Thermoelectric devices

Improving efficiency in thermodevices

Rai Munoz

Rai Munoz Engr 23000 Professor Roh 12/3/13 Abstract This report describes the theory and applications behind thermoelectric devices. Thermoelectric devices are devices that utilize electricity and heat to generate the other interchangeably through the Seebeck effect and the Peltier effect [3]. The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon that occurs in a semiconductor with a temperature gradient as the electrons on the hot gradient side begin to diffuse towards the cold side, creating a net flow of electrons and an electric current. The Peltier effect occurs when you utilize electric current to drive the heat carrying charges and producing a heat flow in the semiconductor. This allows them to be used as heat pumps, refrigerators or even power generators. They cannot be considered as reversible devices as a temperature gradient can produce entropy through resistive heating, but they simulate similar properties due to the restoring force of the heat and the electricity. In comparison to conventional refrigerators, these devices are not as efficient because of the limiting thermoelectric properties of the semiconductors. However, the advantage of these devices is in their solid states as it allows them to be rugged, reliable and quiet. They are also more environmentally friendly than refrigerants such as R-12 or R-134a. The compact size of these devices allows them to be used in locations, otherwise unsuitable for refrigerators such as small electronic devices. Currently, research is being conducted in thermoelectric materials to improve their efficiency by maximizing the electric conductivity and minimizing thermoconductivity to maintain the temperature gradient for an extended period of time [3]. Introduction 1.1 Historical significance

Rai Munoz Engr 23000 Professor Roh 12/3/13 In 1821, Thomas Joann Seebeck [2] discovered the Seebeck effect, after observing the deflection of a compass magnet when exposed to circuit junction with different metals at a temperature gradient. However, he first believed the deviation of the compass was due to Earths magnetic field. It wasnt until Faraday discovered the law of electromagnetic induction, the result was recognized as a Thermoelectric force since the temperature gradient between these metals can produce an electric potential. In 1834, this discovery was accompanied by Peltier effect, which was discovered by French watchmaker Jean Charles A. Peltier [2]. He conducted a similar experiment as Seebeck and observed heat being generated when the junction of the dissimilar metals were under an electric current. Twenty years later, William Thomson [5](Lord Kelvin) combined these effects with the Thomson effect using the laws of thermodynamics. The Thomson effect involves the absorption or generation of heat along a conductor carrying current under a gradient. Initially, there was much enthusiasm in utilizing these effects towards producing a more effective replacement to the refrigerator and heaters. To produce an effective thermo device, Scientists needed to find a material with certain thermo-electric properties to maximize its performance. Unfortunately, the metals and metal alloys discovered at the time did not have these properties and further development of this technology could not continue until the 1950s with the use of semiconductors and 1990s with the interest of sustainable, green technology[2]. 1.2) The Thermoelectric devices and the First law of Thermodynamics Recall for the Seebeck, Thomson and Peltier effect to occur, a high temperature

Rai Munoz Engr 23000 Professor Roh 12/3/13 gradient is required between the dissimilar metals. Why is it necessary? In order to explain, it is essential to examine the particles behavior within the thermo electric material. The thermo electric material has free electrons or holes that carry both charge and heat which behave like a gas of charged particles, or a Fermi Gas[1]. Let us regard this Fermi gas as a perfect gas that involves no particle interaction (no irreversibilities due to particle collision). When a temperature gradient is present in a thermal material, these particles are separated between high and low temperature sides. On the high temperature side, there is a small density of these particles moving at high velocity. Because of their fast movement, these particles begin diffuse towards the low temperature side. However, the density gradient of the material causes these particles to be driven back towards the high temperature side. Under steady state conditions, the Temperature gradient and the density gradient are equal, which produces no net flow of particles. This creates an electric potential V (dW/dQ) and an electric current through the circuit. We can translate the first law of thermodynamics of conserved energy (E=U+W) to describe the electrochemical potential of the thermoelectric material [1],
e, as: e = c + eVSeebeck (Joules)

where c is the chemical potential of the metals, e, the charge of the particle, and V as the
electric potential. The electric potential can be determined by: V= Vseebeck- IRTE = T - IRTE

(V)

where is the Seebeck coefficient. The voltage is either negative or positive depending

