, ;t 0as not uncommon for 9liAabeth 2as the eldest5 to be either left at home, or to use alternati e transport, because there 0as insufficient room in the pri ate family carriages, Thus demographic change to a small family siAe is another factor that has made the 0idespread use of pri ate transport possible, /e0 families had pri ate transport that could accommodate the !' members of the Lee household 2the family plus a nurse girl 0ho usually accompanied them5, *lorious weather. )a, 'a, and children went in the trap to ,easowe. I was going but there wasnt room. 29L diary, !D+D+*5

Formally 9liAabethGs father or their manser ant dro e the trap or dogcart, but 0hilst on holiday in the ;sle of Man in !+(' 2age '&5 9liAabeth 0as taught to dri e by some men she met 0hilst on holiday, This 0as clearly an unusual practice for a young 0oman and although she 0as clearly capable of dri ing, there is only one other mention of her dri ing herself 2again 0ith a male friend5, Thus an old form of transport became tantaliAingly a ailable to 9liAabeth, but a combination of lac. of access to a trap and the norms of society that meant that 0omen rarely dro e, meant that she 0as pre ented from using the most personaliAed and pri ate form of transport a ailable at the time, This remained a male preser e, and 0hen 9liAabeth dro e she only did so in the company of men, ,ovely day. 'r. oung called and had a row with him. Went to 8irk 1raddam with Tom +. It is 0uite a sight to see, they have an open9air service. :rove in gig with Tom thro )eel to *len 'aye. ,oveliest place I ever saw. I drove home all the way and round the )rom. the Scotchman saw me etc. people did look, as it is 0uite an uncommon thing to see a lady driving. )ercy, #. ;eedham and I went down to see Tom off by <$.pm boat. So sorry hes gone 6to *lasgow7.29L diary, !%D*D(', ;sle of Man5 ). 3kell came to tea. =fterwards I actually drove dogcart, thro (eswall, Thurstaston, past near W. 8irby and round home,9 went about $% miles. #.*. *

Wallace with me >>. +irst time Ive ever drove, e&cepting once in I. of 'an. >> 29L diary, '3D+D('5 $icycles 2and tricycles thought to be more appropriate for 0omen5 0ere a relati ely ne0 transport inno ation in the !++%s, They gained rapid popularity for leisure amongst those that could afford a bicycle, but did not achie e 0idespread use as an e eryday means of transport until the !('%s, 9liAabeth did not o0n a bicycle, though her brothers did and they undertoo. long rides 2for instance from $ir.enhead to Manchester5, The no elty of the bicycle and tricycle is noted in her diary, 0ith bi.es mostly used for leisure acti ities, Although she .ne0 both men and 0omen from her circle of friends 0ho rode bicycles, 9liAabeth ne er learned to ride during the period of her diary, and she notes only one occasion 0hen she is gi en a ride on a double tricycle, Li.e dri ing, it 0as a form of indi idualiAed transport from 0hich she 0as e<cluded, probably by her gender and class, 'a sent 4li?abeth !the servant girl" out on an errand tonight and she met 'iss 1entley 6from the place she was at last7 and her sisters on trycicles and her brother @ohn on a biycycle with 'r. )arker and 'r. Ward 6friends of his.7. 29L diary, !(D+D+"5 1aked today. 'r. 2immington and @. #arless came up tonight on a double tricycle and they gave me such a /olly ride on it up and down the road. 29L diary, )D+D+35,

