Renaissance, series of literary and cultural movements in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries These movements !

e"an in Italy and eventually e#$anded into %ermany, &rance, 'n"land, and other $arts of 'uro$e (artici$ants studied the "reat civili)ations of ancient %reece and Rome and came to the conclusion that their o*n cultural achievements rivaled those of anti+uity Their thin,in" *as also influenced !y the conce$t of humanism, *hich em$hasi)es the *orth of the individual Renaissance humanists !elieved it *as $ossi!le to im$rove human society throu"h classical education This education relied on teachin"s from ancient te#ts and em$hasi)ed a ran"e of disci$lines, includin" $oetry, history, rhetoric -rules for *ritin" influential $rose or s$eeches., and moral $hiloso$hy The *ord renaissance means /re!irth 0 The idea of re!irth ori"inated in the !elief that 'uro$eans had rediscovered the su$eriority of %ree, and Roman culture after many centuries of *hat they considered intellectual and cultural decline The $recedin" era, *hich !e"an *ith the colla$se of the Roman 'm$ire around the 5th century, !ecame ,no*n as the 1iddle 2"es to indicate its $osition !et*een the classical and modern *orld 3cholars no* reco"ni)e that there *as considera!le cultural activity durin" the 1iddle 2"es, as *ell as some interest in classical literature 2 num!er of characteristics of Renaissance art and society had their ori"ins in the 1iddle 2"es 1any scholars claim that much of the cultural dynamism of the Renaissance also had its roots in medieval times and that chan"es *ere $ro"ressive rather than a!ru$t Nevertheless, the Renaissance re$resents a chan"e in focus and em$hasis from the 1iddle 2"es, *ith enou"h uni+ue +ualities to 4ustify considerin" it as a se$arate $eriod of history This article !e"ins *ith a !rief overvie* of the characteristics of the Renaissance and then discusses conflictin" vie*s on ho* to define and inter$ret the Renaissance This analysis is follo*ed !y a discussion of the economic, social, and $olitical chan"es that !e"an in the 14th century and contri!uted to the develo$ment of the Renaissance The ideas of the Renaissance, $articularly of humanism, are then e#$lored, and their im$acts on esta!lished reli"ion, on science, and on the arts are e#amined

INTRODUCTION

II

C52R2CT'RI3TIC3 O& T5' R'N2I332NC' Rediscovery of Classical 6iterature and 2rt

Durin" the 1iddle 2"es there *as a lively interest in classical literature, es$ecially 6atin and 6atin translations of %ree, This attention *as mostly confined to the $rofessional activities of theolo"ians, $hiloso$hers, and *riters In the Renaissance, ho*ever, $eo$le from various se"ments of society7 from ,in"s and no!les to merchants and soldiers7studied classical literature and art Unli,e the $rofessional scholars of the 1iddle 2"es, these $eo$le *ere amateurs *ho studied for $leasure, and their interest in art from the $ast *as soon e#tended to contem$orary *or,s 1edieval art and literature tended to serve a s$eciali)ed interest and $ur$ose8 Renaissance *or,s of art and literature e#isted lar"ely for their o*n sa,e, as o!4ects of ideal !eauty or learnin"

Curiosity and O!4ectivity The Renaissance *as mar,ed !y an intense interest in the visi!le *orld and in the ,no*led"e derived from concrete sensory e#$erience It turned a*ay from the a!stract s$eculations and interest in life after death that characteri)ed the 1iddle 2"es 2lthou"h Christianity *as not a!andoned, the other*orldliness and monastic ideolo"y of the 1iddle 2"es *ere lar"ely discarded The focus durin" the Renaissance turned from a!stract discussions of reli"ious issues to the morality of human actions Individualism In the Renaissance, the uni+ue talents and $otential of the individual !ecame si"nificant The conce$t of $ersonal fame *as much more hi"hly develo$ed than durin" the 1iddle 2"es Renaissance artists, valuin" "lory and reno*n in this *orld, si"ned their *or,s 1edieval artists, *ith their focus on other*orldliness and on "lorifyin" %od, *ere more hum!le and remained lar"ely anonymous

The attention "iven to the develo$ment of an individual:s $otential durin" the Renaissance !rou"ht *ith it a ne* em$hasis on education The "oal of education *as to develo$ the individual;s talents in all intellectual and $hysical areas, from scholarshi$ and the *ritin" of sonnets to s*ordsmanshi$ and *restlin" It *as !elieved that the ideal $erson should not !e !ound to one s$ecific disci$line, such as that of scholar, $riest, or *arrior This *as in star, contrast to the 1iddle 2"es, *hen s$eciali)ation had !een encoura"ed

III

INT'R(R'T2TION3 O& T5' R'N2I332NC' Renaissance as Re!irth

9oth the idea of historical re!irth and the use of the term renaissance to descri!e this $rocess *ere characteristic $roducts of the Renaissance itself The term rinascit -an Italian *ord for <renaissance<. *as $ro!a!ly first attached to the modern $eriod in a !oo, of !io"ra$hy entitled Le vita de pi eccellenti architetti, pittori, ed scultori italiani -155=8 The Lives of the Most Eminent Italian Architects, Painters, and Sculptors, 156>., more commonly ,no*n as Lives of the Artists, $u!lished !y Italian $ainter %ior"io ?asari ?asari a$$lied the conce$t s$ecifically to a re!irth of art that dre* its ins$iration from anti+uity rather than from the *or, of more recent medieval artists In the 14th and 15th centuries many Italian scholars !e"an to dis$lay a remar,a!le a*areness of history They !elieved that they lived in a ne* a"e, free from the dar,ness and i"norance that they felt characteri)ed the $recedin" era These scholars com$ared their o*n achievements to the "lories of ancient Rome and %reece One "rou$ of Italian *riters in the 14th century, follo*in" the e#am$le of the contem$orary $oet (etrarch, em$hasi)ed that their a"e resem!led the "reat civili)ations of the $ast !ecause it focused on artistic achievement In their vie*, this rene*ed em$hasis on the arts had !e"un in the late 1@th and early 14th centuries *ith the *or, of Italian $ainter %iotto and Italian $oet Dante 2li"hieri 2nother "rou$, led !y &lorentine scholar and di$lomat 6eonardo 9runi, added an e+ually im$ortant $olitical dimension to this conce$t 9runi and his follo*ers admired a re$u!lican or re$resentative form of "overnment and loo,ed to ancient Rome, as it *as !efore the em$erors came to $o*er, as the !est model They a$$lied humanistic learnin" to social and $olitical life and encoura"ed $atriotism amon" the residents of &lorence and other Italian cityAstates The Renaissance ori"inally "re* out of cultural and $olitical develo$ments in Italy Over the ne#t three centuries, *riters north of the Italian 2l$s ado$ted some of these ideas and soon s$read them *idely throu"hout 'uro$e Northern 'uro$ean Renaissance scholars, such as Dutch *riter Desiderius 'rasmus, added their o*n dimension to the Renaissance They em$hasi)ed the need to reform Christian society and !elieved that this reform could !e accom$lished throu"h education that *as !ased on the "reat *ritin"s of ancient %reece and Rome Intellectuals continued to !uild on the ideas of the Renaissance durin" the 1>th century 2"e of 'nli"htenment, a time *hen scientific advancements led to a ne* em$hasis on the $o*er of human reason One of the early 'nli"htenment thin,ers *as &rench $hiloso$her and *riter ?oltaire 5e claimed that the Renaissance *as a crucial sta"e in li!eratin" the mind from the su$erstition and error that he !elieved characteri)ed Christian society durin" the 1iddle 2"es ?oltaire a$$lauded the declinin" $o*er of the Roman Catholic Church durin" the Renaissance 6ater historians and *riters *ho !ecame $art of the 1BthAcentury romantic movement evaluated the Renaissance in an entirely different manner &ollo*ers of romanticism em$hasi)ed $assion over reason They sho*ed a ,een interest in the vital, heroic, and unconventional $ersonalities of the Renaissance such as Italian $oet (etrarch, Italian artist 1ichelan"elo, and &rench $hiloso$her RenC Descartes The romantics !elieved that an im$ortant characteristic of the Renaissance *as individualism, *hich em$hasi)ed the ca$a!ilities and ri"hts of the individual 9y the middle decades of the 1Bth century, t*o historians7Dules 1ichelet of &rance and Da,o! 9urc,hardt of 3*it)erland7had com!ined these various $ers$ectives in their inter$retation of the Renaissance 1ichelet sa* the Renaissance as the momentous de!ut of a ne* $hase in human history 5e !elieved that it made $ossi!le all the "reat achievements of modern man, includin" the discovery of the 2mericas, the ne* science, and modern literature and art

