1

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1hls sLudy offers an ln-depLh exploraLlon of how clLlzens and [ournallsLs ln Memphls, 1ennessee have
come Lo uLlllze 1wlLLer and Lhe hashLag #MemsLorm as a collaboraLlve breaklng news reporLlng Lool
when severe weaLher hlLs Lhe reglon. lL examlnes some of Lhe facLors LhaL moLlvaLe publlc parLlclpaLlon
and looks aL how Lhls new, always-on communlLy-drlven communlcaLlon sysLem - whaL scholar Alfred
Permlda has called amblenL [ournallsm" - ls affecLlng local [ournallsm, bulldlng on prevlous Lheory and
research reveallng how soclal medla has helped make Lhe news process lncreaslngly parLlclpaLory. uslng
lnLervlews, a survey, parLlclpanL observaLlon and conLenL analysls of 1639 LweeLs wlLh Lhe #memsLorm
hashLag, Lhls sLudy shows how Memphlans are bulldlng communlLy onllne and playlng a role ln sharlng
lnformaLlon vlLal Lo publlc healLh and welfare.




Carrle 8rown-SmlLh, unlverslLy of Memphls
314 Meeman !ournallsm 8ulldlng
Memphls, 1n 38132
202-231-3719
cbrown14[memphls.edu

2


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ln Aprll 2011, a serles of powerful sLorms pounded Memphls, 1ennessee and Lhe surroundlng
reglon, drlvlng resldenLs noL only Lo Lhelr Lelevlslon seLs buL Lo Lhelr 1wlLLer sLreams for Lhe laLesL
lnformaLlon on funnel cloud slghLlngs, flash floodlng and power ouLages. Slrens blared and people
huddled ln basemenLs and baLhrooms off and on for Lwo days, buL when all was sald and done Memphls
was relaLlvely lucky, Lhe same sysLem of sLorms caused much more exLreme damage and loss of llfe ln
!oplln, Mlssourl and 1uscaloosa, Alabama.
Whlle wlld weaLher wlLh LorrenLlal raln and Lornados are noL unusual ln Lhe Mld-SouLh, Lhe
ablllLy Lo boLh access and conLrlbuLe Lo anoLher real-Llme source of lnformaLlon ln addlLlon Lo Lhe
venerable local Lelevlslon meLeorologlsLs and oLher LradlLlonal news ouLleLs ls a relaLlvely new
phenomenon LhaL exempllfles Lhe parLlclpaLory, Lwo-way power of Loday's dlglLal Lools. CommunlLy
members converged around Lhe hashLag #MemsLorm Lo share lnformaLlon, phoLos, and vldeo on Lhe
sLorm and lnLeracL wlLh oLhers, accordlng Lo daLa collecLed by Aaron raLher, a local Lechnology
enLrepreneur and CLC of sLarLup SLlC8d, aL Lhe helghL of Lhe sLorm, #memsLorm lmpresslons reached
1.4 mllllon, wlLh over 200,000 1wlLLer accounLs belng reached, 0.01 percenL of all LweeLs on 1wlLLer
were belng Lagged wlLh #memsLorm (Powell, 2011).
uslng a comblnaLlon of meLhodologlcal approaches, lncludlng a conLenL analysls of 1639 LweeLs
Lagged wlLh Lhe #memsLorm hashLag, lnLervlews, a survey, and parLlclpanL observaLlon, Lhls sLudy offers
an ln-depLh exploraLlon of a concepL descrlbed by Permlda as amblenL [ournallsm" or an awareness
sysLem LhaL offers dlverse means Lo collecL, communlcaLe, share and dlsplay news and lnformaLlon,
3

servlng dlverse purposes" (2010: 301). 1hls always-on communlcaLlon sysLem carrles slgnlflcanL
lmpllcaLlons for [ournallsLs' role ln socleLy and Lhe larger quesLlon of how a communlLy's lnformaLlon
needs are meL ln a dlglLal world, parLlcularly durlng a fasL-movlng breaklng news slLuaLlon. !ournallsLs
hoplng Lo harness new Lools Lo conLlnue Lo play a role as sensemakers and verlflers of lnformaLlon, ln a
landscape where Lhe publlc has Lhe ablllLy bypass Lhem, need Lo undersLand whaL Lhls growlng onllne
communlLy ls dolng and whaL lLs needs, norms and moLlvaLlons are. lor example, durlng Lhe sLorm, lox
13 asked people Lo use Lhe hashLag #foxsLorm so we can beLLer monlLor affecLed areas." 1he reacLlon
on 1wlLLer was swlfL and flerce, Lhe communlLy was already uslng Lhe #memsLorm hashLag and many
resenLed an aLLempL Lo brand" Lhe sLorm response Lo one parLlcular sLaLlon.
1hls sLudy bullds on exlsLlng Lheory and research reveallng how soclal medla has helped make
Lhe news process lncreaslngly parLlclpaLory, expandlng LradlLlonal concepLlons of news and challenglng
Lhe role of [ournallsLs as gaLekeepers who selecL and edlL lnformaLlon for presenLaLlon Lo Lhe publlc
(Slnger eL. al., 2011). ln Lhelr book lottlclpototy Iootoollsm. CootJloq Opeo Cotes ot Oolloe Newspopets,
!ane Slnger, Alfred Permlda and a hosL of oLher conLrlbuLors amass subsLanLlal evldence showlng LhaL
people lnslde and ouLslde Lhe newsroom are engaged ln communlcaLlng noL only Lo, buL also wlLh, one
anoLher. ln dolng so, Lhey all are parLlclpaLlng ln Lhe ongolng processes of creaLlng a news webslLe and
bulldlng a mulLlfaceLed communlLy (2011: 2)." 8y looklng aL one speclflc use case ln deLall, Lhls sLudy
examlnes furLher how a communlLy may play a role ln coverlng lLself, even ouLslde of any dellberaLe
efforLs by [ournallsLs.
1hls sLudy also expands on exlsLlng research on uses and graLlflcaLlons of 1wlLLer by examlnlng
whaL klnds of needs moLlvaLe publlc use of new medla ln a breaklng news slLuaLlon. revlous research
has found LhaL 1wlLLer may be especlally useful ln comparlson Lo oLher soclal neLworks for
news and lnformaLlon (!ohnson and ?ang, 2009), more so Lhan lacebook, where people go
4

prlmarlly Lo connecL wlLh Lhelr frlends made offllne (urlsLa eL. al. 2009, SLelnfeld eL. al. 2007). ln
addlLlon, examlnes Lhe back-and-forLh among communlLy members uslng Lhe hashLag and flnds
LhaL 1wlLLer serves need Lo connecL wlLh oLhers, one of four key communlcaLlon need sLaLes
parLlcularly relevanL ln lnLeracLlve new medla conLexLs (1horson & uuffy, 2006).
=-&#(.&0(# :#5-#,
1here a growlng body of academlc llLeraLure on 1wlLLer, a soclal neLwork LhaL allows users Lo
broadcasL lnformaLlon Lo oLhers uslng [usL 140 characLers, lnLeracL wlLh each oLher publlcly or prlvaLely,
and follow" oLher users, alLhough relaLlvely few sLudles have examlned lLs lmpllcaLlons for [ournallsm
or looked aL how hashLags are used ln a breaklng news evenL. unllke Lhe larger and older lacebook,
reclproclLy ls noL requlred on 1wlLLer, users can follow oLhers even lf oLhers do noL follow Lhem ln
reLurn. users can share phoLos, vldeos, and llnks Lo arLlcles or blog posLs, llnks are ofLen shorLened Lo
provlde more space for addlLlonal commenLary. AbouL 13 percenL of onllne adulLs use 1wlLLer, a flgure
LhaL has grown rapldly, up from [usL elghL percenL ln 2010 (SmlLh, 2011). Whlle many new users check
Lhe slLe lnfrequenLly or never, one-Lhlrd check for new maLerlal posLed by oLhers on a dally basls or even
mulLlple Llmes per day (C'uell, 2011).

1wenLy-one percenL of 1wlLLer users follow more Lhan 100
people, and 16 percenL now have more Lhan 100 followers (SmlLh and 8alnle, 2010).

Ldlson 8esearch
also found awareness of 1wlLLer has exploded. 1he percenLage of Amerlcans who say Lhey are famlllar
wlLh 1wlLLer rose from 3 percenL ln 2008 Lo 87 percenL ln 2010 (WebsLer, 2010). 1wlLLer users are hlghly
moblle, 93 percenL own a moblle phone and half use lL Lo access 1wlLLer (SmlLh, 2011).
uses and graLlflcaLlons Lheory has been Lhe mosL common LheoreLlcal paradlgm applled ln Lhe
sLudy of soclal neLworks Lhus far, as researchers explorlng a sLlll relaLlvely-new phenomena seek Lo
undersLand how audlence members use soclal medla slLes llke 1wlLLer and Lhe fulflllmenL Lhey geL from
Lhelr medla cholces.

uses and graLlflcaLlons Lheory ls relevanL for [ournallsm-relaLed research as a way Lo
3

undersLand and LargeL Lhelr audlence's needs, ulLlmaLely ensurlng Lhe besL reLurn on lnvesLmenL wlLh
soclal medla.
+,-&&#( .1> 0%#% .1> 8(.&-?-@.&-'1%
8esearch on 1wlLLer uses and graLlflcaLlons has found people are uslng lL as an lmporLanL source of news
and lnformaLlon, alLhough soclal needs remaln key aspecL of user moLlvaLlon. Cne 2009 sLudy by !ohnson &
?ang found people were uslng 1wlLLer more for lnformaLlonal Lhan soclal needs, a klnd of one-sLop-shop" for
obLalnlng lnformaLlon from a varleLy of sources, slmllar Lo an 8SS feed. 1helr resulLs lndlcaLed LhaL 1wlLLer's
sLrengLhs ln saLlsfylng lLs users lle wlLh lLs ablllLy Lo help users connecL and communlcaLe wlLh many oLher users,
whlle also allowlng users Lo share Lhelr LhoughLs ln a publlc forum and keep Lrack of whaL oLher users are Lalklng
abouL (18)." Sub[ecLs reporLed LhaL 1wlLLer served as a fllLer, allowlng Lhem Lo easlly access lnformaLlon
recommended by frlends or LrusLed conLacLs. Aberran eL. al. (2010) found slmllar resulLs ln a sLudy of LaLlno
youLh on 1wlLLer. When young adulL LaLlnos slngled ouL uses of 1wlLLer from lacebook and MySpace, 1wlLLer
emerged as Lhe clear leader for accesslng news and lnformaLlon.
Cf speclal relevance Lo Lhls sLudy glven lLs focus on uslng 1wlLLer ln Lhe conLexL of a local
breaklng news sLory, naaman, 8ecker and Cravano (2011) found LhaL 1wlLLer serves as whaL Lhey called
a soclal awareness sLream" and noLed LhaL alLhough lL enables Lhe posslblllLy of far-flung global
connecLlons, lL ls especlally useful for offerlng local lnformaLlon, because mosL users Lend Lo be
connecLed Lo a slgnlflcanL number of people from Lhelr geographlcal area. 1hey also found LhaL ln a
breaklng news evenL, users Lended Lo, noL surprlslngly, focus more on lnformaLlon Lransmlsslon Lhan
conversaLlon wlLh oLher users.
Pughes, Lee, and alen (2009) also examlned 1wlLLer use durlng ma[or news evenLs or crlses
wlLh a conLenL analysls of LweeLs from Lhe 8epubllcan and uemocraLlc naLlonal ConvenLlons as well as
Purrlcanes CusLav and lrene. 1helr flndlngs maLched Lhe prevlous sLudy ln LhaL durlng a crlsls, 1wlLLer
6