Diary e idence must be interpreted 0ith care, in that although at one le el it may pro ide a 0indo0 on the e eryday material e<istence of people in the past, it is also a te<t that has been constructed for a purpose, The diary of 9liAabeth Lee does seem to be a remar.ably fran. and artless account of the e eryday life of a middle class adolescent girl in late1Hictorian 9ngland, ;t cannot be claimed to be representati e of anything, but it does illustrate the 0ays in 0hich e eryday mobility around Merseyside 0as negotiated by one young 0oman, The picture that emerges is to some e<tent contradictory, but illustrates the comple< 0ays in 0hich transport technologies 0ere constructed and used by different groups, At one le el 9liAabeth had a high degree of independence, =he mo ed freely around Merseyside at most times of the day and night both alone and 0ith friends, =he 6uic.ly embraced some ne0 transport technologies 2for instance the Mersey rail0ay5, and as she gre0 older started using old technologies alone 2for instance the tram5, 7o0e er, she 0as unable to ta.e ad antage of other forms of transport 2both old and ne05 such as the horse and trap and the bicycle, though she e<perimented 0ith both, Li.e many 0omen, her mobility 0as thus underta.en mainly on foot or on public transport, and the more personaliAed and independent transport technologies remained mainly the preser e of men, ;t can be suggested that none of the transport inno ations that 9liAabeth e<perienced fundamentally changed her life, Although the opening of the Mersey rail made tra el across the ri er 6uic.er and more con enient, the boat had pro ided a perfectly acceptable form of transport and it continued to be used for pleasure and 0hen the train 0as not running, The e idence from 9liAabeth Lee suggests a high degree of inertia in the adoption of ne0 transport technologies, 0ith old and ne0 means of transport e<isting side by side and being used interchangeably for a substantial period of time,

Conflicts between old and new forms of intra-urban transport The mid1t0entieth century sa0 an increasing degree of competition bet0een different forms of intra1urban transport, Commuters and other tra ellers in most cities had the choice of 0al.ing, cycling, tra elling by tram, trolley bus or motor bus, or of using a pri ate car, 9 idence relating to the 8ourney to 0or. in Manchester and Glasgo0 is no0 used to assess the nature of competition bet0een these forms of transport, to e aluate the 0ays in 0hich commuters reacted to ne0 forms of transport technology, and to assess the e<tent to 0hich ne0 forms of transport changed the tra elling e<periences of urban commuters in the inter10ar years, Attention is focused especially on competition bet0een trams and motorbuses in the t0o urban areas, /irst a brief re ie0 of the de elopment of urban transport in the t0o cities is gi en, /ull details and archi al references can be found in Pooley and Turnbull 2'%%%b5, /or the first thirty years of the t0entieth century Manchester commuters depended on the municipal tram net0or.s run by the separate corporations of Manchester and =alford, Thus by !('3 Manchester Corporation tram0ays operated +(' tram cars, '&+ miles of trac. and recorded o er )%% million passenger 8ourneys, Ceciprocal agreements bet0een Manchester, =alford and other surrounding local authorities meant that coordinated tram ser ices could run throughout the 0hole conurbation, and tram lines e<tended to most of the ne0 industrial and housing estates that 0ere de eloped prior to !()%, At this time motorbuses run by Manchester Corporation complemented, and 0ere secondary to, the tram ser ice4 but from !('( the Corporation pursued a deliberate policy of replacing trams 0ith motorbuses on certain routes, Trams 0ere increasingly blamed for causing urban traffic congestion, and buses 0ere seen to be faster and more fle<ible, and could more cheaply pro ide ser ices to ne0 suburban de elopments such as >ythensha0e, The CorporationGs decision to gradually s0itch from trams to buses 0as increasingly dri en by competition from pri ate bus companies in the city, particularly the introduction of e<press ser ices, 0hich led the Corporation to introduce its o0n e<press ser ice from Cheadle to 7ey0ood in !('*, ;n the year !()%1)! o er )( miles of tram route 0ere con erted to motorbus operation, Thus 0hilst in !()! +" per cent of passengers on Manchester CorporationGs public transport system tra elled by tram, by !("! this had fallen to '),( per cent, 3",3 per cent of passengers 0ere carried on motorbuses and !!,& per cent on trolley buses introduced to the streets of Manchester for the first time in !()+, The last tram ran in the city in January !("( 2in =alford t0o years earlier in !("*5, and motorbuses pro ided the main public transport system in Manchester and =alford, 0ith a small trolley bus net0or. carrying !%1!& per cent of passengers until !(33 0hen this system also disappeared, $y the late !()%s the Corporation had bought up all bar one of its competitor bus companies but, despite proposals in !()), an integrated public transport system for the 0hole conurbation 2including =alford and surrounding to0ns5 did not emerge until the formation of the =outh 9ast Lancashire and Forth 9ast Cheshire Passenger Transport Authority in !(3(, ;n !+*! Glasgo0 Corporation promoted one of the first tram0ays in the country 2it built lines but leased operation to a pri ate company until !+(" 0hen the corporation too. full