1ichelet:s vie* of the Renaissance as the !e"innin" of the modern era *as refined in Da,o! 9urc,hardt;s Die ultur der !enaissance in Italien -The "ivili#ation of the !enaissance in Ital$, 1>E>%, first $u!lished in 1>6= 5e attached $articular im$ortance to the Renaissance state and sa* in it the ori"ins of modern $olitical attitudes and !ehavior In 9urc,hardt;s vie*, Renaissance leaders conceived of the state as a *or, of art, one that they created deli!erately !y identifyin" and then a$$lyin" the !est means to reach their desired "oals 2nother characteristic of the Renaissance that 9urc,hardt considered modern *as an interest in human $ersonality and !ehavior 9urc,hardt sa* all these traits as indications of a dee$er +ualityF a fundamental individualism that *as a central feature of the Italian Renaissance 5e !elieved that the a!sence of centrali)ed control in Italy durin" the 1@th century had created an atmos$here of insecurity that encoura"ed the emer"ence of ruthless individuals, free s$irits, and "eniuses 9urc,hardt !elieved that the study of anti+uity had ins$ired Italians, !ut that its im$act *as less si"nificant than other scholars had !elieved 5istorians *ho follo*ed 9urc,hardt rarely dis$uted his inter$retation of the Renaissance 5o*ever, they su$$lemented it *ith detailed investi"ations of other as$ects of Renaissance life, includin" economics, science, and $hiloso$hy These studies have reinforced the inter$retation of the Renaissance as a $eriod of stri,in" innovation that $ointed to*ard the modern *orld Other scholars have also a$$lied 9urc,hardt;s vision of the Italian Renaissance to 'uro$e as a *hole

Renaissance

as

%radual

Chan"e

Those *ho have challen"ed 9urc,hardt:s theories have "enerally ar"ued that the Renaissance *as not as uni+ue or different as $revious scholars claimed In $articular, scholars *ho studied the 1iddle 2"es !ecame convinced that the centuries !efore the Renaissance, far from !ein" a $eriod of unrelieved !ar!arism, had develo$ed a hi"h order of civili)ation They insist that most elements of the Renaissance had their roots in the $ast, and that it is misleadin" to s$ea, of the <re!irth< of culture in the Renaissance or to em$hasi)e its si"nificance in the formation of the modern *orld These alternate inter$retations have su""ested that the Renaissance *as a *anin" of the 1iddle 2"es rather than the da*nin" of a ne* era, and that medieval scholars also ,ne* and valued classical *ritin"s 3cholars have lar"ely a!andoned the notion of an a!ru$t !rea, !et*een the 1iddle 2"es and the Renaissance and have modified older ideas a!out the nature of the era It is no* clear, for e#am$le, that $eo$le of the Renaissance did not a!andon Christianity and that vi"orous reli"ious im$ulses *ere a ma4or feature of the Renaissance 3cholars reco"ni)e that many as$ects of the Renaissance *ere not modern8 they also ac,no*led"e that *hat may !e true of one movement, re"ion, or decade, may not !e true of another Des$ite these differin" inter$retations, there are many indications that 'uro$e had chan"ed dramatically !y the 16th century (articularly note*orthy is the fact that Renaissance intellectuals !elieved their a"e mar,ed a momentous turnin" $oint in history and that they *ere someho* fundamentally different from their medieval ancestors

I?

'CONO1IC

2ND 2

3OCI26 Chan"in"

923I3

O&

T5'

R'N2I332NC'

'conomy

The civili)ation of the Renaissance *as the creation of $ros$erous cities and of rulers *ho dre* su!stantial income from their ur!an su!4ects in the Italian cityAstates and the countries of 'n"land and &rance The commerce that ,e$t cities alive also $rovided the ca$ital and the flo* of ideas that hel$ed !uild Renaissance culture Durin" the early 1iddle 2"es forei"n trade had virtually come to a halt 9y the 11th century, ho*ever, $o$ulation "ro*th and contact *ith other cultures throu"h military efforts such as the Crusades hel$ed revive commercial activity Trade slo*ly increased *ith the e#chan"e of lu#ury "oods in the 1editerranean re"ion and various commodities such as fish, furs, and metals across the North and 9altic seas Commerce soon moved inland, !rin"in" ne* $ros$erity to the citi)ens of to*ns alon" ma4or trade routes 2s traffic alon" these routes increased, e#istin" settlements "re* and ne* ones *ere esta!lished The cities of Italy *ere strate"ically located !et*een *estern 'uro$e and the area alon" the eastern shore of the 1editerranean 3ea ,no*n as the 6evant Italy:s leadershi$ in the Renaissance *as due in $art to its central location for trade The cities !ecame im$ortant and *ealthy commercial centers, and

the riches accumulated !y the merchants of ?enice, %enoa, 1ilan, and a host of smaller cities su$$orted Italy;s $olitical and cultural achievements Im$ortant to*ns develo$ed !eyond Italy as *ell 's$ecially *ith the e#$ansion of trade, to*ns "re* alon" the Danu!e, Rhine, and RhGne rivers of 'uro$e8 around the North 3ea and the 9altic 3ea8 and in the 6o* Countries of 9el"ium, 6u#em!our" and the Netherlands *here northern and southern trade routes met Hherever these to*ns *ere located, they !ecame a uni+ue element in a medieval *orld that u$ to this time *as dominated !y sei"norialism, an a"ricultural system in *hich the $rimary economic and $olitical relationshi$ *as !et*een lando*ners and their tenants Ca$ital that accumulated throu"h trade *as eventually availa!le for other enter$rises, nota!ly !an,in" and, to a lesser de"ree, industry The *ealth of &lorence, the leadin" cultural center of the Renaissance, came $articularly from these alternate enter$rises !ecause the city:s inland location limited $artici$ation in lar"eAscale commerce 2t its hei"ht the &lorentine te#tile industry em$loyed @=,=== $eo$le, !ut it *as !an,in" that hel$ed !uild the "reatest family fortunes in &lorence In the early 14th century, &lorence !ecame the !an,in" center of Italy The city:s im$ortance as an international financial center *as reinforced in the 15th century !y the 1edici !an, Under the mana"ement of Cosimo de; 1edici, also ,no*n as Cosimo the 'lder, this firm maintained !ranches in the ma4or cities of 'uro$e The !an, loaned money to $o$es, rulers, and merchants8 o$erated mines and *oolen mills8 and carried on various other commercial enter$rises It accumulated hu"e $rofits that *ere used to finance $olitical activity and to su$$ort cultural activities Hell !efore the end of the 15th century, other $o*ers challen"ed the economic leadershi$ of Italy In the ,in"doms !eyond the 2l$s, $o*erful rulers consolidated their control This consolidation *as accom$anied !y the "ro*in" $ros$erity of local !usinesses and !y efforts to dis$ense *ith the Italian middlemen in trade Rulers in &rance, 'n"land, and the 3$anish ,in"doms $ursued $olicies favora!le to their o*n middleAclass tradesmen In central 'uro$e, $o*erful !an,in" houses, such as that of the &u""er family in 2u"s!ur", %ermany, emer"ed at the encoura"ement of one of 'uro$e:s most $rominent royal dynasties, the 5a!s!ur"s (ortu"al:s develo$ment of a direct sea route to 2sia at the end of the 15th century also undercut Italy:s role as the $rimary intermediary !et*een the &ar 'ast and the Hestern *orld 'uro$e:s e#$ansion to other $arts of the *orld *as one of the most momentous develo$ments of the Renaissance era The voya"es of ItalianA3$anish navi"ator Christo$her Colum!us to the Cari!!ean 3ea in 14BI and of (ortu"uese e#$lorer ?asco da %ama to India in 14B> set in motion a series of e#$lorations that s$ar,ed 'uro$ean ima"ination durin" the late Renaissance $eriod These 4ourneys intensified national rivalries The 2tlantic $o*ers, includin" 3$ain, (ortu"al, and &rance, com$eted for colonial territory and vastly increased their *ealth &or Italy the "eo"ra$hical discoveries had a less $ositive effect, ho*ever They si"naled the eventual transfer of the *orld:s ma4or commercial routes and, thus its *ealth, from the 1editerranean to the 2tlantic sea!oard These economic develo$ments also e#$osed other countries to Renaissance ideas and "ave them the resources to rival Italy in cultural e#$ansion

Ur!an

3ociety

The relationshi$ !et*een economic $ros$erity and the achievements of the Renaissance is not direct The 14th century, *hich is "enerally re"arded as the !e"innin" of the Italian Renaissance, *as a time of economic sta"nation and even contraction, at least com$ared to the centuries that $receded it (olitical disorder interfered *ith commerce8 a"ricultural $roductivity a$$ears to have declined8 and the out!rea, of the !u!onic $la"ue, or 9lac, Death, drastically reduced the $o$ulation of many $arts of 'uro$e The 15th century $ro!a!ly sa* some recovery, !ut it is not certain that this $ros$erity matched the success of the 1@th century, $articularly in Italy 2lthou"h economic conditions had an effect on the develo$ment of the Renaissance, economic $ros$erity and the accumulation of *ealth *ere not necessarily the most im$ortant factors in the achievements of the era Other factors related to economic "ro*th *ere at least as im$ortant in stimulatin" the $olitical and cultural chan"es that !ecame $art of the Renaissance Certainly one of these *as the ne* environment

$rovided !y the to*n, an environment that *as a !yA$roduct of increased commercial activity The $ursuit of *ealth and the o$$ortunity for traders and !an,ers to interact *ith the *orld !eyond their to*n *alls created an atmos$here more o$en to ne* ideas and to innovation, e#$erimentation, and enter$rise in all as$ects of life The to*ns also develo$ed a distinctive class structure 2s ur!an areas "re* in si)e and *ealth, their social and $olitical or"ani)ation !ecame more com$le# Hhen to*ns *ere small, ur!an $o$ulations tended to !e homo"eneous and democratic Hith increased si)e and $ros$erity, the $o$ulations !ecame more diverse, *ith different social classes that varied in !ac,"round and $o*er (easants mi"rated to the to*ns from the countryside, often to esca$e their status as serfs, and !e"an to form a "ro*in" *or,in" class that had no $olitical ri"hts 1em!ers of the no!ility *ho lived in the to*ns made u$ another distinct class 1erchants *ho *ere en"a"ed in lar"eAscale commerce or other $articularly $rofita!le enter$rises "radually !ecame differentiated from other tradesmen !y their "reater *ealth 2s a rulin" class develo$ed that mani$ulated "overnment for its o*n interests, the "ulf !et*een social "rou$s *idened 9y the 14th century the tensions "enerated !y "reat ine+ualities of *ealth and $o*er had reached the !rea,in" $oint Disorder follo*ed and, as a result, am!itious des$ots !ecame the rulers of many Italian to*ns, then ,no*n as communes

Rural

3ociety

Rural society also chan"ed as a result of the develo$ment of trade and to*ns The to*ns and no!le families of Italy, and later of northern 'uro$e, $rovided the resources and the initiative !ehind the Renaissance, !ut the ma4ority of 'uro$eans still lived in rural areas and *or,ed the land The ne* ur!an mar,ets for a"ricultural $roducts steadily transformed a lar"ely selfAsufficient rural economy into a system that $roduced "oods for sale Hhereas lando*ners had $reviously re+uired $ayments in "oods or services from their tenants or serfs, they no* *anted to receive money in order to !uy $roducts sold !y the merchants The a"ricultural la!or system ,no*n as serfdom *as slo*ly transformed In the ne* system, tenants held land !ased on money rents The $ractice of ma,in" collective decisions !ased on lon"Aesta!lished customs, a tradition that *as common in closely ,nit medieval $easant communities, dissolved into a more inde$endent ,ind of rural life Other*ise, the rural $o$ulations $artici$ated little in the ne* movements of the Renaissance (eo$le *ho lived in rural areas often suffered $rofoundly from the $olitical decisions of the $eriod, as they !ore the !urdens of the *arfare and economic reor"ani)ation that national rivalries and internal stru""les !rou"ht In contrast, the cultural ener"y of the Renaissance hardly affected them at all The drivin" forces !ehind !oth the $olitical and cultural chan"es of the $eriod *ere the to*ns$eo$le, es$ecially the ur!an elite, and the rulers *ith *hom they *ere allied

(O6ITIC3

IN

T5'

R'N2I332NC'

Dramatic $olitical chan"es occurred in 'uro$e durin" the Renaissance &or many centuries after the colla$se of the *estern Roman 'm$ire around 5==, the only stron" unifyin" force in 'uro$e *as the Roman Catholic Church 5o*ever, the "ro*th in commerce increasin"ly unified 'uro$e economically Invasions from the outside declined, and rulers in the various countries "radually consolidated their $o*er In most of 'uro$e, the states they ruled !ecame focused almost e#clusively on selfA$reservation They o$erated *ith "ro*in" efficiency and increasin"ly used their $o*er at home as a !asis for e#$ansion a!road This trend develo$ed in different *ays in Italy than it did in areas north of the 2l$s 2s to*ns "re* in Italy, they demanded selfArule and often develo$ed into stron", inde$endent cityAstates In the northern areas of 'uro$e, national monarchs esta!lished their $o*er over the no!ility Durin" the Renaissance, !oth of these $olitical systems evolved from medieval roots, !ut neither *as com$letely transformed into a modern state The advancements that did occur *ere accom$anied !y even "reater chan"es in attitudes to*ard $olitics The *ay *as $re$ared for these chan"es !y the decline of the 5oly Roman 'm$ire and the $a$acy, or office of the $o$e These t*o universal institutions $layed a lar"e role in medieval $olitics In the medieval *orld, the 5oly Roman em$eror held $olitical control over lar"e amounts of territory in central 'uro$e and in Italy The $o$e, as head of the Catholic Church, *ielded s$iritual authority over

all of 'uro$e The church and the state *ere vie*ed as t*o different as$ects of one Christian society, sometimes referred to as Christendom Des$ite the stron" ties !et*een church and state, $o$es and secular rulers fre+uently stru""led *ith each other for control over church administration and secular lands 3ince the church *as res$onsi!le for the souls of the $eo$le, includin" the em$eror himself, the $o$es claimed ultimate su$remacy over the state as *ell as the administration of the Catholic Church 2t the same time, rulers sou"ht to $rotect and e#$and their $o*er *ithin their domains In addition, the 5oly Roman em$erors *ere fre+uently involved in stru""les to control territory in Italy8 they *ere "enerally o$$osed in this effort !y the $o$es In the 1@th century this stru""le for dominance !et*een the em$eror and the $o$e *as almost fatal to the authority of !oth Innocent III, *ho !ecame $o$e in 11BE, tried to stren"then $a$al authority 5e claimed that the $o$e had the ri"ht to $lay a role in namin" a ne* 5oly Roman em$eror after the death of 5enry ?I The maneuverin" that follo*ed "reatly diminished the $o*er of the em$eror 5enry:s son $romised many concessions to the $a$acy in e#chan"e for the $o$e:s su$$ort of his claim to the throne8 later, *hen he *as named &rederic, II, ,in" of %ermany and 5oly Roman em$eror, he failed to fulfill all of his $romises 2fter the death of &rederic, II in 1I5=, the im$erial throne *as vacant for over t*o decades The %erman $rinces, *hose lands made u$ most of the 5oly Roman 'm$ire, too, the o$$ortunity to increase their o*n $o*er The $a$acy *as also *ea,ened and discredited !y its concentration on $olitical control rather than s$iritual matters, and the $a$acy fell increasin"ly under &rench influence 9et*een 1@=B and 1@EE the $o$es *ere forced to live in 2vi"non in the south of &rance under the domination of several &rench monarchs8 this $a$al e#ile is sometimes referred to as the 9a!ylonian Ca$tivity The return of the $a$al court to Rome *as $rom$tly follo*ed !y the soAcalled %reat 3chism that lasted from 1@E> to 141E Durin" much of this $eriod, three contenders vied for the title of $o$e Hhen the Council of Constance unified the $a$acy in 141E *ith the election of 1artin ?, the $o$e:s $olitical authority outside of the church *as dead

%ro*th

of

the

Italian

CityA3tates

In Italy the to*ns had ta,en advanta"e of the stru""le !et*een the $o$es and em$erors and enlar"ed their o*n $o*er and inde$endence Durin" the 14th century, many of these cities e#$anded their rule to include much of the surroundin" countryside The Italian cityAstates slo*ly consolidated their $o*er, and !y the 15th century five states controlled the entire $eninsula The ,in"dom of Na$les and 3icily in the south, in contrast to the northern states, still retained the system of $olitical and military relationshi$s amon" the no!ility ,no*n as feudalism In the (a$al 3tates, *hich occu$ied the center, the $o$es *ere $reoccu$ied durin" the 15th century *ith recoverin" the control they had lost durin" the $eriod of 2vi"non and the %reat 3chism &lorence dominated the Tuscany -Toscana. re"ion to the north, althou"h the state *as $la"ued in the 14th century !y class conflicts, *hich led eventually to a !ehindAtheAscenes dictatorshi$ !y the $o*erful 1edici !an,in" family 1ilan *as firmly controlled !y the ?isconti family that led 1ilan in e#tendin" its em$ire over lar"e areas of northern and central Italy ?enice, too, e#$anded on the mainland to $rotect its trade routes and food su$$ly Its relatively unified $o$ulation and its com$licated constitution ,e$t class conflict at a minimum and $reserved its re$u!lican "overnment None of these $o*ers *as stron" enou"h to control the others 2ttem$ts at more than local con+uest, such as a move !y the ?isconti of 1ilan to e#$and south*ard, only united the other states in o$$osition 2 sha,y e+uili!rium resulted, *hich *as "iven formal reco"nition !y the "eneral (eace of 6odi in 1454 This a"reement is often cited as the first e#am$le of that !asic $rinci$le of modern international relations, the !alance of $o*er, in *hich states use alliances as a means of e+uali)in" $olitical $o*er In fact, the most modern as$ect of the states of the Italian Renaissance *as their relationshi$ *ith one another They !ehaved as inde$endent and soverei"n nations, rather than as mem!ers of the !roader community of Christendom In order to carry on the di$lomacy re+uired !y this ne* idea of the state, they develo$ed such techni+ues as the institution of resident am!assadors 3ome*hat later, a similar develo$ment occurred in the monarchies north of the 2l$s Durin" the last half of the

Consolidation of 1onarchies in Northern 'uro$e

15th century in &rance, 'n"land, and 3$ain, stron" rulers emer"ed These rulers *ere far more successful than earlier monarchs had !een in securin" the resources and develo$in" the machinery of effective centrali)ed "overnment Not all as$ects of the rei"ns of these <ne* monarchs<76ouis JI of &rance, 5enry ?II of 'n"land, and &erdinand and Isa!ella in 3$ain7*ere e+ually ne*, and they still *ielded far less $o*er than later rulers *ould In $articular, *ith the $ossi!le e#ce$tion of the &rench ,in", these monarchs *ere limited in the essential a!ility to ta# Nevertheless, their rei"ns mar,ed the !e"innin" of the develo$ment to*ard the modern state These 'uro$ean rulers had much in common Their success *as lar"ely due to their su!4ects: lon"in" for $eace and order after $rolon"ed civil *ars in each countryF the 5undred Kears; Har -1@@EA145@. in &rance, the Hars of the Roses -1455A14>5. in 'n"land, and factional stru""les amon" the no!les of 3$ain in the first half of the 15th century and !efore These trou!les *ere $rimarily caused !y a disorderly feudal system, in *hich the no!ility had an interest in restrictin" the $o*er of the ,in" 1onarchs soon reali)ed that they could challen"e the no!ility, *ho had !ecome their "reatest enemies, !y formin" alliances *ith to*ns$eo$le The *ealth of city residents *as !ased on trade, and they o*ed no $articular alle"iance to mem!ers of the landholdin" or no!le classes 1onarchs !e"an to serve as administrators rather than leaders of a constantly !attlin" aristocracy They develo$ed a ne*, $rofessional !ureaucracy staffed !y la*yers and other nonAno!le su!4ects and used it to im$ose a ne* de"ree of order and unity in their states The %erman ,in" 1a#imilian I *as una!le to unify his em$ire in a similar fashion 5e did !rin" to"ether the holdin"s of the 5a!s!ur" family in central 'uro$e In other re"ions, ho*ever, increasin"ly am!itious rulers consolidated $olitical $o*er and ado$ted an attitude to*ard the use of this $o*er that closely resem!led that of the $rinces of Italy The t*o $olitical systems dre* closer to"ether durin" the latter $art of the 15th century The *ealth of Italy had al*ays attracted the interest of outside $o*ers, and disunity made Italy increasin"ly vulnera!le to attac, and con+uest 9e"innin" in 14B4 *hen the armies of &rench ,in" Charles ?III marched into Italy, &rance and then 3$ain attem$ted con+uest They fou"ht each other for dominance until 155B, *hen 3$ain "ained control of most of the $eninsula These *ars effectively ended the inde$endence of the Italians until the 1Bth century The fi"htin" in Italy disru$ted daily life and destroyed *ealth The culture, *hich had flourished in the inde$endent atmos$here of the Italian cityAstates, no* lan"uished in a +uite different environment 1any scholars !elieve that this $eriod mar,s the end of the Renaissance &or the northern $o*ers fi"htin" in Italy, the *ars interru$ted the *or, of consolidation that the $recedin" "eneration had !e"un The *ar efforts used ener"y as *ell as resources that mi"ht have aided the internal develo$ment of the northern domains 5o*ever, the *ars also e#$osed northern 'uro$eans to the accom$lishments and the attitudes of the Italian Renaissance 9et*een 14B4 and the 16thAcentury reli"ious revolution, ,no*n as the Reformation, Italian influences *ere *idely dis$ersed These influences made a si"nificant contri!ution to the develo$ment of the Renaissance throu"hout 'uro$e

Ne*

2$$roaches

to

(olitics

Ne* attitudes to*ard $olitics accom$anied the ne* forms of $olitical or"ani)ation and !ehavior, !oth in Italy and in the north These chan"es first !ecame evident in historical *ritin", and then a$$eared in more theoretical *or,s Durin" the 1iddle 2"es, historians had used their o*n moral frame*or, to study the $ast8 they de$icted events as $art of the destiny of all Christendom In contrast, histories com$osed !y humanists such as 6eonardo 9runi stressed the earthly $ro"ress of a $articular $lace and accounted for $olitical develo$ments in $urely natural and nonreli"ious terms These humanists descri!ed human rather than divine control and direction of events, and they used their *ritin"s to su$$ort causes that they considered $atriotic or *orth*hile 9y the 16th century, as Italy;s trou!les mounted, this tendency to free $olitics from any relationshi$ to reli"ion !ecame an im$ortant $art of the thin,in" of a num!er of distin"uished &lorentine *riters, includin" the !est ,no*n, NiccolL 1achiavelli 3timulated !y the $olitical crisis of his time, 1achiavelli sou"ht to !ase statecraft or the art of "overnance on science rather than on Christian $rinci$les 5e focused on ho* to $reserve the state !y any effective means 5is acce$tance of the $rinci$le that the end 4ustifies the means, so !luntly e#$ressed in his most famous *or,, Il principe

-15@I& The Prince, 164=., reflects the de"ree to *hich the ne* $olitical environment had chan"ed $o$ular thin,in" This ne* $olitical $ers$ective also !e"an to a$$ear in the monarchies of the north These ideas *ere first introduced in the *ritin"s of humanists *ho came from Italy, !ut !efore the end of the 16th century, northern 'uro$eans had !e"un to develo$ similar $hiloso$hies In his Si' Livres de la !(pu)li*ue -15E68 Si' +oo,s of the !epu)lic, 16=6., for e#am$le, &rench historian Dean 9odin advanced a theory of soverei"nty that "ave almost unlimited authority to the national ruler and that *as !ased on $urely secular ar"uments This modern *ay of thin,in" a!out $olitics emer"ed durin" the Renaissance, !ut it *as not universally acce$ted at the time Hor,s such as -topia, *ritten !y 'n"lish statesman 3ir Thomas 1ore in 1516, sho* that idealistic and reli"ious attitudes to*ard $olitics still remained stron" in this era Nevertheless, the modern secular state that reco"ni)ed no hi"her la* than its o*n *elfare ori"inated in the Renaissance

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The history of Christianity durin" the Renaissance $resents a num!er of shar$ contrasts In various *ays, the influence and $resti"e of the Catholic Church *ere declinin" Its institutions *ere dee$ly rooted in older $atterns of life and traditional *ays of thou"ht, and these institutions *ere slo* in ada$tin" to ne* conditions &or e#am$le, the church had lon" !een an im$ortant $art of the feudal system, *hich *as !ased on alle"iances !et*een lords and vassals The Catholic Church had difficulty ad4ustin" to the demands of a society !ased on money rather than alle"iances 2s to*ns "re*, the $arish $riests and mon,s, *ho had served as the main reli"ious teachers of the $easantry, found that they ,ne* little a!out the needs of the risin" commercial class The $resti"e of the church also suffered *hen some church leaders sold their services, violated the !i!lical la*s they *ere entrusted *ith u$holdin", and lived no differently than secular merchants and $olitical fi"ures &urthermore, the leaders of the "ro*in" cityAstates, as *ell as the ne* monarchs, had much less need of an alliance *ith the Catholic Church to maintain $o*er than they had in the $ast The result *as a series of failures, such as the 9a!ylonian Ca$tivity and the %reat 3chism, that discredited and *ea,ened the Catholic Church Ket there is no evidence to su""est that si"nificant num!ers of 'uro$eans re4ected Christianity as a result8 on the contrary, durin" the 14th and 15th centuries there *as a *ides$read revival of $o$ular reli"ious fervor, reachin" a clima# in the Reformation of the 16th century

Decline

of

the

Roman

Catholic

Church

The 14th century had o$ened *ith the dramatic humiliation of the $a$acy, as the &rench ,in" forced the $a$al court to move to 2vi"non and made the church:s hi"hest leadershi$ a$$ear to !e $a*ns of &rance Disaster then follo*ed disaster for the church Instead of $rovidin" s$iritual direction in a ra$idly chan"in" *orld, the $a$al court *as $reoccu$ied *ith the develo$ment of its administrative machinery and *ith the collection of revenue The $ro!lems only "re* *orse *ith the %reat 3chism, as rival $o$es com$eted for control 2lthou"h the $a$acy *as reunited in 141E, it faced other challen"es to its authority and stru""led to recover control of the (a$al 3tates, *hich it had lost durin" the 9a!ylonian Ca$tivity and the %reat 3chism Certain Renaissance $o$es *ere learned, devout, and *orthy leaders of the Catholic Church durin" this difficult $eriod Nota!le e#am$les are Nicholas ?, *ho ruled in the midA15th century, and (ius II, *ho follo*ed him Other $o$es7such as 2le#ander ?I, *ho too, over the $a$acy in 14BI, and Dulius II and 6eo J, *ho held the $osition in the early 16th century7*ere chiefly concerned *ith $olitics, the $romotion of their families, or the $atrona"e of the arts These $o$es further *ea,ened the a!ility of the church to influence society Under these conditions, local and national forces increasin"ly challen"ed $a$al control over the church, and clerical disci$line and morale deteriorated 5eresy -challen"es to church doctrine. flourished, and critics of the Catholic Church !ecame more numerous and outs$o,en

Dissent,

Reform,

and

(o$ular

Reli"ion

Dissent and concern over the condition of the church are evidence of the stren"th, not the *ea,ness, of reli"ion Christianity durin" the Renaissance $resents a contradictionF 2lthou"h the institution of the Roman Catholic Church *as in decay, there *as e#traordinary reli"ious fervor in every $art of 'uro$e (reachers, such as the hi"hly $o$ular %irolamo 3avonarola of &lorence, called on sinners to re$ent and en4oyed "reat success in Italy 2 mystical reli"ious movement that dre*, in $art, from the teachin"s of %erman mystic 1eister 'c,hart flourished in the $ortion of *estern %ermany ,no*n as the Rhineland Its mem!ers sou"ht direct revelations from %od *ithout the church as an intermediary In the 6o* Countries of 9el"ium, 6u#em!our", and the Netherlands a movement ,no*n as the devotio moderna em$hasi)ed individual and $ractical faith, a contrast *ith the more communal and meta$hysical faith of the Catholic Church These teachin"s s$read throu"h schools and "ained $u!lic attention throu"h The Imitation of "hrist -a$$ro#imately 14I4., a hi"hly influential *or, usually attri!uted to Thomas M Nem$is, a %erman mon, and *riter 'a"er laymen !uilt churches and cha$els, and ne* devotional e#ercises7such as the stations of the cross and $rayers usin" the rosary7!ecame $o$ular Hith the introduction of the $rintin" $ress in 'uro$e durin" the 15th century, reli"ious !oo,s *ere $roduced !y the millions, and they found a ready mar,et The increase in $o$ular devotion $osed a threat to traditional reli"ion, es$ecially *hen the $resti"e of church officials *as lo* and they seemed inca$a!le of, or uninterested in, close su$ervision of the faithful (o$ular heretical movements emer"ed and challen"ed $a$al authority These movements $ro$osed, in varyin" de"rees, to do a*ay *ith the church as an institution In the 14th century, 9ritish $hiloso$her and reformer Dohn Hycliffe and his counter$art in 9ohemia, Dan 5us, formali)ed these attac,s on church authority in their teachin"s and *ritin"s 5eretics remained a small minority, ho*ever, and a variety of reformers *ho ho$ed to chan"e the e#istin" church *ere far more characteristic of the Renaissance Theolo"ians such as Dean de %erson, *ho *as $articularly influential at the University of (aris in the early 15th century, su$$orted conciliar theory, *hich aimed at reformin" the Roman Catholic Church !y $lacin" su$reme authority in a "eneral council rather than in the $a$acy 1ystics $referred to dee$en the reli"ious life of individuals, *hile many humanists ho$ed to reform Christian society !y relyin" on education rather than on reli"ious faith The Renaissance also encoura"ed $ractical reformers 2s $a$al le"ate -official re$resentative of the $o$e. to %ermany in the midA15th century, Nicholas of Cusa $ursued a vi"orous reform cam$ai"n directed $articularly at mon,s *ho had violated their monastic vo*s The monasteries in (aris also under*ent si"nificant reform in the early decades of the 16th century 1ost successful of all *as the *or, of Cardinal Jimenes, the leadin" church fi"ure of 3$ain in the early 16th century 5e set standards for +ualifications, trainin", and disci$line for the 3$anish cler"y 3uch reforms *ere !y no means universal, and the visi!le condition of the church continued to !rin" *ides$read demands for reform The reli"ious history of the Renaissance reveals !oth *ea,ness and vi"or (eo$le of this era e#$ressed discontent *ith the actual state of the church, !ut they also e#$ressed ho$e for im$rovement

?II 5U12NI31
The dominant intellectual movement of the Renaissance *as humanism, a $hiloso$hy !ased on the idea that $eo$le are rational !ein"s It em$hasi)ed the di"nity and *orth of the individual, an em$hasis that *as central to Renaissance develo$ments in many areas 5umanism ori"inated in the study of classical culture, and it too, its name from one of the era:s earliest and most crucial concernsF the $romotion of a ne* educational curriculum that em$hasi)ed a "rou$ of su!4ects ,no*n collectively as the studia humanitatis, or the humanities 5umanities disci$lines included "rammar, rhetoric, history, $oetry, and ethics These su!4ects *ere all studied, *henever $ossi!le, in the ori"inal classical te#ts The humanities curriculum conflicted directly *ith more traditional education that *as !ased on scholasticism 2 scholastic education

concentrated on the study of lo"ic, natural $hiloso$hy -science., and meta$hysics, or the nature of reality 3cholars often clashed shar$ly over these t*o systems of education &ar more *as at sta,e in these academic controversies than the content of education 3cholastic trainin" $re$ared students for careers in fields such as medicine, la*, and, a!ove all, theolo"y The humanists !elieved that this scholastic course of study *as focused too narro*ly on only a fe* $rofessions They claimed that it *as not !ased sufficiently on $ractical e#$erience or the needs of society, !ut relied too heavily on a!stract thou"ht The humanists $ro$osed to educate the *hole $erson and $laced em$hasis not only on intellectual achievement, !ut also on $hysical and moral develo$ment The humanists also stressed the "eneral res$onsi!ilities of citi)enshi$ and social leadershi$ 5umanists felt that they had an o!li"ation to $artici$ate in the $olitical life of the community &rom their $ers$ective, the s$eciali)ed disci$lines tau"ht !y the scholastics had failed to instill a res$ect for $u!lic duty Underlyin" the differences !et*een these t*o $hiloso$hies *as the humanists: dee$ conviction that society had out"ro*n older *ays of thou"ht 2ccordin" to the humanists, these *ays of thou"ht em$hasi)ed a!stract s$eculation and relied too heavily on Christian teachin"s 1any of the humanists *ere to*ns$eo$le *ho *ere not directly associated *ith the church These ur!an residents tended to o!4ect to an educational system that *as lar"ely mono$oli)ed !y the cler"y and oriented to clerical needs 5umanists *ere accustomed to the everAchan"in", concrete activities of city life and found the ri"id and closed systems of a!stract thou"ht to !e !oth useless and irrelevant In sum, humanism reflected the ne* environment of the Renaissance Its essential contri!ution to the modern *orld *as not its concern *ith anti+uity, !ut its fle#i!ility and o$enness to all the $ossi!ilities of life Renaissance humanism *as com$le#, *ith fe* unifyin" features !eyond a common !elief that humanity and society could !e im$roved throu"h a ne* ,ind of education !ased on a study of the classics 5umanists varied *idely in the *ays they a$$lied these ideas to areas that interested them 3ome humanists *ere mainly interested in rhetoric and 6atin $rose style, *hile others analy)ed ancient te#ts to determine e#act meanin"s One "rou$ focused on *ays to im$rove society in "eneral, *hile Christian humanism a$$lied the techni+ues of humanist scholarshi$ to the study of church documents, $articularly the 9i!le

(etrarch

&rancesco (etrarca, ,no*n as (etrarch, incor$orated most elements of Renaissance humanism into his *or, Called the first "reat humanist, (etrarch *as !orn in 1@=4 near &lorence and s$ent much of his life in the cities of Italy 5e a!sor!ed the ty$ical ur!an em$hasis on the $ractical and concrete e#$eriences of daily life (etrarch traveled *idely, clim!ed mountains sim$ly to see *hat he could see, and dis$layed a ,een interest in the human $ersonality, most nota!ly his o*n The classics further nourished his interest in !road human e#$erience (etrarch *as dis$leased !y *hat he sa* in the *orld 5e *avered !et*een nostal"ic contem$lation of the ideal *orld of anti+uity and active efforts to im$rove his o*n times 5e acted as an emissary for the du,e of 1ilan, attem$ted to serve as $eacema,er in Italy:s constant *ars, and ur"ed the $o$e to end his e#ile in 2vi"non durin" the 9a!ylonian Ca$tivity 5e also attac,ed the scholastics for their failure to address the true needs of humanity (etrarch !elieved in the $ossi!ility of a !etter future, and he ho$ed, a!ove all, to !etter the *orld !y the study of classical literature 5e admired the formal !eauty of classical *ritin" and considered it a remedy for contem$orary u"liness To $romote the study of classical literature, he collected ancient te#ts durin" his travels 5e studied and imitated them in 6atin *ritin"s of his o*n, and then attem$ted to e#tend their teachin"s to as many other $eo$le as $ossi!le

Develo$ment

of

5umanism

2fter (etrarch, humanism s$read first in Italy and then !eyond the 2l$s 1ost of (etrarch:s early follo*ers *ere little more than enthusiastic, and some*hat amateurish, classical scholars Throu"h one of his friends, Italian *riter %iovanni 9occaccio, (etrarch:s influence *as transmitted to &lorence In the midA to late 14th century, a num!er of scholars in &lorence collected and studied ancient *or,s, lectured a!out them, imitated their style, and made the city a center of humanistic

learnin" 2mon" them *ere 9occaccio, the scholar NiccolL Niccoli, and a!ove all the &lorentine "overnment leader, Coluccio 3alutati 3ome humanists !ecame e#$erts in rhetoric, and to*n "overnments fre+uently em$loyed them to "ive style to formal documents, to com$ose s$eeches for $u!lic occasions, and to *rite official histories These humanists often !ecame so $retentious and artificial that they eventually lost si"ht of si"nificant issues in their focus on techni+ue and detail 9y the early 16th century a fe* of these humanists cultivated such an e#tremely $ure style of 6atin that they *ould only em$loy *ords used !y the ancient Roman orator Cicero It *as $rimarily this ty$e of humanist *ho *as res$onsi!le for the fre+uent accusation that humanism *as a frivolous $ursuit and that, far from revivin" 6atin, it finally ,illed the lan"ua"e !y isolatin" it from everyday life Other humanists ado$ted an entirely different and more $olitical a$$roach to classical studies 1any of the humanists of &lorence, led !y historian 6eonardo 9runi, !ecame fervently $atriotic Their $atriotism *as in $art a res$onse to fre+uent armed attac,s !y 1ilan, a rival cityAstate, durin" the first decades of the 15th century 2s they !e"an to a$$ly classical teachin"s to their immediate $ro!lems, they found that ancient Roman literature encoura"ed love of country and offered $ractical historical lessons These humanists also too, a $ositive attitude to*ard their native lan"ua"e8 they a$$lied classical literary standards to everyday *ritin", layin" a foundation for later literary develo$ment Their interest in the destiny of &lorence influenced them to *rite seriously a!out the city:s $ast and stimulated the emer"ence of the modern historical $ers$ective The *or, of 6oren)o ?alla durin" the first half of the 15th century ins$ired a ne* +uality in humanist scholarshi$ ?alla studied ancient te#ts *ith an increased ri"or and contri!uted si"nificantly to the develo$ment of te#tual and historical criticism ?ittorino da &eltre, a teacher at the $alace school of 1antua -1antova. durin" the early 15th century, *or,ed to esta!lish the humanist "oal of educatin" the *hole $erson for a life of $olitical leadershi$ This ideal *as $o$ulari)ed !y Il corte.iano -15I>8 +oo, of the "ourtier, 1561. !y Italian di$lomat Conte 9aldassare Casti"lione, a *or, that circulated throu"hout 'uro$e Casti"lione:s treatise on $ro$er trainin" and values for mem!ers of the royal court influenced the u$!rin"in" of the 'uro$ean rulin" classes for centuries Durin" the 15th century, a steadily increasin" num!er of Italian humanists learned %ree, &or the first time since ancient times %ree, te#ts *ere !ein" read in the ori"inal lan"ua"e in *estern 'uro$e 2 *hole ne* !ody of ideas !ecame availa!le for the humanists to study, and this led to a more $recise understandin" of %ree, $hiloso$hy In $articular, the %ree, $hiloso$her (lato increasin"ly "ained res$ect amon" the humanists 5is most $rominent Renaissance disci$le *as Italian $hiloso$her 1arsilio &icino, *ho in the late 15th century led scholars at the &lorentine 2cademy into more serious study of (lato:s *or, &icino ho$ed to ma,e (lato a ne* "uide for Hestern thou"ht, 4ust as scholastic thin,ers had !ased many of their ideas on the *or, of (lato:s student 2ristotle

5umanism

in

Northern

'uro$e

Italy had al*ays !een an im$ortant educational center, attractin" numerous students from a!road and sendin" its o*n scholars to *or, in countries !eyond the 2l$s Hell !efore the end of the 15th century, the ideas and interests of the Italian humanists had s$read into much of Hestern 'uro$e 5umanism *as $romoted not only !y scholars trained in Italy, !ut also !y those *ho had traveled in Italy and ado$ted the humanists: ideas, such as 'n"lish theolo"ian Dohn Colet and %erman $oet Conrad Celtis Northern humanism e#hi!ited many of the same +ualities as Italian humanism, !ut it *as stron"ly influenced !y its different settin" Italian humanists sa* Roman history as a "lorious e$isode in their o*n national $ast, a $ast that had !een interru$ted *hen %ermanic and other $eo$les invaded the em$ire !e"innin" in the 5th century Northern 'uro$eans did not identify as stron"ly *ith ancient Rome and often a$$roached the 1iddle 2"es *ith more sym$athy Northern society retained stron"er ties to Christianity than Italy did, and the northern humanists *ere less hostile to scholasticism 9y the time humanism had ta,en root in the north, the Reformation had !e"un to "ain momentum 2s a result, northern humanism is "enerally identified *ith Christian humanism, a movement that attem$ted to a$$ly the scholarly techni+ues of humanism to the study of reli"ious documents Christian humanists studied the 9i!le directly, i"norin" medieval inter$retations 2s their ,no*led"e

of lan"ua"es increased, the humanists also read the !i!lical te#ts in the ori"inal %ree, and 5e!re* Their *or, in translatin" and analy)in" ori"inal sources often uncovered discre$ancies amon" these sources, *hich led to +uestions a!out the Catholic Church:s $ractices and encoura"ed efforts for reform The !estA,no*n Christian humanist *as Dutch *riter and scholar Desiderius 'rasmus 5is numerous *or,s of classical and !i!lical scholarshi$, includin" a 6atin translation of the Ne* Testament as *ell as a %ree, edition !ased on recently discovered manuscri$ts, "ave him an une+ualed re$utation in the *orld of letters 5e condemned overly ri"id !elief systems, favorin" more fle#i!ility and tolerance 5is vie*s influenced lar"e num!ers of !oth Catholics and (rotestants for "enerations The Christian humanists, li,e other reli"ious reformers of the Renaissance, "enerally considered themselves to !e "ood Catholics They *ere rece$tive to chan"e, !ut !elieved stron"ly in the unity of the church and the $reservation of a reformed Catholic tradition &or this reason 'rasmus and other Christian humanists refused to acce$t the ar"uments of %erman theolo"ian 1artin 6uther, *ho condemned some of the !asic teachin"s of the Catholic Church 2s a result, the contri!utions of Christian humanism to the Reformation *ere lar"ely indirect 5umanists ins$ired the s$irit of +uestionin" and s,e$ticism that characteri)ed the Reformation, !ut they *ould not su$$ort 6uther:s notion that ma4or doctrines of the Catholic Church could !e $roved *ron" *ith a!solute certainty

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The a"e of the Renaissance occu$ies a crucial $lace in the history of science, !ut the nature and e#tent of humanism:s contri!ution to science are difficult to measure 5umanism had an indirect im$act on many fields of scientific in+uiry 5umanist scholarshi$ made availa!le the scientific *ritin"s of anti+uity, *hich are ,no*n to have influenced 16thAcentury (olish astronomer Nicholaus Co$ernicus and $ossi!ly other Renaissance scientists The humanists: study of (lato contri!uted to ne* conce$tions of the universe that relied on mathematical rather than descri$tive a$$roaches The Renaissance s$irit of curiosity, e#$erimentation, and o!4ectivity *ere also im$ortant to the develo$ment of science in 'uro$e Renaissance scholars em$hasi)ed concrete e#$erience over a!stract theory and tried to o!serve the natural *orld carefully, com$letely, and *ithout $reconceived ideas This s$irit of im$artial in+uiry *as more im$ortant to the future of science than any s$ecific achievement The scientific advances of the Renaissance *ere evident in many fields In medicine, 9el"ian $hysician 2ndreas ?esalius dissected cadavers and made numerous discoveries a!out human anatomy The s$irit of curiosity *as also e#tended to e#$loration and navi"ation ItalianA3$anish navi"ator Christo$her Colum!us, 'n"lish e#$lorer 3ir &rancis Dra,e, and others made use of the latest inventions and discoveries in navi"ation, astronomy, and mathematics 2rtists e#$lored the mathematical relationshi$s inherent in nature They closely studied $ers$ective, investi"atin" ho* to $ortray de$th and de$ict o!4ects as they a$$eared to the eye &lorentine artist 6eonardo da ?inci united art *ith science in his studies of the structures and $rocesses of nature, as *ell as in his desi"ns for machines and mechanical devices Im$ortant inventions such as "un$o*der, the $rintin" $ress, and the com$ass *ere $ractical results of Renaissance scientific in+uiry Des$ite these influences, the humanists made fe* direct contri!utions to the sciences8 indeed, their em$hasis on a $olished style and their disli,e of ordered thou"ht may *ell have slo*ed scientific advance The ma4or contri!utions to science durin" this $eriod *ere made !y the same scholastic thin,ers *hose *or,, accordin" to the humanists, did not address the real needs of humanity The scholastics *ere also res$onsi!le for a "reat !rea,throu"h in Hestern thin,in" on the nature of the universe The chief o!stacle to the emer"ence of modern science lay in a vie* of nature that *as !ased on the ideas of 2ristotle and of Christian theolo"ians 2ccordin" to this vie*, the entire $hysical universe *as centered on human,ind, and there *as a !asic $ur$ose to all movement %ravity *as e#$lained as the inclination of all !odies to !e at the center of the earth8 acceleration *as !elieved to !e a conse+uence of the "ro*in" ea"erness of a fallin" !ody as it moved closer to its natural home 3uch a vie* of the universe *as still essentially su$ernatural and could not !e studied

o!4ectively or !y e#$erimentation The most si"nificant achievement of Renaissance science *as the introduction of the conce$t of the universe as an entity that could !e a$$roached o!4ectively 3cholars !rou"ht these ideas to the University of (adua in Italy, *here other thin,ers, nota!ly 15thA century Italian theolo"ian Ca4etan, further develo$ed them and e#$lained their im$lications (adua -(adova. !ecame the scientific ca$ital of 'uro$e 2lmost every "reat scientist *as associated at one time or another *ith the University of (adua, from (olish astronomer Nicholaus Co$ernicus in the early 16th century to Italian astronomer %alileo and 'n"lish $hysician Hilliam 5arvey in the 1Eth century 3cholastic s$eculation reached its $ea, at (adua and $rovided essential $re$aration for the more dramatic achievements of scientists such as Dohannes Ne$ler of %ermany and 3ir Isaac Ne*ton of 'n"land in formulatin" the la*s of motion The ne* scientific attitude that arose at (adua durin" the Renaissance em$hasi)ed o!4ectivity and e#$erimentation, and re$resented another si"nificant accom$lishment of the $eriod

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The Renaissance *ill al*ays !e closely associated *ith achievements in literature, art, and music -see Renaissance 2rt and 2rchitecture. In $aintin", scul$ture, and architecture the Renaissance tended to !rea, *ith medieval traditions (aintin" and scul$ture *ere no lon"er considered crafts to !e used e#clusively for the em!ellishment of churches and cathedrals8 instead, they !ecame inde$endent arts on a level *ith the hi"hest intellectual accom$lishments The use of mathematics and "eometry in achievin" $ro$ortion and $ers$ective in *or,s of art e#em$lified the ne* mer"in" of art and science that *as a $rime characteristic of the Renaissance In Italy, survivin" e#am$les of classical Roman scul$ture and architecture *ere al*ays $resent, and the classical $ast $rovided artists *ith the !asis for ne* ins$iration Contri!utions to the arts *ere closely related to the !road transformations that *ere ta,in" $lace in society The sense of chan"e in all as$ects of life created a favora!le atmos$here for artistic e#$erimentation and innovation Health that accumulated in the to*ns hel$ed su$$ort *riters and artists 2!ove all, a ne* and more varied $u!lic audience emer"ed *ith e#$anded tastes and interests (ros$erous to*ns$eo$le and mem!ers of the royal courts demanded "reater refinement in the arts and more variety in !oth form and content They encoura"ed artistic treatment of the *orld in *hich they lived, !ut they also valued the classical herita"e This herita"e seemed to resem!le their o*n civili)ation and $rovided a *ealth of ideas and formal models for chan"es in the arts In these *ays, the Renaissance $layed a crucial role in the develo$ment of modern creative e#$ression

6iterature

Renaissance attitudes and $hiloso$hy had a com$le# influence on the evolution of literature The humanist reverence for the classics of ancient %reece and Rome tended to stifle s$ontaneous literary creation and to encoura"e unima"inative imitation of classical authors 5o*ever, the restless curiosity of the Renaissance, the interest in the *orld, and the e#$osure to ur!an influences created a demand for a vernacular, or native, literature that e#$ressed the ne* e#citement and variety of contem$orary life 3ecular *ritin" had al*ays $layed some role in medieval life, !ut under the influence of the classics it ac+uired a ne* so$histication and $olish 1oreover, Renaissance individuality, *ith its concern for $ersonal fame, encoura"ed *riters to try darin" e#$eriments in order to *in $raise from the critics and su$$ort from influential $atrons Dante 2li"hieri, *ho *rote durin" the 1@th century, is often said to re$resent the transition in literature from the 1iddle 2"es to the Renaissance 2lthou"h his $hiloso$hy of life *as rooted in the reli"ious outloo, of the 1iddle 2"es, his "reat e$ic $oem La divina commedia -1@=E8 The Divine "omed$. reflects his $o*erful interest in all as$ects of human life and !ehavior The vivid lan"ua"e and ima"ery of The Divine "omed$, $ro!a!ly !e"un in 1@=E, $aved the *ay for such later *or,s as %iovanni 9occaccio;s Il Decamerone -1@5@8 The Decameron, 16I=., a collection of realistic $rose tales famous for their vivid and *itty o!servations of contem$orary life 9oth Dante and 9occaccio *ere im$ortant in esta!lishin" the use of contem$orary Italian rather than 6atin as the standard lan"ua"e for literature in Italy The love sonnets of (etrarch *ere also *ritten in vernacular Italian8 they *ere *idely imitated throu"hout 'uro$e and further increased the $rominence of the Italian lan"ua"e

In the late 15th century the ruler of &lorence, 6oren)o de; 1edici, stimulated the develo$ment of Italian $oetry, *hich had lan"uished since the death of (etrarch nearly 1== years earlier (oets and scholars from all over Italy *ere attracted to 6oren)o;s court This revival led to *or,s such as the e$ic romance /rlando 0urioso -1516, revised 15I1 and 15@I. !y 6udovico 2riosto and the $astoral romance Arcadia -15=4. !y Daco$o 3anna))aro Durin" the 16th century, Italian literature $roduced a num!er of outstandin" $rose *or,s 2mon" them are The Prince, a study of the use of $olitical $o*er !y NiccolL 1achiavelli8 The +oo, of the "ourtier, a treatise on courtly eti+uette *ritten !y 9aldassare Casti"lione8 and the auto!io"ra$hy of scul$tor 9envenuto Cellini detailin" his *ild esca$ades It *as also durin" the 16th century that the influence of Italian Renaissance literature *as felt throu"hout 'uro$e In 3$ain, 1i"uel de Cervantes 3aavedra *rote his alle"orical novel Don 1ui'ote -(art I, 16=58 (art II, 1615. In &rance, (ierre de Ronsard a$$lied the lessons of classicism to &rench verse8 &ranOois Ra!elais *rote lusty, vi"orous caricatures of the *orld around him8 and 1ichel 'y+uem de 1ontai"ne *rote essays e#$lorin" his innermost thou"hts *ith the same o!4ectivity that others had reserved for the e#ternal *orld The Renaissance also $roduced "reat literature in 'n"land Of note are the sonnets of 3ir (hili$ 3idney8 the e$ic The 0aerie 1ueene -$u!lished in successive editions, 15B=A16=B. !y 'dmund 3$enser8 and the $lays of Christo$her 1arlo*e, Hilliam 3ha,es$eare, and other dramatists *ho *rote durin" the rei"n of Pueen 'li)a!eth I