users are focused on broadcasLlng lnformaLlon as opposed Lo lnLeracLlng wlLh oLhers. lnLeresLlngly,
1wlLLer users who [olned durlng Lhls klnd of breaklng news evenL are more llkely Lhan oLhers Lo become
long-Lerm users, suggesLlng LhaL Lhese users found subsLanLlal uLlllLy ln 1wlLLer and may have formed
meanlngful connecLlons LhaL Lhey could Lhen bulld upon. 1hey also found LhaL general 1wlLLer use over
Llme has evolved Lo lnclude more lnformaLlon sharlng, ln 2007, [usL 13 percenL of 1weeLs lncluded a u8L
Laklng Lhe user Lo addlLlonal lnformaLlon, whlle Lwo years laLer ln 2009, 24.7 percenL of LweeLs
conLalned a u8L. uurlng Lhe Lwo hurrlcanes, for example, fully 30 percenL of all 1weeLs conLalned a llnk.
lndeed, soclal neLworks have become key drlvers of Lrafflc Lo Web slLes Lhrough shared llnks. ew
8esearch CenLer reporLed 33 percenL of 1wlLLer users share llnks Lo news sLorles, and abouL one ln 10 do
so aL leasL once a day (SmlLh & 8alnle, 2010).


Slmllarly, search-based ad neLwork ChlLlka conducLed a sLudy LhaL found news ls lmporLanL Lo 1wlLLer
users (2010). 1hey looked aL all of Lhe Web slLes ln Lhe company's neLwork LhaL recelved Lrafflc from 1wlLLer
and found 47 percenL of Lhose slLes were news-relaLed, Lechnology and celebrlLy/enLerLalnmenL slLes accounLed
for 10 percenL, movles slx percenL and how-Lo arLlcles four percenL. A sLudy by 8arracuda neLworks, a Web
securlLy company, descrlbed 1wlLLer as more news feed Lhan soclal neLwork," flndlng Lhe ma[orlLy of 1wlLLer
users follow oLhers buL do noL posL messages Lhemselves (eplLone, 2010). Powever, uses may be shlfLlng.
More recenL research lndlcaLes people are becomlng more acLlve ln sharlng lnformaLlon Lhemselves on 1wlLLer
(Sysomos lnc., 2010).
ln addlLlon Lo servlng as an lmporLanL source of news and lnformaLlon, 1wlLLer also saLlsfles needs for
connecLlon and can bulld a sense of communlLy, sLudles show. Crawford (2009), boyd, Colder and LoLan (2010)
and Chen (2011) found LhaL 1wlLLer users can develop a deep sense of connecLlon Lo oLhers, lncludlng Lhose LhaL
don'L posL ofLen Lhemselves buL lnsLead prlmarlly llsLen and consume lnformaLlon. Chen (2011) found LhaL Lhe
more hours per week you spend on 1wlLLer, Lhe more camaraderle or connecLlon you feel Lo oLher users, a
7

flndlng LhaL held Lrue across gender, age and oLher demographlc caLegorles. 8oyd, Colder and LoLan (2010)
descrlbe 1wlLLer and parLlcularly Lhe pracLlce of reLweeLlng oLher users, ofLen wlLh addlLlonal commenLary
added, as a klnd of dlsLrlbuLed conversaLlon," wrlLlng, wheLher parLlclpanLs are acLlvely commenLlng or slmply
acknowledglng LhaL Lhey're llsLenlng, Lhey're placlng Lhemselves lnslde a conversaLlon. Lven when Lhey are
slmply Lrylng Lo spread a LweeL Lo a broader audlence, Lhey are brlnglng people lnLo a conversaLlon" (7).
Crawford (2009) found LhaL 1wlLLer ofLen provldes a klnd of sLeady background of messages LhaL are scanned
perlodlcally LhroughouL Lhe day, and LhaL Lhls process of background llsLenlng ls crlLlcal Lo Lhe sense of afflnlLy
generaLed ln Lhese spaces, access Lo Lhe mlnuLlae of a person's llfe ls someLhlng normally reserved for famlly,
close frlends and lovers" (331). When looklng aL why people reLweeL messages, Lhe boyd, Colder and LoLan
(2010) sLudy found LhaL ln addlLlon Lo Lhe deslre Lo share lnformaLlon, varlous soclal needs for connecLlon were
paramounL. 1hey found LhaL Lhe maln reasons people reLweeL lnclude: 1o spread lnformaLlon Lo a new
audlence, Lo enLerLaln or curaLe Lhe besL lnformaLlon, Lo commenL on somebody else's LweeL and sLarL a
conversaLlon, Lo make one's presence as a llsLener vlslble, Lo valldaLe anoLher person's LhoughLs, as an acL of
frlendshlp or loyalLy, Lo supporL less popular/less recognlzed people or Loplcs, Lo galn followers and seek
reclproclLy, or Lo save LweeLs for laLer personal access.
A sLudy LhaL examlned Lhe use of 1wlLLer Lo ralse money and awareness of posL-earLhquake PalLl found
LhaL, more Lhan self-expresslon, users are prlmarlly lnLeresLed ln belonglng or connecLlng wlLh a communlLy of
llke-mlnded supporLers, as well as promoLlng lnvolvemenL and personallzlng lssues ln a way LhaL allows Lhem Lo
declare Lhelr lndlvldual commlLmenL ln a publlc way (8. SmlLh, 2010). 8eLweeLs were more domlnanL ln Lhls
sLudy Lhan personal messages, enabllng users Lo bulld off oLhers' commenLary and neLwork on rellef efforLs"
(332), Lherefore represenLlng a klnd of collaboraLlve efforL.
!"#$$%& ()* +,-&)(.#/0
8

Permlda (2010) has descrlbed 1wlLLer as a form of amblenL [ournallsm." news Loday ls all
around us, all Lhe Llme, ofLen held ln our hands ln Lhe form of a moblle devlce, buL we are also noL
slmply recelvers of Lhls news buL also conLrlbuLors Lo lL as we go abouL our day and share observaLlons
and lnformaLlon wlLh Lhe world. 1he growlng volume of 1weeLs creaLes a sysLem LhaL helps people
malnLaln awareness of each oLher and whaL ls golng on, and whlle each lndlvldual LweeL may noL
demand much aLLenLlon or cognlLlve efforL, Laken as a whole, lL can serve as an lmporLanL early warnlng
sysLem. Pe argues LhaL [ournallsLs sLlll musL play a role ln helplng Lhe publlc fllLer Lhese dlsparaLe blLs of
news and brlng lL meanlng and conLexL (Permlda, 2010).
8esearch has documenLed how soclal medla and lnLeracLlve webslLes have enabled Lhe creaLlon
of acLlve reclplenLs" of news who are now more llkely Lo Lake advanLage of Lhe Lwo-way naLure of
Lhese Lechnologles Lo parLlclpaLe ln Lhe news process (Slnger eL. al. 2012). Powever, whlle lndlvldual
[ournallsLs and news organlzaLlons have embraced 1wlLLer (Ahmad, 2010, larhl, 2009), Lhey have only
[usL begun Lo Lake advanLage of lLs capaclLy for lnLeracLlvlLy, lnsLead hewlng Lo more of a broadcasLlng
model (Messner and Lford, 2011). Shovelware, or news conLenL Laken from news organlzaLlon's
webslLes wlLh llLLle cusLomlzaLlon for 1wlLLer, domlnaLes, and few have embraced Lhe communlLy-
bulldlng posslblllLles (Messner and Lford, 2011). lor example, a conLenL analysls of LweeLs from local
Lelevlslon news accounLs LhaL sLaLlons are prlmarlly uslng lL Lo share news, especlally breaklng news,
wlLh relaLlvely llLLle promoLlon or lnLeracLlon, lnLeresLlngly, Lhey found a poslLlve relaLlonshlp beLween
Lhe amounL of lnLeracLlvlLy and Lhe number of followers buL noLed LhaL engaglng dld come aL a cosL of
lower overall LweeL ouLpuL (lerguson and Creer, uslng 1wlLLer for romoLlon and 8randlng" 2011). A
slmllar sLudy of radlo 1wlLLer accounLs also found LhaL news sLaLlons were prlmarlly offerlng followers a
feed of news, alLhough Lhey noLed LhaL many of Lhese accounLs dld have a llvely and human" feel Lo
Lhem (lerguson and Creer, Local radlo and mlcroblogglng," 2011). A sLudy of 1wlLLer use by buslness
[ournallsLs also found LhaL few were uslng lL Lo flnd sources or sLory ldeas (Larlscy eL. al., 2009).
9