Rai Munoz Engr 23000 Professor Roh 12/3/13 on the Seebeck coefficient, since it determines whether the electric current flows parallel or opposite to the heat current. In many materials, the Seebeck coefficient does not remain constant in temperature, so when current is driven through this gradient, the Peltier effect occurs. Initially, the heat produced was be expressed using the Joule heating equation, P=VI: (The Peltier Effect) P= Q = (T - IRTE)*I (kW)

However, this only explains the heating of the material. The Thomson effect explains both the heating and cooling of the material per volume by: (kJ/m3)

where K is the Thomson coefficient related to the Seebeck coefficient by (

, J is the

current density ((-V- T)). This allows us to adjust the electrochemical equation of the metal to both a rate form as well as a kJ per unit volume form. 1.3) Thermoelectric Carnot engines Let us examine the thermoelectric device as a Carnot engine. Due to the temperature gradient present in the thermoelectric device, the system is never in equilibrium, because even though the net flux between the heat and density flux is zero, the heat is still being transferred from one side to the other. The irreversibilities in this engine are because of the temperature gradient and the electric carriers. Therefore, the Carnot cycle of these devices should involve 2 isothermal processes to maintain the temperature gradient, and 2 adiabatic processes since these devices can be used either as

Rai Munoz Engr 23000 Professor Roh 12/3/13 a refrigerator, a heat pump, or an electric generator [1]. If it was an ideal Carnot Heat Engine the temperature gradient could be self-maintained through restorative energy from the

thermo-electric coupling they have due to the Peltier and Seebeck effects. However, this is impossible as there are the irreversibilities present with the entropy generated by temperature gradient and the collisions between carriers. Another reason why such an ideal system is not possible is because of a materials property or its thermoelectric figure of merit zT. The figure of merit, zT, is measured by 2T/, which includes a materials Seebeck coefficient, electric conductivity and thermal conductivity. The maximum efficiency of the thermal material [3] is determined by:

An ideal semiconductor would have a high electric conductivity (to produce efficient levels of electricity), high thermo-power (to prevent resistive heating), and low thermal conductivity (to maintain the temperature gradient for extended periods of time)[1].
2) Applications with Thermoelectric devices.

Rai Munoz Engr 23000 Professor Roh 12/3/13

Currently, thermoelectric devices do not have the efficiency to compete with the conventional refrigeration systems or heat pumps. However, it has the potential to provide some extra efficiency in other thermo-devices through the reuse of their waste energy. An example could be with a heat engine such as a car. Under regular conditions, the engine releases waste heat due to the irreversibilities present such as friction and work at only a certain efficiency. The irreversibilities create entropy, which in turn destroys potential energy or exergy that could have been used in the engine. However, with a thermoelectric device, some of the waste energy could be used to produce a heat gradient and conduct electricity. The electricity can then be used to help power a conventional refrigerator to cool down the engine and maintain its gradient to continue working. The electricity can also go towards other refrigeration or heat pumps in the car to improve its overall efficiency.

Current thermo-electric materials only produce up to 40 percent efficiency, however, advancements in Quantum computing have made the search in materials with higher zT easier by narrowing down specific characteristics such as materials with particle

Rai Munoz Engr 23000 Professor Roh 12/3/13 compositions that have minimal thermo-conductivity [3]. 3) Conclusion There is potential in the science of thermoelectricity as it has the capability of improving the maximum efficiency of a system without violating any of the four laws of thermodynamics. It provides another source of green energy while providing a potential replacement for refrigerators and its harmful refrigerants. It will drastically alter the efficiency of many devices, but only once it reaches the zT threshold on which such drastic change can happen.

Rai Munoz Engr 23000 Professor Roh 12/3/13

Bibliography
1. Goupil, C; Seifert,W; Zabroski, K; Muller, E; Snyder, G.J. Thermodynamics of Thermoelectric phenomena and applications. Technical Review report for the Entropy journal: www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy, 2011 2. California Institute of Technology, Brief History of Thermoelectrics. Informative page on Caltechs material science program. http://www.thermoelectrics.caltech.edu/thermoelectrics/history.html. 3. Snyder, G.J. California Institute of Technology, Thermoelectrics. Informative page on Caltechs material science program. http://www.its.caltech.edu/~jsnyder/thermoelectrics/ 4. Quick, D. Worlds most efficient thermoelectric material developed. News page on Gizmag magazine. www.gizmag.com/most-efficientthermoelectric-material/24210/ 5. Wikipedia. Thermoelectric effect. Informative page on wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect