10/23/2013

Objectives for Today

Vision

Objectives for Today

Theories of Color Vision

What are the basic ideas of the 2 historical theories? What is the current best theory of color vision?

What are the basic functions of eye structures? What causes myopia? Hyperopia? Retinal cells
What is the difference between rods/cones?
Color vision? Acuity? Seeing in Light/Dark?

Color Blindness
What causes color blindness What is the term for missing one cone?

What is the Fovea Centralis?

why is it important in our vision?

Vision in the Brain

What are Feature detectors? Remember the Dorsal/Ventral streams

What is Dark Adaptation?

Is it a smooth progression? Why/why not?

Objectives for Today

Audition

Objectives for Today

Taste and Smell

What are the characteristics of sound waves? How are these perceived? What are the basic steps between sound waves and nerve impulses? What is the difference between conduction an nerve deafness? Can they be treated? How do people code loudness? How do people code pitch? How do people locate the direction of a sound?

What are the 4 basic tastes? Are smells composed of basic elements, like taste/color? What do we mean by hidden abilities to smell? What is some evidence for this?

Skin & Body Senses

What are the four basic tactile sensations? What is Phantom Limb Pain? Can it be treated? What are the 2 body senses and what do they sense?

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To the Brain-Mobile!

Visual Pathway to Brain

Optic nerve thalamus primary visual cortex As expected, the cortex has specific regions that

Deeper into the visual cortex, inputs from

different neurons are combined

Feature detectors

correspond to specific areas of your retina

Like a map of the visual scene

e.g. some cells respond only to lines of a specific orientation

Based on patterns of firing

Actually, multiple maps

Maps are Distorted (like the homunculi)

Fovea has huge area of cortex because there are so many receptors here

Other feature detectors combine color inputs (recall the dual process model) Still retain a map-like positioning
Each feature-detection system may start with its own map, hence the 10 maps (?)

Different streams for different features are processed in parallel

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Putting it together
Going even deeper in the brain Combine the features into a unified perception

Receptors detect light

Patterns of receptor firing

basic features

Visual Association Cortex

Patterns of basic features

Object perception (naming)

Ventral stream Face cells in circuits

complex features/object recognition/interaction

Action with object

Dorsal stream

For Notes on Trivia

AUDITION
Pitch & Loudness Transduction Cells of the Retina Visual Transduction Dark Adaptation Theories of Color Vision

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Hearing
Stimulus of hearing is sound waves Longitudinal waves

Structures of the Ear

Compression & expansion of (air) molecules

Frequency
How many pulses or cycles per second Perceived as pitch We can detect 20 20,000Hz

Amplitude
How strong/weak the compression is Perceived as loudness Lowest is 0 dB; pain at ~120dB

Steps in hearing
Vibration in air molecules Vibration of ear drum Vibration of tiny bones (malleus, incus, stapes)
Amplify the vibrations more than 30x

Cochlea
Cochlea Spiral-shaped coil that is filled with fluid Contains the Basilar Membrane and Organ of Corti

Layers on the base of the cochlea Hold the receptors cells (called Auditory Hair Cells)

Vibration in the oval window Cochlea

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Stimulating Auditory Hair Cells

Vibrations reach the cochlea Waves in the cochlear fluid

Hearing Loss
Conduction Deafness: Any type of deafness caused by damage to the mechanical system (up to the hair cells)

e.g. puncture ear drum; damage to ossicles; damage to the cochlea Often can be treated with hearing aids

Bend the Auditory Hair Cells

Bending causes these receptors to fire

Nerve Deafness: Any type of damage involving neurons (including the hair cells)

Auditory Cortex (brain)

Like vision, deeper processing recognize songs

Caused by aging, disease, exposure to loud sounds Cannot be treated

Coding Loudness & Pitch

Coding Loudness:

Coding Loudness & Pitch

Coding Pitch:
1.

Louder sounds more bending of hair cells

Frequency Theory

Higher rate of neuron firing Also, some neurons will only fire if the hair cell is heavily bent

Sound waves have a certain frequency maybe the nerve hair cells fire at that same frequency! BUT neurons can only fire at a maximum frequency of about 1000/second , yet we hear sounds up to 4000 Hz.
Remember the refractory period?

Loudness is coded both by firing rate and which specific cells are sending signals

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Coding Loudness & Pitch

Coding Pitch:
2.

Coding Loudness & Pitch

Coding Pitch:

Place Theory

Turns out, BOTH theories are partially correct:

Waves in the cochlear fluid peak at different points, depending on the frequency of sound
High frequency sounds peak early, low frequency sounds peak later

Frequency Theory applies to sounds with low frequencies Place Theory applies to sounds with higher frequencies

Pitch is coded both by firing rate and which specific cells are sending signals

Maybe hair cells only fire when they are at the peak position?

Sound localization
How do we tell where a sound is coming

Ventriloquists?

from?

Differences in timing between the ears

A sound from your right takes a little more time to reach your left ear than your right ear

Differences in loudness between the ears

Sounds are harder to hear the farther away you are A sound from your right is a little louder at your right ear

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Taste
Taste & Smell

CHEMICAL SENSES

Called the chemical senses

Respond to chemicals, not energy

Very inter-twined

Try eating cut up apple vs potato with nose plugged

Taste
Taste buds contain receptors Several receptors per taste bud

Olfaction (Smell)
Not very well understood

Mostly one type of receptor per bud

May be individual receptors for unique smells (?)

Not a combination of basic elements, like taste or color

Each type of receptor responds to one (or two) of the 4 tastes

Receptors are like neurotransmitter binding sites

Stimulate the olfactory bulb (forebrain)

Sweet, sour, salty, bitter

All tastes are a combination of these Like all colors coming from combination of RGB cones Umami enhancer, or unique flavor? MSG

Specific smells activate specific parts of the bulb

Adaptive preference for sweet foods

Less adaptive nowadays

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Hidden Smells?
Pheromones Chemical signals found in natural body scents

e.g. wolves marking territory, animals in heat

SKIN & BODY SENSES

Debate about human pheromones

Menstrual Synchrony
McClintock Effect Doesnt hold for lesbian couples, though

Sexual Pheromones?
Mass-marketed ones are frauds BUT, certain smells increase arousal Lavender Pumpkin pie Tactile Senses Pain Body Senses

Tactile Senses
Different receptors respond

Pain
Pain receptors are actually just nerve endings

to the 4 tactile sensations:

Pressure (touch), pain, warmth, cold

under the skin Signals sent to the somato-sensory cortex

Spinal reflexes faster response

All sensations are a combination of these

e.g. itchy

Endorphins = natures pain-killers

Accupuncture causes release of endorphins

Send signals to the somato-sensory cortex

Phantom Limb Pain

Individuals experience pain in the missing limb

Often described as intense clenching Due to firing of the neurons that were connected

Remember the homunculus

Most effective treatment?

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Body Senses
Kinesthesis: Feedback about the positions and movements of our muscles and joints

Receptors in muscles, tendons, joints

Vestibular Sense Sense of orientation

Basically, which way is up/down? Receptors in semi-circular canals (in ears)

Remember roller coasters?