control5, and the tram0ay dominated Glasgo0Gs urban transport system from the !(!%s, 0hen lines 0ere e<tended into commuter suburbs, until the !(3%s, Although from the !('%s trams faced competition from pri ate bus companies, and the corporation introduced motorbuses on some routes from !('", these did not ha e the same impact as in Manchester, /irst, the corporation reacted to pri ate bus competition by reducing tram fares and in esting in ne0 tram cars, regarded as the best in 9urope in the !()%s4 second they only introduced their o0n motor buses on routes not ser ed by trams4 and, third, in !()% they introduced the Glasgo0 Corporation 2Monopoly5 Act 0hich se erely restricted pri ate bus operation in the city, Although by !()+ the corporation operated some 3%% motorbuses, these complemented the tram ser ice, largely lin.ing the city centre to ne0 peripheral housing and industrial estates not ser ed by the tram0ay system, Thus in !("* the trams 0ere still carrying four times the number of passengers carried by motorbuses and in !("+ 2the time that trams disappeared from the streets of Manchester5 the corporation too. deli ery of !%% ne0 tramcars, 7o0e er, from the mid1!("%s there 0as increasing debate about the role of trams in the urban transport system, and the corporation embar.ed on a programme of gradually replacing its tram ser ices 0ith motorbuses and trolley buses, The first trolley buses 0ere introduced in !("( and, 0ith some !(& ehicles, Glasgo0 had the largest fleet of trolley buses outside London, 7o0e er, trams continued to be 0idely a ailable and popular 0ith the tra elling public despite the remo al of some routes, ;n !(&) the corporation supplemented the tram fleet 0ith the purchase of second hand tram cars from Li erpool, and in !(&* there 0ere still !,%'* trams in Glasgo0, carrying o er )%% million passengers a year o er '&3 route miles, 7o0e er, despite their popularity the trams 0ere the only section of the City Transport department to ma.e a loss from the mid1!(&%s, As in Manchester trams 0ere also blamed for causing congestion, and the motorbus came to dominate public transport, The last trams ran in Glasgo0 in !(3' 2despite continuing to carry more passengers than any other form of public transport5, and trolley buses 0ere 0ithdra0n in !(3*, The number of passengers tra elling by bus pea.ed in the early !(3%s 2follo0ing the closure of the tram net0or.5, but thereafter passenger numbers dropped dramatically 2from "!( million trips per annum !(3"1& to '3" !(3(1*%5 as commuters and other tra ellers s0itched to the pri ate car, Commuters in Manchester and Glasgo0 0ere thus faced 0ith a changing landscape of public transport pro ision in the mid1t0entieth century, 7o0e er, the e idence of oral history respondents suggests that these changes caused fe0 significant changes to indi idual tra el patterns, >hilst they 0ere a ailable trams 0ere ie0ed as a popular, cheap and con enient means of transport in both cities: Well, there was only one way in those days and that was by tram which was e&cellent, it were always, there was one along every ten minutes into the city centre. = very good service. 2C%", Manchester, male, !()%s5 I mean the trams were very very fre0uent, all from =ltrincham through to 'anchester. I mean it was a tremendous tram service. There was one every two to three minutes. 2C!", Manchester, male, !()%s5

!%

We used to get a lot of fog in those days and the buses would maybe be off, but the trams used to still run cause they were on rails you see so it was easier for them to you know 2C'!, Glasgo0, female, !("%s5

7o0e er, 0hen the tram ser ice 0as either partially or totally replaced by trolley buses and motor buses, commuters adapted 6uic.ly to these changes and rapidly incorporated these ne0 forms of transport into their e eryday 8ourneys, Ad ance notice about the demise of the trams allo0ed commuters to get used to the change and trolley buses in particular 0ere deemed to be faster, smoother and 6uieter than trams, though their routes 0ere more restricted, Commuters 0ho had pre iously used trams appeared to s0itch effortlessly to motor buses 0hich could match the trams for fre6uency and, in some cases, 0ere seen as more fle<ible: The trams were always a bit rattly, the buses were smelly. they had trolley buses after the trams, and they were much 0uieter cause they were electric, but had rubber tyres so it was much 0uieter. 2C'", Manchester, male, !("%s5 Well there was widespread news that they were, they were stopping the tram, the trams. We were all in advance by it, well advanced warning about buses taking their place. Well it was, it was well known that they were going to change trams to buses so it was well publici?ed. 2C'', Glasgo0, male, !(3%s5, Well it was most convenient. =lthough we had two train stations the bus was nearer me and I /ust went up the top of the hill, got a bus and right into the *allowgate in *lasgow. *ot off there, walked down three streets, and I was at work. So it was handiness. 2C'!, Glasgo0, female, !("%s5, There were so many buses along the main Wilmslow 2oad, that they came literally every two minutes and never any problem getting into the centre of 'anchester. 2C3', Manchester, female, !(3%s5