lew sLudles have looked aL Lhe credlblllLy of lnformaLlon found on 1wlLLer, buL one LhaL dld
bodes well for [ournallsLs, aL leasL Lhose who are well-esLabllshed on Lhe slLe wlLh a compleLe blo and a
hlsLory of conslsLenL 1wlLLer use. lL found LhaL users are poor [udges of LruLhfulness based on conLenL,
lnsLead relylng on perlpheral cues llke user name, lmage or blo, as well as repuLaLlon, or wheLher lL ls
somebody a user has heard of before. 1he lmporLance of Lhese klnds of cues make havlng an esLabllshed
news brand as parL of your blo helpful Lo Lelegraph bellevablllLy. Also raLed hlgh ln credlblllLy are people
wlLh lnfluence, as measured by follower counLs, or Loplcal experLlse, as esLabllshed by a hlsLory of on-
Loplc LweeLlng, advanLageous for a conslsLenL beaL reporLer. 8aLed lowesL ln credlblllLy were LweeLs
wlLh non-sLandard grammar, anoLher advanLage for seasoned professlonal [ournallsLs.
AlLhough llLLle oLher academlc research has yeL explored Lhe phenomena of uslng 1wlLLer
and/or hashLags as a communlLy reporLlng Lool, oLher communlLles and news organlzaLlons have
embraced Lhem as well, alLhough unllke #memsLorm, whlch was drlven by members of Lhe communlLy,
ln oLher places lL was Lhe [ournallsLs LhaL Look a leadlng role ln promoLlng Lhe hashLag use. 1he orLland
Cregonlan may be Lhe flrsL, lL used 1wlLLer ln laLe 2007, whlch 1wlLLer was new and had barely 300,000
users naLlonwlde, durlng ma[or sLorms Lo posL lLs own llnks and aggregaLe clLlzen LweeLs abouL floodlng
and road closures (larhl, 2009). 1he Perald ln LvereLL, WashlngLon dld someLhlng slmllar wlLh Lhe
hashLag #waflood durlng floodlng ln lLs area (larhl, 2009) and 1he Cklamoman newspaper uses
#oksLorm for weaLher alerLs (kullcke, 2011). WrlLlng ln Amerlcan !ournallsm 8evlew, aul larhl of Lhe
WashlngLon osL sald LhaL 1wlLLer works besL ln slLuaLlons ln whlch Lhlngs are happenlng fasL and Lhe
LradlLlonal medla can'L assemble all Lhe facLs aL once, and noLed LhaL lL works well as a klnd of early
warnlng sysLem and as a way of helplng Lo spoL Lrends (2009). 1wlLLer aLLracLs Lhe sorL of people LhaL
medla people should love - Lhose who are lnLeresLed ln, and engaged wlLh, Lhe news," he wroLe (2009:
30).
10

1hls sLudy wlll seek Lo answer Lhe followlng research quesLlons:
1. Pow dld Lhe hashLag come lnLo use ln Memphls as a way of reporLlng on Lhe sLorm?
2. WhaL are some of Lhe uses & graLlflcaLlons of 1wlLLer use durlng a breaklng news slLuaLlon such
as #memsLorm? WhaL moLlvaLes Lhe publlc Lo parLlclpaLe?
3. Pow ls Lhls new sysLem of amblenL [ournallsm" affecLlng local [ournallsm? WhaL klnds of
ongolng role can [ournallsLs play ln Lhls lncreaslngly parLlclpaLory, always-on news envlronmenL?


"#&A'>'<'82
ln order Lo lnvesLlgaLe a relaLlvely new phenomena LhaL has noL been exLenslvely documenLed,
Lhls sLudy employs mulLlple meLhodologles, Lhereby enhanclng lnLernal valldlLy Lhrough daLa
LrlangulaLlon (MaLhlson, 1988). 1hls sLudy lncludes a conLenL analysls of 1639 LweeLs Lagged wlLh Lhe
#memsLorm hashLag, lnLervlews, a survey, and parLlclpanL observaLlon. uaLa from each of Lhese sources
were analyzed for corroboraLlon as well as lnconslsLency or conLradlcLlon (MaLhlson, 1988). 1he
lncluslon of quallLaLlve measures offers a more ln-depLh and open-ended exploraLlon of ways ln whlch
Lhls hashLag was uLlllzed and Lhe moLlvaLlons of parLlclpanLs, and allows for Lhe dlscovery of posslbly
unexpecLed Lhemes.
llrsL, a conLenL analysls of 1639 1weeLs Lagged wlLh Lhe #memsLorm hashLag durlng Lhe helghL
of Lhe severe Aprll 2011 sLorm was conducLed. 1he ArchlvlsL ls a Wlndows deskLop appllcaLlon LhaL
archlves LweeLs based on Lhe search operaLor enLered and exporLs Lhem Lo an Lxcel flle for sysLemaLlc
analysls. Cnce a search ls begun for a speclflc search Lerm such as #memsLorm on ArchlvlsL, lL wlll
conLlnuously monlLor LhaL search Lerm over Llme, refreshlng every 10 mlnuLes. 1weeLs were collecLed
beLween 10:27 pm on Aprll 26 Lhrough 3:24pm on Aprll 27, when Lhe sLorms flnally began Lo dlsslpaLe.
All LweeLs were coded by Lhe same person.
11

1weeLs were lnlLlally coded as belng from [ournallsL or non-[ournallsL accounLs, based on 1wlLLer
blos and ln many cases, 1wlLLer usernames LhaL lnclude Lhe name Lhe news organlzaLlon. 1hen Lhey
were sorLed by regular LweeLs, reLweeLs (users can share oLhers' LweeLs wlLh Lhelr own followers,
deslgnaLed by an 81" ln fronL of Lhe 1weeL), and replles Lo oLher users (deslgnaLed by an [ slgn ln fronL
of a 1wlLLer user's username). llnally, Lhe LweeLs were caLegorlzed ln Lhe followlng manner: WlLnesslng,
or LweeLs lncludlng dlrecL observaLlons of weaLher condlLlons ln Lhe user's area, ofLen lncludlng phoLos
or vldeos, general news or lnformaLlon relaLed Lo Lhe sLorm (Lhls caLegory was Lhen subdlvlded by Lhe
source of Lhe lnformaLlon: Lelevlslon/radlo, newspapers, an lndependenL weaLher source such as
MemphlsWeaLher.neL or Lhe naLlonal WeaLher Servlce, or an undermlned source, Lhe number of
1weeLs conLalnlng a llnk Lo a webslLe or arLlcle wlLh addlLlonal lnformaLlon was also quanLlfled ln Lhls
caLegory), maklng a [oke/uslng humor, expresslng fear or anoLher emoLlon such as belng fed up wlLh Lhe
near-consLanL severe weaLher, asklng a quesLlon of oLher users/crowdsourclng for lnformaLlon, and
oLher. AddlLlonal unexpecLed caLegorles LhaL emerged durlng Lhe analysls were 1weeLs pralslng
[ournallsLs and Lelevlslon meLeorologlsLs for Lhelr efforLs Lo lnform Lhe publlc durlng Lhe sLorm, and
LweeLs relaLed Lo Lhe use of 1wlLLer or Lhe hashLag, whlch lncluded a number of 1weeLs dlscusslng Lhe
conLroversy LhaL ensued when Lhe local lox afflllaLe aLLempLed Lo promoLe Lhe #foxsLorm hashLag,
upseLLlng some users who felL LhaL brandlng Lhe sLorm Lo a speclflc sLaLlon was ln vlolaLlon of 1wlLLer's
communlLy splrlL. 1he codebook can be found ln Appendlx A.
1he second phase of Lhe sLudy lnvolved nlne ln-depLh lnLervlews conducLed prlmarlly face Lo
face, alLhough one lnLervlew was conducLed vla emall aL Lhe requesL of Lhe lnLervlewee, whose schedule
dld noL permlL a slL-down lnLervlew.
lnLervlewees were selecLed on Lhe basls of Lhelr prollflc use of Lhe hashLag or Lhelr role as local
soclal medla lnfluencers who helped lnlLlally spread Lhe concepL of uslng Lhe hashLag durlng severe
12

weaLher. 1o ldenLlfy prollflc 1weeLers, on Aprll 26, 2011, Lhe flrsL nlghL of whaL ended up belng a Lwo-
day serles of sLorms, a llsL of Lhe Lop 1weeLers by number of 1weeLs senL uslng Lhe hashLag was
complled, also uslng Lhe ArchlvlsL program. lnLervlews were requesLed from Lhe Lop flve, one of Lhem
was unavallable. lnLervlewees also lncluded Lhe person wldely credlLed wlLh lnlLlally comlng up wlLh Lhe
hashLag, a local enLrepreneur who spoke abouL lL aL lgnlLe Memphls ln lebruary 2011, a few weeks
before Lhe ma[or Aprll sLorms. lgnlLe ls an evenL held ln over 100 clLles feaLurlng shorL, flve-mlnuLe
speeches. lnLervlewees also lncluded some of Lhe mosL prollflc [ournallsLlc hashLag users from boLh
prlnL and broadcasL medla and one lndependenL meLeorologlsL who runs a local weaLher webslLe.
lnLervlewees were also asked for recommendaLlons on people Lo lnLervlew who Lhey felL were
parLlcularly acLlve #memsLorm LweeLers ln order Lo furLher dlverslfy Lhe sample. lnLervlew quesLlons
can be found ln Appendlx 8.
1he Lhlrd elemenL of Lhe sLudy was an onllne survey. 1he survey llnk was dlsLrlbuLed on 1wlLLer
uslng Lhe hashLag. 1hls ensured LhaL noL only Lhe researchers' followers would see Lhe survey llnk, buL
also everyone who was followlng Lhe hashLag. 1he llnk was 1weeLed durlng a sLorm Lo lncrease Lhe
llkellhood LhaL oLhers would see lL, alLhough Lhe survey perlod dld noL colnclde wlLh any exLreme
weaLher evenLs such as a Lornado or oLher llfe-LhreaLenlng slLuaLlon. 1he Commerclal Appeal, Lhe
meLropollLan dally newspaper, also 1weeLed a llnk Lo Lhe survey, furLher lncreaslng lLs reach, as dld Lhe
lndependenL local meLeorologlsL, who has over 4,000 followers on 1wlLLer, and Lhe local lox
meLeorologlsL. 1he researcher also senL a llnk Lo Lhe survey dlrecLly Lo as several who were observed Lo
be heavy hashLag users Lo furLher encourage Lhelr parLlclpaLlon.
1he survey lncluded several open-ended, long answer quesLlons Lo beLLer gauge a relaLlvely new
phenomenon, Lo encourage a rlcher, more ln-depLh response and avold pre-lmposlng caLegorles LhaL
may noL accuraLely capLure parLlclpanLs' experlences. arLlclpanLs were asked Lo descrlbe Lhe ways ln
13