(aintin"

Renaissance $ainters turned from the $urely reli"ious su!4ects of the 1iddle 2"es to a de$iction of the natural *orld Technical advances in the re$resentation of $ers$ective, anatomy, and li"ht and shado* *ere matched !y a "reat e#$ansion in su!4ect matter (ortraits, studies of the human form, animals, landsca$es, scenes of daily life, and historic events all 4oined reli"ious su!4ects as acce$ta!le material for the $ainter %iotto, a 14thAcentury &lorentine $ainter, is often considered the forerunner of Renaissance $aintin" 5e !ro,e *ith the hi"hly formali)ed style of medieval $aintin", in *hich static, e#$ressionless, t*oA dimensional fi"ures *ere arran"ed in si)e and form accordin" to their sym!olic im$ortance %iotto !ased his art on o!servation of the real *orld and tried to use s$ace and li"ht more dramatically In the 15th century the artists of &lorence, led !y 1asaccio, !e"an to use scientific $rinci$les to solve $ro!lems of $ers$ective and to develo$ ne* techni+ues for re$resentin" li"ht and shade 2t the same time, the $ainters of ?enice e#$erimented *ith color to $roduce a more natural effect Durin" the 1iddle 2"es the Catholic Church had !een almost the sole $atron of the arts, and most of the art*or, $roduced had reli"ious themes 9y the 14==s $rivate collectors and $atrons !e"an to demand $aintin"s of secular su!4ects (ersonal $ortraiture also a$$eared in the *or,s of artists such as (iero della &rancesca and 3andro 9otticelli Re$resentation of the natural *orld, ho*ever, *as not enou"h for the "reat artists of the later Italian Renaissance The master$ieces of 6eonardo da ?inci, Ra$hael, and 1ichelan"elo reveal not only the com$lete mastery of earlier technical advances, !ut also $rofound reflection on the nature of the material *orld and an effort to re$resent ideal +ualities that underlie out*ard a$$earances The *or, of &lemish artists such as Dan van 'yc, in the 15th century su""ests a common interest in concrete detail, !ut for the rest of 'uro$e, the ma4or im$act of the ne* movement in art did not occur until the 1Eth century

3cul$ture

Durin" the 1iddle 2"es, scul$ture, li,e all medieval art, *as su!ordinated to reli"ious architecture and the needs of the Catholic Church 2lthou"h late medieval scul$ture, ,no*n as %othic -see %othic 2rt and 2rchitecture., *as more realistic than earlier medieval scul$ture, it *as still hi"hly styli)ed to sym!oli)e certain reli"ious ideas and conventions 5o*ever, Italian medieval scul$ture had al*ays $reserved some elements of the classical tradition In the 1@th century, Italian scul$tors Nicola and

%iovanni (isano com!ined %othic conventions *ith the freer, more dynamic naturalism of the ancient %ree,s and Romans In the early 15th century, increasin" mastery of materials and techni+ues, to"ether *ith "reater e#$ressiveness, *as achieved !y scul$tors Daco$o della Puercia and 6oren)o %hi!erti In his relief $anels for the east door of the !a$tistery of the cathedral of &lorence, %hi!erti incor$orated levels of $ers$ective and effects of li"ht and shade that had seemed $ossi!le only in $aintin" 9oth Puercia and %hi!erti still conceived of scul$ture as ornamental relief for reli"ious architecture It remained for %hi!erti;s contem$orary Donatello to construct fi"ures that *ere natural in form and could !e vie*ed from all sides 2mon" the other im$ortant scul$tors of the early Renaissance *ere 2ndrea del ?errocchio and mem!ers of the Ro!!ia family Renaissance scul$ture reached its $ea, in the early 16th century, $rimarily *ith the *or,s of 1ichelan"elo

2rchitecture

Renaissance architecture, li,e Renaissance scul$ture, *as lar"ely ins$ired !y the rediscovery of classical forms and $rinci$les In the 15th century, architects such as &ili$$o 9runelleschi and 6eon 9attista 2l!erti sa* in the ruins of ancient Rome the foundation for a ne* architecture !ased on the $rinci$les of "eometry and mathematics 9runelleschi $roduced the first "reat *or,s of Renaissance architecture in !uildin"s such as the Church of 3an 6oren)o and the (a))i Cha$el in &lorence 2l!erti *rote theoretical treatises e#$lainin" the $rinci$les of Roman architect ?itruvius 5is *or, on the Church of 3an &rancesco, a %othic church in the central Italian city of Rimini, is ty$ical of the early Renaissance It illustrates the tendency to remodel old !uildin"s !y addin" classical a$$roaches to form, such as the use of symmetry, and classical features, such as arches and columns 2n im$ortant Renaissance contri!ution to the develo$ment of Hestern architecture *as the revival of the dome, an architectural feature that *as first introduced !y the Romans 9runelleschi;s "reat dome on the cathedral of &lorence is one of the outstandin" achievements of the $eriod Renaissance architects *ere also interested in secular !uildin"s of all ,inds, includin" $alaces, li!raries, and theaters Outstandin" e#am$les of secular Renaissance architecture include &lorence:s (ala))o 1ediciARiccardi !y Italian architect 1ichelo))o and the Olym$ic Theater and ?illa Rotonda, desi"ned !y 2ndrea (alladio and located in the northern Italian to*n of ?icen)a (alladio;s use of columns and domes in houses and villas illustrates the a$$lication of classical $rinci$les of desi"n to secular structures 2nother im$ortant Renaissance architect *as Donato 9ramante 5is Tem$ietto, a shrine in Rome, is an outstandin" e#am$le of a circular !uildin" *ith a domed roof, a $o$ular form durin" the Renaissance Ra$hael, 9aldassare Tommaso (eru))i, %iacomo da ?i"nola, 1ichelan"elo, and mem!ers of the 3an"allo family *ere all amon" the outstandin" Renaissance architects of the 16th century

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1usic

2 similar interest in e#$erimentation and a desire to meet the needs of the secular *orld a$$lies to the history of music durin" the Renaissance Innovations in this field !e"an *ith the musicians of &rance and the 6o* Countries &rench com$osers such as %uillaume de 1achaut in the 14th century and Dos+uin Des$re) in the late 15th and early 16th centuries esta!lished the $rinci$les of $oly$honic -multivoice. and contra$untal music -see counter$oint. &lemish com$oser Orlando de 6assus a$$lied these $rinci$les to a *ide ran"e of musical forms in the 16th century 2s these innovations *ere ta,in" $lace, music also "re* increasin"ly secular and *as en4oyed in many settin"s outside of the church 9oth men and *omen of the u$$er classes *ere e#$ected to understand music and to $erform it They re"ularly amused themselves !y sin"in" $oetic musical com$ositions called madri"als or !y $layin" a variety of instruments, includin" lutes, viols, and a form of har$sichord called a vir"inal 2ttention to the musical tastes of secular society also affected sacred music Not only *ere the technical innovations a$$lied to music for the church, !ut fre+uently sacred melodies *ere used for more $o$ular entertainment The leaders of the Counter Reformation *ithin the Catholic Church

eventually intervened to halt this tendency The sacred music of 16thAcentury Italian com$oser %iovanni (ierlui"i da (alestrina re$resents an effort to restore a devotional s$irit to music *ithout sacrificin" the technical innovations made !y the earlier com$osers of the Renaissance

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The Renaissance *as a time *hen lon"Astandin" !eliefs *ere tested, and 'uro$eans !ecame increasin"ly confident that they *ere creatin" a *hole ne* culture It *as a $eriod of intellectual ferment that $re$ared the "round for the thin,ers and scientists of the 1Eth century The Renaissance idea that human,ind rules nature, for e#am$le, contri!uted to the develo$ment of modern science and technolo"y Renaissance thin,ers used classical $recedents to $reserve and defend the conce$ts of re$u!licanism and human freedom These ideas had a $ermanent im$act on the course of 'n"lish constitutional theory Renaissance $olitical thou"ht may also have !een a source for the form of "overnment ado$ted in the United 3tates 2!ove all, ho*ever, the Renaissance left to the *orld monuments of artistic !eauty that define Hestern culture