Bne of the ma8or factors causing commuters to s0itch from the use of public transport to pri ate transport in the mid1t0entieth century, 0as the increasingly comple< nature of commuting 8ourneys, This had little to do 0ith either the de elopment of ne0 transport technologies, or 0ith the inefficiencies of old transport forms, Cather, it reflected the changing urban structure of cities as the combination of suburbaniAation of the population and the relocation of employment in peripheral estates produced increasingly comple< cross1city 8ourneys that 0ere ery hard to accomplish using public transport that ran on fi<ed routes, Thus from the !('%s and @)%s men in particular increasingly used the bicycle for comple< cross1to0n 8ourneys and from the !(&%s and @3%s the car began to replace public transport for the 8ourney to 0or., ;n both cases these 0ere technologies that had been a ailable for half a century or more, but a combination of their increased a ailability to a 0ider cross1section of the tra elling public, and their increased con enience in the conte<t of restructured cities, meant that they gained ne0 salience for commuters, They 0ere also both technologies that offered greater pri acy and independence to the tra eller, !!

There were no buses going that way cause it was across country so I would have had to go into the middle of town and then out again, or changed a couple of times on buses, and I hated buses by then so I got my fresh air on the bike 2C'", Manchester, male, !("%s5 from #heetham to #hadderton. es I would. I would cycle there because of, because of the reason being that I had to get two or three buses in order to get there because it wasnt on one route you see. 2C)', Manchester, male, !("%s5 es I got a car at that point because to travel to & was 0uite awkward. To do it by public transport would mean a bus /ourney, an underground /ourney, and another bus /ourney. so it really wasnt terribly convenient, so Id managed to accrue a little capital and I bought a car. 2C)(, Glasgo0, male, !(&%s5

7o0e er, as in the !++%s, access to more con enient and more indi idualiAed forms of transport 0as highly gendered, Although by the !()%s many 0omen did ride a bicycle for leisure, fe0 considered it an appropriate form of transport for their 8ourney to 0or., /actors mentioned by respondents as inhibiting cycling included the impact of 0et 0eather and the problems of cycling in smart office clothes, but for most 0omen these issues 0ere not clearly articulated, ;t 0as simply that cycling 0as a hobby and it 0as not an appropriate means of commuting for 0omen in the !()%s and @"%s, =imilarly, female access to the pri ate car 0as highly restricted in the !(3%s, =ome 0omen learned to dri e but ne er o0ned a car and thus rarely used their s.ill, others disli.ed dri ing or 0ere put off by the increasing traffic olume or other haAards, /or many 0omen their main e<perience of car tra el 0as as a passenger rather than as a dri er, 3h no, no. Id never, Id never have thought about it. 3h no, cycling was a hobby. it would never have dawned on me to cycle into *lasgow, oh no. 2C'!, Glasgo0, female, !("%s5 ;o, I didnt. Well I cycled a lot for pleasure but never cycled to work, no. I dont no why I didnt. I /ust never. 2C'%, Manchester, female, !("%s5, I must have passed my test soon after I started working there because I know that I did take my fathers car once or twice if I had, you know, a lot of things to carry. 2C*&, Glasgo0, female, !(3%s5 I used to get the bus and then one of the teachers lived in the ne&t road to me and drove, and said how I was getting into school very early because of the timing of the bus and he said well look you know come with me, so that made it easier, and then in the meantime I started to learn to drive and never liked it. 2C'&, Manchester, female, !(3%s5