whlch Lhey used Lhe hashLag, how Lhey lnlLlally found ouL abouL Lhe hashLag, whaL Lhe advanLages and
dlsadvanLages of 1wlLLer are for a breaklng news evenL llke a sLorm, whaL Lhey feel Lhe role of [ournallsLs
should be ln uslng Lhe hashLag, and lf and how Lhey feel Lhe hashLag may creaLe or enhance a sense of
communlLy and connecLlon among local resldenLs. 8aslc demographlc daLa lncludlng gender, race and
age and educaLlonal aLLalnmenL was also collecLed. A LoLal of 34 surveys were compleLed and reLurned.
8ecause Lhe survey Lechnlque lnvolved a snowball sample, a response raLe cannoL be calculaLed. 1he
survey lnsLrumenL can be found ln Appendlx C.
llnally, Lhe sLudy had parLlclpanL observaLlon componenL. 1he auLhor Look deLalled fleld noLes
whlle acLlvely parLlclpaLlng ln uslng Lhe hashLag durlng Lhe sLorm and curaLlng some of Lhe besL
lnformaLlon from 1wlLLer and oLher soclal medla sources such as lllckr or ?ou1ube uslng Lhe SLorlfy Lool.
lor many hours durlng Lhe sLorm, Lhe researcher conLlnuously monlLored Lhe hashLag, occaslonally
conLrlbuLed Lo lL by sharlng dlrecL observaLlons abouL nelghborhood weaLher condlLlons, and selecLed
some of Lhe mosL valuable or lnLeresLlng 1weeLs for Lhe SLorlfy collecLlon, a Llme-lnLenslve and
lmmerslve process. As ln all sLudles lnvolvlng parLlclpanL observaLlon, belng an acLlve parL of Lhe
phenomena of lnLeresL can lnduce blas, buL havlng an lnslder" sLaLus can also lncrease valldlLy, ?ln
(2003) wroLe LhaL one of Lhe skllls of a good researcher lnvolves belng able Lo brlng experL knowledge Lo
bear on Lhe case. 8elng an acLlve parLlclpanL allows Lhe researcher Lo beLLer undersLand Lhe nuances of
user moLlvaLlons, and asslsLed ln shaplng Lhe lnLervlew and survey quesLlons as well as Lhe codebook.
:#%0<&%
Analysls of Lhe daLa collecLed uLlllzlng all four meLhodologles revealed Lhe followlng answers Lo
Lhe research quesLlons.
123 4," *#* $5% 5(/5$(6 7,0% #)$, -/% #) 8%095#/ (/ ( "(: ,; &%9,&$#)6 ,) $5% /$,&0<
14

1he #memsLorm hashLag was flrsL suggesLed by local enLrepreneur Aaron raLher, who urged
Memphlans Lo adopL lL durlng a flve-mlnuLe speech aL Lhe evenL lgnlLe Memphls ln lebruary 2011.
raLher sald LhaL he goL Lhe ldea whlle drlvlng home durlng an unusually slgnlflcanL snowfall ln
Memphls. 1he radlo wasn'L glvlng hlm enough locallzed lnformaLlon, and, lncreaslngly frusLraLed, he
sald, l was Lhlnklng man, lf we had a hashLag on 1wlLLer, l could flnd ouL where Lhe wrecks were, whlch
sLreeLs were open, whlch were closed, and lL would be a loL easler for me Lo geL home."
raLher Lold Lhe lgnlLe audlence LhaL Lhe hashLag would help Lo cenLrallze sLorm-relaLed
lnformaLlon, allowlng people Lo easlly Lrack unfoldlng evenLs from a slngle source, and would enable
more people Lo add Lo Lhe sLory wlLh eyes and ears on Lhe ground.
1he Llmlng was lmpeccable, as [usL a day afLer Lhe lgnlLe evenL, Memphls was hlL wlLh a sLorm, and
Lhe hashLag flrsL came lnLo publlc use, as boLh lnLervlew daLa and parLlclpanL observaLlon reveal. 1he
owner of a local markeLlng flrm wlLh more Lhan 29,000 1wlLLer followers as of Lhls wrlLlng was ln Lhe
audlence aL lgnlLe and sLarLed uslng Lhe hashLag durlng Lhls sLorm, and several lnLervlewees noLed LhaL
her subsLanLlal followlng helped spread Lhe word qulckly. AnoLher early adopLer was an lndependenL
local meLeorologlsL who was Lralned aL Lhe naLlonal WeaLher Servlce and now operaLes a forecasLlng
webslLe. Cne lnLervlewee sald, lL really Look off when he embraced lL. Pe gave Lhe #memsLorm
hashLag auLhorlLy and leglLlmacy. lf lL was noL for [hlm], l Lhlnk Lhere was a rlsk lL could peLer ouL. 8uL
havlng an experL come ln and [oln Lhe conversaLlon gave lL legs." 1oward Lhe end of Lhls flrsL sLorm, Lwo
local Lelevlslon sLaLlons, W8LC-1v Channel 1hree and WMC-1v Channel 3, were observed beglnnlng Lo
use Lhe hashLag.
1hus by Llme of Lhe Lwo days of near-consLanL Lornado waLches and warnlngs on Aprll 26 and 27 of
2011, Lhe hashLag was already ln use by a lnfluenLlal group of Memphls 1wlLLer users, as measured by
follower counL, and was polsed Lo explode ln use.
13

1he ma[orlLy of survey respondenLs (16) sald LhaL Lhey found ouL abouL Lhe hashLag when Lhey
noLlced oLhers ln Lhelr feed uslng lL, showlng how a hashLag can easlly spread vlrally as more and more
people begln uslng lL, nlne speclflcally menLloned Lhe local lndependenL meLeorologlsL as one of Lhe flrsL
places Lhey had noLlced lL.
As noLed earller, on Aprll 26, Lhe meLeorologlsL aL Lhe lox afflllaLe, !oey Sullpeck, asked followers on
1wlLLer Lo Lag sLorm lnformaLlon wlLh #foxsLorm. Sullpeck laLer sald on 1wlLLer LhaL lL was noL hls
declslon and LhaL lL had acLually been LweeLed from hls accounL whlle he was on alr by anoLher
employee aL Lhe sLaLlon. 8rlLLany llLzpaLrlck, Lhen a graduaLe sLudenL aL Lhe unlverslLy of Memphls,
used Lhe SLorlfy soclal medla curaLlon Lool Lo collecL over 90 1weeLs, Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of whlch crlLlclzed
lox for lLs Lo aLLempL Lo brand Lhe sLorm when Lhe communlLy had already come LogeLher Lo esLabllsh a
common hashLag (reLrleved March 18, 2012 from hLLp://sLorlfy.com/brlLflLzpaLrlck/my-fox-memphls-
creaLes-soclal-medla-dlsasLer). lor example, 1wlLLer user 1hellre1racker2" wroLe of #foxsLorm: when
buslness brandlng collldes wlLh common sense." user 8rennanSomers" wroLe: lf u use #foxsLorm
you've clearly mlssed Lhe polnL of communlLy lnvolvemenL ln #memsLorm." A few, however, came Lo
Sullpeck's defense. 1hose supporLlng Sullpeck were less focused on Lhe merlLs of elLher hashLag and
more focused on chldlng oLher users agalnsL belng mean" ln Lhelr crlLlclsm of Lhe local meLeorologlsL or
sald Lhey dld noL care enough Lo make a fuss abouL lL. lollowlng Lhe conLroversy, lox sLopped
aLLempLlng Lo promoLe Lhe branded hashLag.
Lven Lhough Lhe collecLlon of 1weeLs for Lhe conLenL analysls began a few hours afLer Lhls
conLroversy erupLed, lL was sLlll reverberaLlng, and conLlnued Lo even a day laLer. lourLeen LweeLs, 16
reLweeLs, and 21 replles all menLloned Lhe #foxsLorm conLroversy, ln a slmllar veln Lo Lhose descrlbed
above. When Lhe survey was conducLed nearly a year laLer, four respondenLs sLlll remembered and
menLloned Lhe #foxsLorm conLroversy unprompLed, descrlblng lL as conLrary Lo Lhe communlLy splrlL of
16

#memsLorm. lor example, one survey respondenL wroLe, As seen ln Lhe case of Lhe #foxsLorm hashLag,
Lrylng Lo branch off for personal galn conLradlcLs Lhe purpose of havlng Lhe communlLy ln Lhe flrsL
place."
1=3 >5($ (&% /,0% ,; $5% -/%/ ? 6&($#;#7($#,)/ ,; !"#$$%& -/% *-&#)6 ( @&%(A#)6 )%"/ /#$-($#,) /-75 (/
B0%0/$,&0< >5($ 0,$#C($%/ $5% 9-@.#7 $, 9(&$#7#9($%<
noL surprlslngly, Lhe prlmary moLlvaLlon for uslng 1wlLLer durlng a severe weaLher slLuaLlon ls Lo
geL and share news, parLlcularly real-Llme, nelghborhood-speclflc lnformaLlon of Lhe klnd malnsLream
medla may have dlfflculLy provldlng aL scale, parLlcularly ln a ma[or meLropollLan area spread over a
large geographlc area. CLher popular uses of 1wlLLer documenLed ln oLher research, such as
enLerLalnmenL or passlng Llme (!ohnson and ?ang, 2009), fade ln lmporLance when acLlonable
lnformaLlon abouL whaL Lo expecL and prepare for becomes of uLmosL lmporLance ln a LhreaLenlng
weaLher slLuaLlon. Secondary moLlvaLlons for uslng Lhe #memsLorm hashLag lncluded connecLlng wlLh
oLhers and bulldlng a sense of camaraderle or communlLy onllne, whlch survey and lnLervlew
respondenLs sald helped Lo sooLhe fears durlng a dramaLlc evenL. 1o a lesser degree, uslng Lhe hashLag
dld offer some enLerLalnmenL for some folks who soughL ouL 1wlLLer Lo make, read or share [okes abouL
Lhe sLorm or lLs local Lelevlslon coverage. lourLh, some people used 1wlLLer Lo ask quesLlons and sollclL
speclflc klnds of lnformaLlon from oLhers. Lach of Lhese uses and graLlflcaLlons wlll now be explored ln
greaLer depLh.
D5(&#)6 ()* &%7%#C#)6 )%"/3 E#&%7$ ,@/%&C($#,)/ ()* 0,&% 6%)%&(. #);,&0($#,)
All four meLhodologlcal approaches conflrmed LhaL Lhe prlmary use of Lhe hashLag, was, as
expecLed durlng a breaklng news evenL, sharlng and recelvlng news and lnformaLlon. ConLenL analysls of
#memsLorm 1weeLs revealed Lhe popularlLy of an acLlvlLy once prlmarlly reserved for [ournallsLs:
Sharlng dlrecL observaLlons abouL whaL ls golng on ln a parLlcular area. 1he ma[orlLy of all 1weeLs
analyzed, 239, lncluded lnformaLlon abouL whaL hashLag users were wlLnesslng, lncludlng Lhlngs llke raln
17

or hall condlLlons or fallen Lrees ln speclflcally-menLloned nelghborhoods or zlp codes, many users
lncluded a phoLo or ln some cases, a vldeo. lorLy-flve reLweeLs and nlne replles Lo oLher users also
conLalned dlrecL observaLlons, ln a handful of cases, 1wlLLer users cc'd [ournallsLs uslng Lhelr usernames
when offerlng Lhls klnd of lnformaLlon, as Lhough Lo alerL Lhem of poLenLlally useful lnformaLlon for Lhelr
news reporLs. ln Lhe survey, 13 respondenLs speclflcally menLloned Lhe uLlllLy of geo-LargeLed
lnformaLlon LhaL ls more speclflc Lhan LhaL generally avallable on weaLher broadcasLs, such as a flooded
sLreeL lmpedlng Lravel ln Lhelr area. lor example, one wroLe: l use lL Lo flnd ouL whaL's golng on ln my
nelghborhood, speclflcally. l share lnformaLlon abouL dlrecL observaLlons - how hard lL's ralnlng,
wheLher slrens are golng off, wlnd lnLenslLy, eLc." AnoLher survey parLlclpanL wroLe: ln Lhe modern age
when Lhe medla ls noL always Lhere for an evenL, lL ls average clLlzens LhaL ofLen sLep ln Lo do Lhe facL-
flndlng and reporLlng. 8elng Lhere ls Lhe key, and lf accuraLe, veLLed and/or seemlngly credlble
lnformaLlon can be shared ln a form llke 1wlLLer, lL could be a llfe-savlng measure." Several lnLervlew
parLlclpanLs also noLed LhaL slnce mosL sLorms move from wesL Lo easL Lhrough Lhe meLropollLan area,
geLLlng word of condlLlons Lo Lhe wesL ls ofLen a good predlcLor of whaL ls llkely Lo come Lo Lhe also
heavlly-populaLed easLern suburbs. AnoLher common Lheme was Lhe ablllLy Lo geL speclflc lnformaLlon
from local uLlllLy MLCW on power ouLages as one unlque elemenL of 1wlLLer as opposed Lo oLher
lnformaLlon sources, and Lhey pralsed Lhe power provlder for embraclng Lhls new medla form and ofLen
uslng lL Lo answer speclflc quesLlons.
PashLag users also shared and recelved more general news and lnformaLlon, such as warnlngs
and waLches or broader reporLs of especlally slgnlflcanL areas of damage ln Lhe clLy, such floodlng aL a
nearby naval base ln MllllngLon. Much of Lhls klnd of general lnformaLlon orlglnaLed from LradlLlonal
medla sources, ofLen ln Lhe form of reLweeLs. 1he ma[orlLy of all reLweeLs examlned, 317, shared Lhls
klnd of general news and lnformaLlon, 180 of Lhose reLweeLs were of local Lelevlslon meLeorologlsLs or
reporLers, whlch far ouLpaced newspapers, wlLh [usL 21 reLweeLs. lL ls clear LhaL Lhe local lndependenL
18

meLeorologlsL runnlng Lhe slLe MemphlsWeaLher.neL has also garnered Lhe LrusL of 1wlLLer users, as he
was reLweeLed 73 Llmes ln Lhe sample. 1o a lesser degree, 1wlLLer users also shared whaL Lhey were
vlewlng on Lelevlslon or readlng on newspaper webslLes wlLh Lhelr followers, wlLh 46 1weeLs of Lhls
naLure, [usL 10 of Lhose lncluded a llnk Lo an arLlcle or oLher conLenL produced by LradlLlonal medla
sources. lnLeresLlngly, ln a comparlson of reLweeLs, LradlLlonal medla sources were subsLanLlally more
llkely Lhan Lhe dlrecL observaLlons of oLher 1wlLLers Lo be shared wlLh oLhers.
Survey and lnLervlew parLlclpanLs ldenLlfled a number of speclflc reasons why 1wlLLer was an
excellenL news and lnformaLlon source ln a breaklng news evenL. rlmary among Lhese was lLs real-Llme
naLure, one lnLervlewee exempllfled commenLs by oLhers when she sald she regularly noLlced naLlonal
WeaLher Servlce warnlngs belng announced more qulckly on her 1wlLLer feed Lhan on Lhe Lelevlslon. As
one survey parLlclpanL wroLe, Lhe advanLage of 1wlLLer ls Lhe speed LhaL one can obLaln lnformaLlon.
lL's succlncL and lmmedlaLe LhaL can be uLlllzed by boLh medla professlonals and Lhose ln Lhe communlLy
wlLh Lhe same purpose." Several survey and lnLervlew parLlclpanLs also noLed LhaL because lL can be
easlly used on a moblle phone, 1wlLLer can be a more convenlenL source of lnformaLlon Lhan Lhe
Lelevlslon, lL can be Laken on Lhe go or lnLo Lhe baLhroom or closeL ln Lhe evenL people are forced Lo
seek shelLer durlng a Lornado warnlng. lL ls also ofLen aL leasL Lemporarlly useful ln Lhe evenL of a power
ouLage, assumlng cell phone baLLerles have been charged, several people noLed.
F,))%7$#)6 "#$5 ,$5%&/
1he secondary moLlvaLlon for uslng 1wlLLer durlng Lhe sLorm was connecLlng wlLh oLhers and
bulldlng a sense of camaraderle. ln lnLervlews and ln Lhe survey, respondenLs sald LhaL conLrlbuLlng Lo
Lhe greaLer good by sharlng and recelvlng lnformaLlon from oLhers gave Lhem a sense of belng
connecLed Lo oLhers ln Memphls, and several sald Lhey felL a sense of safeLy or rellef when
commlseraLlng wlLh oLhers by dlscusslng Lhelr fears or oLher emoLlons durlng severe weaLher on
19

1wlLLer. When asked whaL Lhe greaLesL advanLage of uslng Lhe hashLag ls, one person wroLe ln Lhe
survey: l feel llke l have company, a communlLy, and we are all golng Lhrough someLhlng LogeLher."
AnoLher wroLe: lL glves a sense of comforL Lo be able Lo Lalk Lo oLher people, because l am so afrald of
Lornados." A Lhlrd sald: 1wlLLer has a huge advanLage over LradlLlonal sources because lL creaLes more
of a communlLy. Lveryone ls looklng ouL for everyone else durlng Lhese severe weaLher evenLs." Cn
1wlLLer lLself, user lllkedeslgn" wroLe #memsLorm has allowed me Lo dlscover some new peeps on
LwlLLer."
AfLer sharlng dlrecL observaLlons of whaL ls golng on ln Lhelr area, Lhe second largesL caLegory of
LweeLs were Lhe 212 expresslng some klnd of emoLlon, such as fear or frusLraLlon, Lhe laLLer becomlng
parLlcularly prevalenL afLer many hours of sLorms and slrens golng off nearly conLlnuously. AlLhough
Lhese 1weeLs could be characLerlzed as slmply self-expresslve ln naLure, a close readlng ofLen suggesLed
LhaL users were also sharlng Lhelr feellngs as a way of commlseraLlng wlLh oLhers. Cne user
accompanled Lhls klnd of 1weeL wlLh llnks Lo songs menLlonlng raln or sLorms, whlch she began
characLerlzlng as a klnd of #memsLorm soundLrack. 1weeLs expresslng emoLlon were also reLweeLed 67
Llmes. erhaps noL surprlslngly, Lhls klnd of 1weeL was Lhe largesL caLegory of all replles, wlLh 38. eople
Lalklng dlrecLly Lo oLher 1wlLLer users Lhus were prlmarlly uslng lL for muLual reassurance. Many replles
expressed concern for oLhers or echoed concerns of oLhers. lor example, user [ullemango" wroLe Lo
user bunnyrama:" ?ou sLay safe. l know Lhey are helpful, buL hearlng Lhe slrens always makes me
panlc."
1wlLLer also ls conduclve Lo formlng LlghL-knlL sub-communlLles of people wlLh slmllar lnLeresLs.
Cne lnLervlewee descrlbed hlmself as a weaLher enLhuslasL and sLorm chaser who found 1wlLLer useful
for connecLlng wlLh oLhers wlLh slmllar passlons he mlghL noL oLherwlse have found, Lhe searchable
20

naLure of Loplcal hashLags llke #memsLorm makes lL easler Lo locaLe people prevlously unknown Lo you
personally.
4(C#)6 ;-)G$%..#)6 +,A%/
1he Lhlrd mosL popular moLlvaLlon for uslng 1wlLLer durlng Lhe sLorm sLands ln conLrasL Lo Lhe
oLhers. Whlle Lelllng [okes was less lmporLanL Lhan sharlng lnformaLlon or connecLlng wlLh oLhers, some
hashLag users were neverLheless able Lo flnd humor ln Lhe slLuaLlon Lo amuse Lhemselves and Lhelr
followers. As one person wroLe ln Lhe survey: l llked Lhe humor lnvolved wlLh an oLherwlse sLressful or
occaslonally, unevenLful, slLuaLlon." 1he Lhlrd largesL number of 1weeLs analyzed were [okes, wlLh 64
1weeLs, [okes were reLweeLed 32 Llmes and were lncluded ln 16 replles. lor example, one LweeL by
[segmacC sald uave 8rown [local Lelevlslon meLeorologlsL] [usL sald Lhls could lasL 13 hours. 8uL l
LhoughL you had Lo conLacL a uocLor lf lL lasLer longer Lhan 4 hours," Lhls was reLweeLed by several
oLhers. Some [oked abouL a sLorm-relaLed drlnklng game, one 1wlLLer user creaLed a parody accounL
wlLh Lhe username memsLorm" LhaL humorously personlfled Lhe sLorm and was ofLen reLweeLed. Local
meLeorologlsLs lnLervlewed, however, were less amused, many felL LhaL Lhese [oklng 1weeLs lacked
relevance, represenLed Lhe wrong" way Lo use 1wlLLer and overloaded Lhe sysLem, maklng lL harder Lo
flnd useful and lnformaLlve LweeLs durlng a sLorm.
H$5%&3 I/A#)6 J-%/$#,)/K 9&(#/#)6 +,-&)(.#/$/K *#/7-//#)6 !"#$$%& #$/%.;
llnally, a few addlLlonal lesser moLlvaLlons for uslng Lhe hashLags were revealed ln Lhe daLa. Some
users Lagged LweeLs wlLh #memsLorm ln order Lo ask for speclflc lnformaLlon from oLhers, a form of
crowdsourclng. lor example, 1wlLLer user amphoLosLudlo" wroLe anyone know abouL Sam Cooper
[ma[or local road] Lhls mornlng?" Slmllarly, 1wlLLer user Pueys8esLauranL" wroLe: We have people
concerned abouL Pernando. Anyone know ls Pernando ls golng Lo be ln any Lrouble aL all?" When a local
anlmal shelLer was flooded, several people posLed or reLweeLed a requesL for Lemporary help for Lhe
21

peLs. ln all, 33 of all analyzed LweeLs asked a quesLlon or requesLed asslsLance, 20 were reLweeLed and
[usL Lhree replles asked a quesLlon of one speclflc user. ln Lhe survey, one person wroLe: l also asked for
help vla 1wlLLer- our home was desLroyed by a falllng Lree and we had no power. We needed a peL-
frlendly place Lo sLay. l goL answers vla LwlLLer on my phone."
llnally, several #memsLorm hashLag users dlscussed 1wlLLer and/or Lhe use of Lhe hashLag lLself,
noLlng lLs ublqulLy or uLlllLy or observlng LhaL lL or local meLeorologlsL uave 8rown was Lrendlng, Lhls
comprlsed 23 LweeLs, 18 reLweeLs and 4 replles. nlne LweeLs, Lhree reLweeLs and 12 replles offered
pralse for local meLeorologlsLs for Lhelr non-sLop coverage.
LM 4," #/ $5#/ )%" /:/$%0 ,; N(0@#%)$ +,-&)(.#/0O (;;%7$#)6 .,7(. +,-&)(.#/0< >5($ A#)*/ ,; ,)6,#)6
&,.% 7() +,-&)(.#/$/ 9.(: #) $5#/ #)7&%(/#)6.: 9(&$#7#9($,&:K (."(:/P,) )%"/ %)C#&,)0%)$<
1hls sLudy examlned whaL boLh [ournallsLs and non-[ournallsLs see as Lhe role of local medla
when lL comes Lo a communlLy-drlven breaklng news reporLlng Lool llke Lhe hashLag #memsLorm. 8oLh
seemed Lo agree LhaL Lhe key ongolng funcLlon of [ournallsm ln a soclally neLworked world ls Lo noL only
Lo engage ln reporLlng buL also Lo help verlfy, ampllfy, and curaLe by selecLlng some of Lhe besL
lnformaLlon for wlder dlssemlnaLlon. Powever, aL leasL ln Aprll 2011, [ournallsLs were prlmarlly uslng
1wlLLer and Lhe #memsLorm hashLag as [usL anoLher dlsLrlbuLlon channel llke any oLher.
Q,-&)(.#/$/
ConLenL analysls of 1weeLs durlng Lhe Aprll 2011 sLorms seem Lo reveal LhaL mosL [ournallsLs
LhaL had embraced Lhe hashLag aL LhaL Llme were sLlll prlmarlly focused on a one-way, broadcasL model.
Whlle Lhls makes sense durlng a breaklng news evenL when mosL [ournallsLs may be mosL focused on
geLLlng lnformaLlon relevanL Lo safeLy ouL qulckly, few news ouLleLs appeared Lo have broughL
addlLlonal sLaffers Lo Lhe Lask of engaglng, helplng Lo verlfylng oLhers' posLs or curaLlng . 1he vasL
ma[orlLy (92 percenL) of all LweeLs senL from [ournallsLs - boLh lndlvldual and organlzaLlonal accounLs -
22

broadcasLed lnformaLlon abouL Lhe sLorm Lo followers, prlmarlly waLches and warnlngs and oLher
meLeorologlcal lnformaLlon, and occaslonally dlrecL, ground-level reporLs on whaL was golng on ln Lhe
area. 1here were 280 1weeLs from [ournallsLs of Lhls naLure, nearly 70 of Lhose came from an
lndependenL local meLeorologlsL runnlng hls own webslLe. !usL 8 LweeLs durlng Lhe sLudy perlod
engaged ln crowdsourclng or asklng vlewers Lo conLrlbuLe lnformaLlon. !ournallsLs engaged ln relaLlvely
llLLle reLweeLlng, wlLh [usL 38 ln Lhe sample, and 31 of Lhose were of oLher [ournallsLs, ofLen Lhose
worklng aL Lhe same sLaLlon. 8roadcasLers were overwhelmlngly represenLed here, prlmarlly Lelevlslon
buL also one local radlo sLaLlon, 600 W8LC-AM. 1he Commerclal Appeal newspaper and a local suburban
paper LweeLed as well buL Lo a much lesser degree.
Powever, lnLervlews wlLh local broadcasL meLeorologlsLs showed LhaL Lhlnklng was beglnnlng Lo
evolve over Llme wlLh a greaLer emphasls on engagemenL, boLh also menLloned Lhe lmporLance of
bulldlng LrusL wlLh followers over Llme, ln parL by havlng a frlendly, poslLlve and accesslble onllne
personallLy on slLes llke 1wlLLer. Cne sald,
l know LhaL by dolng Lhls, l am bulldlng bellevers and followers. 1hey feel llke l am a safe source
of lnformaLlon, Lhey are geLLlng Lo know me. My flrsL prlorlLy ls safeLy, buL l'm also bulldlng Lhe
brand. l Lhlnk lL ls cruclal Lo show parL of your personallLy. lL's all abouL who you feel
comforLable wlLh. Lven when we have good weaLher, l can be myself, help people geL Lo know
me beLLer.
AnoLher local Lelevlslon meLeorologlsL lnLervlewed sald LhaL more recenLly, people have begun
LweeLlng hlm Lhelr address and he responds afLer looklng aL Lhe radar, glvlng Lhem LargeLed lnformaLlon
on whaL Lo expecL aL Lhelr locaLlon. Powever, mosL quesLlons are usually asked speclflcally of hlm uslng
a [reply message and do noL uLlllze Lhe hashLag. lndeed, Lhls meLeorologlsL sald he dld noL flnd much
use for Lhe hashLag aL all, argulng LhaL mosL of hls followers are elLher unaware of Lhe hashLag or noL
lnLeresLed ln searchlng for lL or uslng lL, and lnsLead are [usL looklng aL Lhelr regular feed of people Lhey
follow for lnformaLlon. Pe also noLed LhaL whlle he was on alr, he had made arrangemenLs wlLh anoLher
sLaffer aL Lhe Lelevlslon sLaLlon Lo keep up Lhe flow of LweeLs uslng hls accounL, Lhese LweeLs were
23

aLLrlbuLed by appendlng Lhe oLher sLaffer's lnlLlals. l can'L correlaLe 1wlLLer wlLh raLlngs yeL, buL from
my polnL of vlew, l can geL lnformaLlon Lo people LhaL wanL lL. lL has [usL opened up Lhls dramaLlc
dlalogue. lL's [usL remarkable. 1hls ls a new fronLler." AnoLher local Lelevlslon meLeorologlsL sald LhaL
answerlng vlewer quesLlons from lacebook or 1wlLLer on alr offered self-promoLlon and sLaLlon-
promoLlon opporLunlLles.
lL was Lhe lndependenL local meLeorologlsL who runs hls own webslLe, however, who was Lhe mosL
focused on engagemenL of Lhose lnLervlewed, wlLhouL a long-esLabllshed news organlzaLlon brand
behlnd hlm, he sald LhaL he found lL crlLlcal Lo uLlllze soclal medla Lo bulld credlblllLy and ulLlmaLely
credlLed lL wlLh belng a slgnlflcanL Lrafflc drlver Lo hls webslLe. Pe sald LhaL durlng a sLorm, he probably
spends approxlmaLely 80 percenL of Lhe Llme broadcasLlng lnformaLlon on 1wlLLer uslng Lhe hashLag,
and abouL 20 percenL lnLeracLlng, when Lhlngs slow down, he swlLches Lo a 60/40 raLlo. ln hls vlew,
bulldlng relaLlonshlps Lhrough conversaLlon and answerlng people's quesLlons on 1wlLLer ls Lhe besL way
Lo develop credlblllLy and esLabllsh hlmself as an experL. l reallzed Lhere was a real posslblllLy Lo Lake
Lhls lnformaLlon and make lL Lwo-way," he sald.
AlLhough [ournallsLs dld noL appear Lo be Laklng a loL of advanLage of Lhe crowdsourclng poLenLlal of
Lhe hashLag beyond some general calls Lo send Lhem sLorm-relaLed phoLos for use on Lhe web or on alr,
local meLeorologlsLs dld noLe Lhe advanLage of belng able Lo connecL wlLh a communlLy of oLher experLs
on 1wlLLer. ln many cases, havlng dlglLal conLacL wlLh oLher professlonals Lo Lhe wesL ls valuable ln an
easL-movlng sLorm. Cne also noLed LhaL 1wlLLer offers a rlch addlLlonal layer of on-Lhe-ground
lnformaLlon LhaL weaLher reporLlng sLaLlons cannoL loglsLlcally provlde.
9'13B'0(1.<-%&%
When asked abouL Lhe role of [ournallsLs ln uLlllzlng a hashLag llke #memsLorm ln a breaklng
local weaLher evenL, boLh lnLervlewees and survey respondenLs suggesLed Lhe prlmary role ls Lwofold:
24

helplng Lo verlfy lnformaLlon ln a fasL-movlng slLuaLlon, and engaglng Lhe audlence Lhrough Lwo-way
communlcaLlon. Powever, a few people dld also see 1wlLLer as more of a LradlLlonal dlsLrlbuLlon
channel Lo complemenL exlsLlng ones, such as one survey respondenL, who wroLe [ournallsLs should
[usL keep glvlng updaLes on [1wlLLer.]."
ln a commenL echoed by several oLhers, one survey respondenL suggesLed LhaL [ournallsLs
needed Lo do a beLLer [ob of embraclng Lhe Lwo-way naLure of Lhe medlum Lo bulld a greaLer sense of
communlLy and credlblllLy. 1he respondenL wroLe: !ournallsLs can parLlclpaLe by lnLeracLlng. lf Lhey
aren'L lnLeracLlng and [usL dlshlng ouL 140-characLer blLes of news, Lhe advanLage ls gone and Lhe vlewer
mlghL as well be readlng a news app or waLchlng Lhe weaLherman fllp hls wlg. 1he Lalkback facLor ls
lnvaluable."
Cne lnLervlewee, a heavy 1wlLLer user who runs a local markeLlng flrm, sald ln a commenL also
echoed by oLhers,
1he 1v sLaLlons ln new ?ork are now saylng, 1weeL us a quesLlon, and we wlll ask lL on alr. l've
been Lelllng medla here, you know, [usL use 1wlLLer Lo ask quesLlons and use 1wlLLer Lo geL
lnformaLlon you need. Clearly [[ournallsLs] are needed. Clearly Lhelr [obs are noL golng away.
Clearly Lhey have Lhe responslblllLy Lo reporL non-blased, facLual, checked-ouL, verlfled
lnformaLlon, buL LhaL doesn'L mean Lhey have Lo break [news] all Lhe Llme. 1helr [ob has Lo be,
we may noL be flrsL all Lhe Llme, buL we have Lo be rlghL. Somebody make break LhaL WhlLney
PousLon dled, unconflrmed, because Lhey may know lL somehow, buL LhaL's okay, Lhe medla has
Lo be okay wlLh LhaL, Lhey have Lo be, we are Lrylng Lo verlfy.
AnoLher lnLervlewee remembered a Llme when an unusual, Lornado-llke cloud moved across Lhe
Mlsslsslppl 8lver lnLo downLown Memphls, 1wlLLer exploded wlLh people uslng Lhe hashLag Lo posL
phoLos and commenL on whaL looked llke a poLenLlally omlnous slLuaLlon. 1he lndependenL local
meLeorologlsL was able Lo qulckly assess from Lhe radar LhaL Lhe cloud was noL, ln facL, a Lornado, and
offer some reassurance and dlsconflrmaLlon on 1wlLLer, hlghllghLlng Lhe role esLabllshed members of
Lhe local medla ecosysLem can play, even lndependenL, non-LradlLlonal ones.
23

lndeed, when asked lf Lhere were any dlsadvanLages of 1wlLLer, Lhe overwhelmlngly ma[orlLy of
lnLervlew and survey respondenLs menLloned Lhe posslblllLy of mlslnformaLlon, agaln suggesLlng LhaL
[ournallsLs have a role Lo play ln verlfylng facLs and polnLlng ouL posslble lnaccuracles. Powever, several
people sald Lhey felL LhaL mosL 1wlLLer users were generally savvy abouL ferreLlng ouL rumors. Cne local
Lelevlslon meLeorologlsL sald LhaL whlle [ournallsLs play a key role ln checklng ouL lnformaLlon before
spreadlng lL, oLhers do Lhls as well:
l'm Lhe one LhaL goes and searches lL up, flnds Lhe answer, and Lhen plugs Lhe answer lnLo Lhe
equaLlon. 8uL l Lhlnk people on 1wlLLer.Lhey are golng Lo lnvesLlgaLe lL flrsL before [reLweeLlng],
because your name ls on Lhe llne, lf l reLweeL someLhlng, Lhey are looklng aL you golng, you
moron, why dld you reLweeL LhaL lf lL has no merlL Lo lL? So l Lhlnk Lhe savvy 1wlLLeraLl are able
Lo [usLlfy Lhlngs.
And lndeed, ln some cases non-[ournallsLs also have a role ln debunklng weaLher-relaLed
rumors. When Memphls experlenced ma[or floodlng ln May of 2011, a vague LweeL by Lwo nurses LhaL
suggesLed LhaL MeLhodlsL PosplLal was floodlng spread rapldly on 1wlLLer, one lnLervlewee recounLed.
ln facL, Lhe nearby Wolf 8lver was overrunnlng lLs banks buL Lhe hosplLal lLself was flne, Lhe LweeL was
probably noL lnLenLlonally mlsleadlng buL slmply lmpreclsely phrased, he sald. 1he lnLervlewee was
conLacLed by somebody who works ln publlc relaLlons aL MeLhodlsL who knew hlm as an avld 1wlLLer
user, he conLacLed anoLher local 1wlLLer user wlLh a large number of followers and local lnfluence and
LogeLher, Lhey were abouL Lo shuL down Lhe rumor by leLLlng oLhers know Lhe hosplLal was flne, he sald.
4-%@0%%-'1
1hrough a mulLl-faceLed examlnaLlon of how and why communlLy members and [ournallsLs
uLlllze Lhe #memsLorm hashLag as a breaklng news reporLlng Lool durlng severe weaLher, Lhls sLudy
conflrms Lhe rlslng lmporLance of 1wlLLer as a real-Llme news and lnformaLlon source and, more broadly,
on sheds llghL on how people are moLlvaLed Lo use soclal neLworks Lo parLlclpaLe ln Lhe news process by
conLrlbuLlng Lhelr own accounLs of whaL ls belng observed on Lhe ground. 1hls sLudy Lhus provldes
furLher groundlng for a concepL Permlda (2010) descrlbes as amblenL [ournallsm:" news Loday ls all
26

around us, buL we are noL merely passlve reclplenLs, Lhrough slLes llke 1wlLLer, clLlzens are produclng
small amounLs of conLenL LhaL, Laken LogeLher, are a form of [ournallsm LhaL helps Lhe communlLy
malnLaln awareness of lmporLanL developmenLs. arLlclpanLs ln Lhls sLudy were hlghly moLlvaLed Lo
parLlclpaLe ln acLlvlLles once prlmarlly reserved for reporLers: uocumenLlng and broadcasLlng
newsworLhy lnformaLlon. 1he ma[orlLy of all LweeLs analyzed ln Lhe sample lncluded dlrecL observaLlons,
ofLen accompanled by phoLos or occaslonally vldeos, of everyLhlng from downed Lrees blocklng roads Lo
lnLense wlnds and oLher Lhlngs LhaL resldenLs wlLnessed.
ln lnLervlews and Lhe survey, sLudy parLlclpanLs also noLed Lhe uLlllLy of geLLlng Lhls lmmedlaLe,
geo-LargeLed lnformaLlon from fellow communlLy members abouL whaL Lhey could expecL when Lhe
sLorms hlL Lhelr nelghborhoods, Lhe klnd of lnformaLlon Lelevlslon broadcasLs cannoL provlde aL scale ln
a large meLropollLan area. Several parLlclpanLs sald Lhey felL Lhey could LrusL Lhelr nelghbors as much or
more as [ournallsLs, for example, one lnLervlewee sald, We are noL Lralned meLeorologlsLs. 8uL lL had
goLLen Lo Lhe polnL where Lhe LradlLlonal medla ls drlven Lo be sensaLlonal. lf you have a nelghbor or a
frlend somewhere upsLorm who ls level-headed, and you know Lhem, lf Lhey say, we have quarLer-lnch
hall, you know lL really ls." As Slnger eL. al. (2012) noLed ln Lhelr book abouL parLlclpaLory [ournallsm, Lhe
audlence can now be characLerlzed as acLlve reclplenLs" (178) of news, engaged noL only ln consumlng
news buL also ln acLlvely conLrlbuLlng Lo lL and communlcaLlng wlLh one anoLher.
8esulLs conflrmed LhaL 1wlLLer users also use Lhe hashLag as a source for lmmedlaLe lnformaLlon
from more LradlLlonal sources of news, parLlcularly local meLeorologlsLs. 1he largesL number of reLweeLs
ln Lhe sample were of lnformaLlon, such as waLches and warnlngs, provlded by local news organlzaLlons.
1wlLLer also provldes opporLunlLles for new medla players Lo esLabllsh Lhemselves as sub[ecL-maLLer
experLs, a local meLeorologlsL runnlng an lndependenL webslLe was reLweeLed approxlmaLely 73 Llmes,
second only Lo local Lelevlslon [ournallsLs, and was frequenLly menLloned ln lnLervlews as belng an
27

auLhorlLaLlve source of lnformaLlon on 1wlLLer, ln an lnLervlew, Lhe local meLeorologlsL credlLed hls
acLlve use 1wlLLer as well as lacebook ln esLabllshlng hls credlblllLy ln Lhe communlLy and drlvlng Lrafflc
back Lo hls slLe.
lnLerLwlned wlLh Lhls deslre Lo share one's observaLlons for Lhe good of Lhe communlLy was a
feellng of connecLlon #memsLorm hashLag users sald Lhey felL durlng Lhe sLorm. 1hls sLudy also reveals
how 1wlLLer and parLlcularly Lhe use of a common, searchable hashLag can fulflll noL only Lhe need for
lnformaLlon buL need for connecLlon wlLh oLhers (1horson and uuffy, 2006), whlch Lhe sLudy showed ls
helghLened durlng a poLenLlally LhreaLenlng slLuaLlon ln whlch people are seeklng comforL and
reassurance. As boyd, Colder and LoLan (2010) found, 1wlLLer users are engaged ln a dlsLrlbuLed
conversaLlon wlLh each oLher, even Lhe acL of reLweeLlng wlLhouL commenL lnvlLes oLhers lnLo Lhe
conversaLlon. Survey and lnLervlew respondenLs sald LhaL whlle clearly noL everybody ln Memphls was
on 1wlLLer, Lhey felL a sense of communlLy wlLh oLher hashLag users and en[oyed commlseraLlng wlLh
Lhem durlng Lhe sLorm. 1he second-hlghesL caLegory of LweeLs ln Lhe conLenL analysls lnvolved people
expresslng fear, exhausLlon, or anoLher emoLlon, ln addlLlon Lo Lhe graLlflcaLlon of slmply expresslng
Lhemselves, respondenLs lndlcaLed LhaL knowlng oLhers had slmllar feellngs and frusLraLlons offered a
sense of camaraderle. As one survey respondenL wroLe ln a commenL echoed by oLhers:
Sure. #memsLorm [usL llke oLher Memphls hashLags brlngs Lhe Memphls LwlLLer communlLy
LogeLher. We have someLhlng ln common, and lL allows us Lo feel connecLed. We share sLorles,
phoLos, happenlngs aL Lhe momenL. l Lhlnk lL brlngs a conLlnulLy Lo Lhe clLy we haven'L had
before. no maLLer whaL race, rellglon, economlc sLaLus - lf you're on LwlLLer, lL doesn'L maLLer.
All Lhe users see ls a name. lL's hard Lo [udge and dlsmlss someone based on LhaL alone.
AnoLher form of communlLy documenLed ln Lhe sLudy ls a subsLanLlal number of LweeLs and
reLweeLs uslng Lhe hashLag Lo Lell or share [okes. Pumor can help brlng people LogeLher ln an onllne
communlLy, alLhough noL all may appreclaLe lL. ln lnLervlews, local meLeorologlsLs ln parLlcular sald LhaL
ofLen Lhese LweeLs can clog Lhe sLream and prevenL more lmporLanL lnformaLlon from belng seen, as a
resulL, ln March 2012 Lhey suggesLed uslng a new hashLag, #mspoLLer, for weaLher enLhuslasLs and
28

Lhose engaged only ln reporLlng key deLalls and facLs abouL Lhe sLorm. 1hls Lag would prevenL
exLraneous conversaLlon and non-relevanL lnformaLlon from geLLlng ln Lhe way, Lhey argued.
llnally, Lhls sLudy sheds llghL on Lhe ongolng role for [ournallsLs Lo noL only dlsLrlbuLe conLenL on
new plaLforms buL also, more lmporLanLly, Lo verlfy lnformaLlon, faclllLaLe communlLy connecLlons by
engaglng dlrecLly wlLh readers, and Lap lnLo Lhe wlsdom of Lhe crowd Lo enhance Lhelr reporLlng. Survey
and lnLervlew respondenLs overwhelmlngly ldenLlfled mlslnformaLlon as one of Lhe greaLesL rlsks of
1wlLLer durlng a breaklng news evenL, and suggesLed Lhe mosL lmporLanL role for [ournallsLs Lo play
would be Lo conflrm or dlsconflrm rumors and help brlng experL volces Lo bear on Lhe slLuaLlon.
1hls sLudy conflrmed earller research (Messner eL. al. 2011, Creer & lerguson, 2011) suggesLlng
LhaL mosL [ournallsLs use 1wlLLer prlmarlly for broadcasLlng lnsLead of engaglng and/or crowdsourclng.
Powever, lnLervlews wlLh [ournallsLs showed LhaL Lhls may be beglnnlng Lo change, for example, one
local meLeorologlsL now acLlvely responds Lo vlewers on 1wlLLer, ofLen answerlng Lhelr speclflc
quesLlons. 1he lndependenL local meLeorologlsL has also made engagemenL wlLh oLhers on 1wlLLer a Lop
prlorlLy and credlLs Lhls wlLh enhanclng boLh credlblllLy and web Lrafflc.
1he prlmary llmlLaLlon of Lhls sLudy ls a relaLlvely low number of responses for Lhe survey and
Lhe lack of a randomlzed sample, Lhose wllllng Lo Lake Lhe Llme Lo Lake Lhls survey may be more
moLlvaLed or dedlcaLed hashLag users. uesplLe a wlde dlsLrlbuLlon neLwork and several aLLempLs Lo
sollclL parLlclpanLs uslng Lhe hashLag as well as Lhe cooperaLlon of local medla ln sharlng Lhe sLudy, [usL
33 surveys were reLurned. Powever, because several of Lhe survey quesLlons asked respondenLs for
open-ended responses, Lhe daLa gaLhered were sLlll remarkably rlch ln nuance, and when comblned
wlLh lnLervlews, deLalled, long-form responses were recelved from over 40 people. lurLher research
wlLh fundlng for lncenLlves for parLlclpanLs ls needed.

29


:#?#(#1@#%

Albarran,A.8. uyer, C, PuLLon, 8, valenLlne, A. (2010). Soclal medla and young laLlnos: A cross-culLural
examlnaLlon. resenLed aL Lhe AssoclaLlon ln !ournallsm and Mass CommunlcaLlon conference,
uenver, CC.
Ahmad, A. (2010). ls 1wlLLer a useful Lool for [ournallsLs?. Iootool Of MeJlo ltoctlce, 11(2), 143-133.
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on 1wlLLer. ltoceeJloqs of nlc55-4J.kaual, Pl !anuary 3-8.
hLLp://www.danah.org/papers/1weeL1weeL8eLweeL.pdf
Chen, C.M. (2011). 1weeL Lhls: A uses and graLlflcaLlons perspecLlve on how acLlve 1wlLLer use graLlfles a
need Lo connecL wlLh oLhers. CompuLers ln Puman 8ehavlor, 27(2), 733-762.
Crawford, k. (2009). lollowlng you: ulsclpllnes of llsLenlng ln soclal medla. ConLlnuum: !ournal of Medla
& CulLural SLudles, 23(4), 323-333.
larhl, . (2009). 1he 1wlLLer Lxploslon. Ametlcoo Iootoollsm kevlew. 8eLrleved on lebruary 19, 2012
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lerguson, u. A., & Creer, C. l. (2011). Local radlo and mlcroblogglng: Pow radlo sLaLlons ln Lhe u.S. are
uslng 1wlLLer. Iootool Of koJlo & AoJlo MeJlo, 18(1), 33-46.
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Creer, C. l., & lerguson, u. A. (2011). uslng 1wlLLer for promoLlon and brandlng: A conLenL analysls of
local Lelevlslon 1wlLLer slLes. Iootool Of 8tooJcostloq & lecttoolc MeJlo, 33(2), 198-214.
dol:10.1080/08838131.2011.370824
Permlda, A. (2010). 1wlLLerlng Lhe news. Iootoollsm ltoctlce, 4(3), 297-308.
dol:10.1080/17312781003640703
Permlda, Alfred. (2010). lrom 1v Lo 1wlLLer: Pow AmblenL news 8ecame AmblenL !ournallsm. M/c
Iootool, 13 (2).
Peverln, 1homas, and Zach, Llsl. (2010). Mlcroblogglng for Crlsls CommunlcaLlon: LxamlnaLlon of 1wlLLer
use ln 8esponse Lo a 2009 vlolenL Crlsls ln SeaLLle-1acoma, WashlngLon Area. roceedlngs of
Lhe 2010 lSC8AM Conference.SeaLLle, WashlngLon.
Powell, A. (2011, Aprll 27). CommunlLy-drlven hashLag Lells Lhe MemsLorm sLory." 8eLrleved uecember
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memsLorm-s
30

Pughes, A.L., and alen, L. (2009). 1wlLLer AdopLlon and use ln Mass Convergence and Lmergency
LvenLs. roceedlngs of Lhe 2009 lSC8AM Conference.
!ohnson and ?ang. (2009) uses and CraLlflcaLlons of 1wlLLer: An LxamlnaLlon of user MoLlves and
SaLlsfacLlon of 1wlLLer use. resenLed aL Lhe AssoclaLlon for !ournallsm ln LducaLlon and Mass
CommunlcaLlon ln 8osLon, MA.
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31

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Yin, R.K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Sage.

32


Appendlx A: 1wlLLer code book

9'13B'0(1.<-%&
C% &A# +,##&D
WlLnesslng - dlrecL observaLlons of whaL ls golng on around Lhem
asslng on news or lnformaLlon
lncludes llnk
lrom Lelevlslon
lrom newspaper
undeLermlned source
lrom naLlonal WeaLher Servlce or lndependenL weaLher source
Maklng a [oke
Lxpresslng fear or emoLlon/commlseraLlng wlLh oLhers
Asklng a quesLlon/crowdsourclng
CLher
C% &A# :#&,##&D
WlLnesslng - dlrecL observaLlons of whaL ls golng on around Lhem
asslng on news or lnformaLlon
lncludes llnk
lrom Lelevlslon
lrom newspaper
undeLermlned source
lrom naLlonal WeaLher Servlce or lndependenL weaLher source
Maklng a [oke
Lxpresslng fear or emoLlon/commlseraLlng wlLh oLhers
Asklng a quesLlon/crowdsourclng
CLher
33



C% -& . (#%;'1%# &' .1'&A#( ;#(%'1
:#%;'1%# &' . B'0(1.<-%&
WlLnesslng - dlrecL observaLlons of whaL ls golng on around Lhem
asslng on news or lnformaLlon heard from anoLher source, e.g. Lhe Lelevlslon
Maklng a [oke
Lxpresslng fear or emoLlon/commlseraLlng wlLh oLhers
Asklng a quesLlon/crowdsourclng
E'0(1.<-%&
C% &A# +,##&D
news and lnformaLlon
Maklng a [oke
Lxpresslng fear or emoLlon/commlseraLlng wlLh oLhers
Asklng a quesLlon/crowdsourclng
C% &A# :#&,##&D
WlLnesslng - dlrecL observaLlons of whaL ls golng on around Lhem
asslng on news or lnformaLlon heard from anoLher source, e.g. Lhe Lelevlslon
Maklng a [oke
Lxpresslng fear or emoLlon/commlseraLlng wlLh oLhers
Asklng a quesLlon/crowdsourclng
C% -& . (#%;'1%# &' .1'&A#( ;#(%'1
:#%;'1%# &' .1'&A#( B'0(1.<-%&
asslng on news and lnfomLlon
Maklng a [oke
34

Lxpresslng fear or emoLlon/commlseraLlng wlLh oLhers
Asklng a quesLlon/crowdsourclng
33


F;;#1>-G 6) C1&#(5-#, H0#%&-'1%
1o geL sLarLed, Lell me a llLLle blL abouL how you used 1wlLLer durlng Lhe sLorm.
o WhaL klnds of lnformaLlon dld you share wlLh oLhers uslng Lhe hashLag?
o WhaL klnds of lnformaLlon dld you geL from oLhers uslng Lhe hashLag?
o Pow much dld you lnLeracL wlLh oLhers ln Lhe communlLy uslng [replles or ulrecL
Messages durlng Lhe sLorm? WhaL Lends Lo prompL you Lo lnLeracL wlLh somebody?

Pow dld you lnlLlally flnd ouL abouL Lhe #memsLorm hashLag?
WhaL do you flnd Lo be useful or valuable abouL 1wlLLer durlng an evenL llke a ma[or sLorm?
WhaL klnds of drawbacks or challenges do you see from uslng 1wlLLer durlng an evenL llke a ma[or
sLorm?
uo you Lhlnk 1wlLLer has any advanLages/dlsadvanLages over more LradlLlonal sources of news and
lnformaLlon?
uld you also follow/lnLeracL wlLh any [ournallsLs worklng for local medla organlzaLlons on 1wlLLer who
were also uslng Lhe hashLag durlng Lhe sLorm? lf so, was Lhelr use of 1wlLLer helpful Lo you? WhaL do
you Lhlnk ls Lhe role of [ournallsLs ln slLuaLlons llke Lhls? WhaL could [ournallsLs do LhaL mlghL add value
Lo Lhe communlLy ln slLuaLlons llke Lhls?
uo you Lhlnk 1wlLLer has changed ln any way how clLlzens of Memphls lnLeracL or how Lhey Lhlnk abouL
Lhelr communlLy?
Any oLher LhoughLs you would llke Lo share?
36


F;;#1>-G /) I0(5#2 H0#%&-'1%

J<#.%# %##)
hLLps://docs.google.com/spreadsheeL/vlewform?formkey=duLzb0gyd0hvc38av19lSPp38mL68lL6MC