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I did think of learning, I think I did try at some point, but I /ust really, really hated it and /ust didnt want to do it. @ust, /ust didnt like driving. 2C3*, Manchester, female, !(3%s5 Well, I thought about learning to drive, but I thought if my car breaks down and I dont know anything about cars, and if I got a big bill how am I going to pay it, so that put me right off. 2C'!, Glasgo0, female, !(3%s5 Took on driving and one morning it was icy, and the car did /ust a little skate, and I lost my nerve completely, fortunately near home. 3nly got into the car once about three months later and got out within a short time. 2C'&, Manchester, female, !(*%s5

0ome conclusions and implications There are thus many similarities bet0een e idence from the !++%s and the mid1t0entieth century, ;n both periods ne0 transport technologies 0ere made a ailable 2the Mersey rail crossing, trolley buses, motor buses5 and by and large these 0ere assimilated 6uic.ly and easily into commuting and tra elling patterns, People 0ere able to utiliAe these forms of transport 0ith little change to their e eryday routine and they did not fundamentally change patterns of e eryday acti ity, ;n both periods there is also e idence of mo ement to0ards the increased use of indi idual and fle<ible means of transport 2bicycles, cars5, but this 0as mainly the preser e of men, 9 en in the mid1t0entieth century, 0omen still rarely used 0hat 0ere by then old forms of transport that 0ere becoming increasingly accessible, There appear to be t0o main moti ating factors for the increased use of more pri atised forms of transport, Bne 0as the desire by some 2though not all5 men to a oid public transport because of its communal characteristics, but the more important factor relates to changes in urban form, ;ncreasingly comple< 8ourney patterns simply made fi<ed route public transport less con enient for all, and those that 0ere able to s0itched to forms of transport that offered greater con enience and fle<ibility, The changes 0ere thus not directly dri en by the de elopment of ne0 transport technologies, but rather by structural changes that made old technologies more accessible and con enient for some, Although recogniAing that changes in the nature and e<tent of mobility ha e to some e<tent occurred throughout human history, and that the story of mobility change is more one of e olution than of re olution, most contemporary mobility theory places particular emphasis on the late1t0entieth century speeding up of both time and space, and the 0ays in 0hich mobility has become embedded in e eryday life 2=chi elsbuch, !(+34 Thrift, !((34 Urry, '%%%5, Much of this theory also e<plores the changing relationship bet0een people and machines in the construction of ne0 cultures of mobility 27ara0ay, !((!4 Thrift, !((35, 7o0e er, e<amination of the material e<perience of mobility change in $ritish cities since the !++%s suggests that the e<tent of such changes 0as often less than theoretical formulations might imply, Mobility is a necessary part of human e<istence in all time periods and 0as as central to the functioning of society in the past as in the present, Although the potential to tra el 6uic.ly and easily, and to utiliAe ne0 forms of irtual mobility for e eryday acti ities, undoubtedly has changed rapidly in the late1

!)

t0entieth century, it can be suggested that the e<tent to 0hich these opportunities ha e actually changed e eryday life is more debatable, Just as ne0 technologies did not fundamentally alter tra el beha iour in the past, so the impact of ne0 technologies on the ma8ority of e eryday trips today may be limited, This can be illustrated by data from our research on changing e eryday mobility since the !("%s 2Pooley, Turnbull and Adams, '%%"5, 9<amination of the time and distance tra elled for daily mobility by children aged !%D!! li ing in the urban areas of Manchester and Lancaster from the !("%s to the present sho0s that changes ha e been small, and that there are fe0 consistent trends o er time 2Table '5, /or each cohort, the mean distance tra elled 0as around !,&.m, and the mean time ta.en 0as appro<imately !! minutes for all 8ourneys, This is not entirely surprising, Although children born in the !(+%s and !((%s do underta.e more long trips 2to isit distant family, for sports, outings and holidays5 than their counterparts born in the !()%s, such 8ourneys occur only a fe0 times a year, The bul. of e eryday urban mobility 2tra elling to school, going out to play, meeting friends5 no0, as in the past, ta.es place 0ithin the local neighbourhood and in ol es only ery short 8ourneys, often on foot, Thus the e<tent to 0hich ne0 technologies ha e speeded up and changed mobility for these children is limited, and their e eryday e<perience of mo ing around the city has changed relati ely little o er the past 3% years, Moreo er, in the same 0ay that in the past access to ne0 technologies 0as structured by gender and income, so too today many are e<cluded from ne0 mobility opportunities, Table (: 1istance and time travelled for everyday mobility by children age 1$211 %averages for all trips over 1( month period' Cohort born Manchester 3ancaster Mean distance Mean time Mean distance Mean time %!ms' %mins' %!ms' %mins' !()'1"! !,) !',* !,% !),' !(3'1*! !,* !%,+ ',% !'," !(+)1+" !,& (,+ ',) !",3 !((!1(' !," +,& !,+ !%,& All !," !%,* !,* !',3 F !!*,()( !)%,+33 !!!,"(& !!!,3') =ource: 9 eryday mobility sample, '%%!1' FItotal number of 8ourneys recorded, F differs for distance and time calculations because it 0as not possible to calculate accurate distances for some trips for 0hich a time 0as gi en, These conclusions also ha e implications for contemporary transport policy, 7istorical e idence suggests that ne0 transport technologies often e<clude many and that they rarely change e eryday tra el patterns for those 0ho do utilise the ne0 forms of transport, Thus, it can be suggested that there is unli.ely to be any simple technological fi< for contemporary tra el problems in cities, and that o er1emphasis on the significance of ne0 technologies and associated mobility cultures may distract from much simpler and

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more effecti e solutions, As in the past, more significant change may be achie ed 0hen old forms of transport are rede eloped, and made more con enient or accessible for a larger number of people, Again, dra0ing lessons from the past, it can be suggested that this can only be achie ed by ensuring that both ne0 and old transport technologies are pro ided in such a 0ay that they also ta.e into account the changing structure of cities, This is clearly illustrated by the introduction of the ne0 tram system in Manchester, As outlined abo e, ManchesterGs trams 0ere remo ed in the late !("%s, accused of being old fashioned, e<pensi e, inefficient and the cause of traffic congestion, =ome0hat ironically, in the !((%s a ne0 Metrolin. tram system 0as de eloped as part of the solution to late1t0entieth century traffic congestion, The reaction to the ne0 tram system of respondents of all ages inter ie0ed in '%%'1) 0as mi<ed, >hilst many 0elcomed the tram, and found it 6uic., clean and con enient, others complained that it 0as cro0ded, e<pensi e and that, as yet, the routes 0ere not con enient, 1ecause itAs Jthe tramK the only way really that we can use because if we go on a bus it takes ages to get there. =nd if we go by tram it doesnAt, yea thatAs why. 2C'!&, /emale, born !((!, =alford5 ea, it /ust doesnAt really go to many places. I thinkBit doesnAt go to any of the places I want to go really. @ust one time I took it from Stretford into town. 2C'!(, /emale, born !(+3, Manchester5 Tram, tram, itAs faster, you get there 0uicker. 1us, itAs never on time, itAs running late. So IAd rather get the tram. 2C')%, Male, born !(+", Manchester5 Cm, first thing in the morning itAs incredibly packed. =nd also like about si&, seven9ish. =nd +riday nights incredibly packed as well. 1ut itAs 0uick, itAs cleaner. ItAs a bit e&pensive. =nd itAs pretty reliable, itAs every ten minutes. ItAs reliable. 2C')!, Male, born !(+", Manchester5, 1y car probably about thirty, thirty five minutes. If I had to use public transport I should have to get a bus into Stretford and then I could get a tram into 1ury, and then IAd have to get another bus from 1ury to the office. 2C)*', /emale, born !(3+, Manchester5, 3h yes. I mean now if weAre going to 'anchester on +riday afternoon, which we are, I will take my car and park it on an industrial estate. =nd then IAll walk to the tram station and get the 'etrolink. . . . The 'etrolink is fantastic. 2C)3(, /emale, born !()3, Manchester5,

Bne respondent in particular illustrates the 0ay in 0hich the introduction of a ne0 transport technology, or more accurately a reformulated old technology, did not benefit e eryone: the ne0 Metrolin. fundamentally affected her 8ourney to 0or. and made it both longer and less pleasant, De elopment of the tram led to the 0ithdra0al of a train ser ice, leading to a pre iously simple 8ourney to 0or. becoming much more comple<, Although con enient for those 0hose origin and destination are on the tram route, the !&

current tram net0or. does not ade6uately reflect either the e<isting city structure or the comple< cross1city 8ourneys that commuters ta.e, The tram net0or. is being e<tended to other parts of Manchester, but for this person at least ne0 transport technologies, designed to speed up e eryday mobility in the city, had the opposite effect, =nd then, then they started talking about the 'etro and because of the 'etro they did away with the through train because the track, the track, part of the track that they used for the =ltrincham to 'anchester run was where the train went along and now they donAt have trains going on that track. So for me the 'etro was, was really terrible because you see the train used to go from Stockport into 'anchester and then out to =ltrincham and now it canAt do that because there isnAt the line from that, the direct line from 'anchester to =ltrincham. So youAve either got to go into 'anchester and change onto the 'etro or what I ended up doing was fromByou can, if you get into Stockport which, which I have to get a lift or a bus or itAs a long walk, then thereAs another train which cuts across but itAs only once an hour and it is so unreliable it is unbelievable. 2C3*, /emale, born !("3, Manchester5

4c!nowledgements Cesearch for this paper 0as underta.en 0ith the assistance of grants from The Le erhulme Trust and the 9=CC, Than.s to all the respondents 0ho agreed to be inter ie0ed for the pro8ects, and to =iLn Pooley for assistance 0ith the transcription and analysis of 9liAabeth LeeGs diary,

5eferences Adams, J, !(((: The social implications of hypermobility, ;n B9CD, )ro/ect on environmentally sustainable transportD the economic and social implications of sustainable transport, Paris: 9FHD9PBCDPPCDT2((5)D/;FAL,,*&1!!), Cairncross, /, 2!((*5 The death of distance 2London: Brion5 Dyos, 7, J, and Aldcroft, D, !(3(: 1ritish transportD an economic survey from the seventeenth century to the twentieth. Leicester: Leicester Uni ersity Press, /reeman, M, 2!(+35 @TransportG, ;n J, Langton and C, Morris 2eds5 =tlas of industriali?ing 1ritain, 2London: Methuen5 +%1(), /reeman, M, and Aldcroft, D, 2eds5 !(++: Transport in Eictorian 1ritain, Manchester: Manchester Uni ersity Press,

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Gregory, D, !((": *eographical imaginations, B<ford: $lac.0ell, 7ara0ay, D, 2!((!5 Simians, #yborgs and WomenD the reinvention of ;ature 2London: /ree Association $oo.s5 7ar ey, D, 2!(+(5, The condition of postmodernity, B<ford, $lac.0ell 7ar ey, D, 2!((%5 @$et0een space and time: reflections on the geographical imaginationG =nnals of the =ssociation of =merican *eographers, +%, "!+1)", Pooley, C, and Turnbull, J, 2!(((5 M The 8ourney to 0or.: a century of changeM =rea )!, '+'1(' Pooley, C, and Turnbull, J, 2'%%%a5 MModal choice and modal change: the 8ourney to 0or. in $ritain since !+(%M, @ournal of Transport *eography +, !!1'", Pooley, C and Turnbull, J 2'%%%b5 @Commuting, transport and urban form: Manchester and Glasgo0 in the mid1t0entieth centuryG Crban (istory '*, )3%1+)4 Pooley, C,, Turnbull, J, and Adams, M, 2forthcoming '%%"5 @Changes in e eryday mobility in 9ngland since the !("%sG 1elgeo 2The $elgian Journal of Geography5, =pecial issue on (uman 'obility in 4urope, Pred, A, !(*): Crban growth and the circulation of informationD the Cnited States systems of cities <FG%9<H5%. Cambridge MA: M;T Press, =chi elbusch, >, 2!(+35 The railway /ourney. The industriali?ation of time and space in the nineteenth century 2$er.ley5 Thrift, F, 2!((%5 Transport and communications !*)%1!(!", ;n C, Dodgshon and C, $utlin 2eds5 =n historical geography of 4ngland and Wales 2London: Academic Press5 "&)1+3, Thrift, F, 2!((35 Spatial formations 2London: =age5 Urry, J, 2!(((5 =ociology beyond societies: mobilities for the t0enty1first century 2London: Coutledge5

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