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Chapter 2 Review
Chapter 2 Review
Chapter 2 Review
Review of literature
Theories of Motivation
Motivational theories can be divided into two categories, content and
process theories.
Content theories:
Content theories assume that all individuals possess the same set of needs
and therefore prescribe the characteristics that ought to be present in jobs.
They explain the specific factors that motivate people. In other words, they
answer the question ‘what drives behavior?’ Basically, content theories
suggest that we are all the same and therefore are motivated in the same
way. They include the following theories:
i. McGregor’s theory X and theory Y
ii. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
a) Herzberg’s two-factor theory
b) Alderfer’s ERG theory
iii. McClelland’s needs theory
Process theories:
Process theories stress the difference in people’s needs and focus on the
cognitive processes that create these differences. They look at
individuals as, understanding that we are all different and that what
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motivates one person does not necessarily motivate another. They
explain motivation in terms of how people give meaning to rewards and
respond with various work-related behaviors. They include the
following:
i. Vroom’s expectancy theory
ii. Adam’s equity theory
iii. Locke’s goal-setting theory
iv. Skinner’s reinforcement theory
Theory X Assumptions
• The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will
avoid it if he can.
• Because of their dislike for work, most people must be controlled and
threatened before they will work hard enough.
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• The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes responsibility, is
unambiguous, and desires security above everything.
• These assumptions lie behind most organizational principles today,
and give rise both to "tough" management with punishments and
tight controls, and "soft" management which aims at harmony at
work.
• Both these are "wrong" because man needs more than financial
rewards at work, he also needs some deeper higher order motivation
- the opportunity to fulfill himself.
• Theory X managers do not give their staff this opportunity so that the
employees behave in the expected fashion.
Theory Y Assumptions
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• Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual
potentialities of the average man are only partially utilized.
If Theory Y holds, the firm can do many things to harness the motivational
energy of its employees:
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• Participative Management - Consulting employees in the decision
making process taps their creative capacity and provides them with
some control over their work environment.
• Performance Appraisals - Having the employee set objectives and
participate in the process of evaluating how well they were met.
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come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid are satisfied. Once
an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower
level will no longer be prioritized. If a lower set of needs is no longer being
met, the individual will temporarily re-prioritize those needs by focusing
attention on the unfulfilled needs, but will not permanently regress to the
lower level. For instance, a businessman at the esteem level who is
diagnosed with cancer will spend a great deal of time concentrating on his
health (physiological needs), but will continue to value his work
performance (esteem needs) and will likely return to work during periods
of remission. But the theory assumes that till the lower order needs of a
worker are taken care of the worker may not be motivated to work and
achieve the higher order needs which are essential for the full exploitation
of an individual’s capacities.
Maslow’s theory has certain limitation like assuming that the employer will
have to know the need level of each employer and prepare different
motivational schemes for each worker. Although this theory has limitations
it is a very popular approach to study motivation.
Fredrick Herzberg (1923 - 2000) (refer to fig. 1.2.1) was a noted psychologist
who became one of the most influential names in business management.
He proposed a modification of Maslow’s theory where he states that there
are only two basic needs instead of five. He called it the two-factor theory
in which he states that we have two basic needs
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Hygiene needs (physiological and security needs) and
Motivator needs (belongingness, esteem and self-actualization needs)
Herzberg asked people about times when they had felt good about their
work. He discovered that the key determinants of job satisfaction were
Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility and Advancement.
He also found that key dissatisfiers were Company policy and
administration, Supervision, Salary, Interpersonal relationships and
Working conditions. What struck him the most was that these were
separate groups with separate evaluation, and not a part of the same
continuum. Thus if the company resolved the dissatisfiers, they would not
create satisfaction. I need to be paid on time each month so I can pay my
bills. If I am not paid on time, I get really unhappy. But when I get paid on
time, I hardly notice it. On the other hand, when my boss gives me a pat on
the back, I feel good. I don't expect this every day and don't especially miss
not having praise all of the time. This is a significant difference between
hygiene needs and motivator needs.
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory
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Need for Achievement (nAch)
We have different preferences, we will tend have one of these needs that
affects us more powerfully than others and thus affects our behaviors.
Victor Vroom (refer to fig 2.1a) is a business school professor at the Yale
School of Management, who was born on 9 August 1932 in Montreal,
Canada. He holds a PhD from University of Michigan. His theory is a
process theory of motivation in which we constantly are predicting likely
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futures; we create expectations about future events. If things seem
reasonably likely and attractive, we know how to get there and we believe
we can 'make the difference' then this will motivate us to act to make this
future come true. Thus we expect that our behavior will lead to a certain
reward which motivates us. This is Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory also
called Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory or VIE Theory.
Motivation is thus a combination of:
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struck between an employee’s inputs and an employee’s outputs.
According to the theory, finding this fair balance serves to ensure a strong
and productive relationship is achieved with the employee, with the
overall result being contented, motivated employees.
The Adams’ Equity Theory is named for John Stacey Adams, a workplace
and behavioral psychologist, who developed this job motivation theory in
1963. Adams’ Equity Theory acknowledges that subtle and variable factors
affect an employee’s assessment and perception of their relationship with
their work and their employer.
The theory is built-on the belief that employees become de-motivated, both
in relation to their job and their employer, if they feel as though their
inputs are greater than the outputs. Employees can be expected to respond
to this is different ways, including de-motivation, reduced effort, becoming
disgruntled, or, in more extreme cases, perhaps even disruptive.
• Effort
• Loyalty
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• Hard Work
• Commitment
• Skill
• Ability
• Adaptability
• Flexibility
• Tolerance
• Determination
• Enthusiasm
• Trust in superiors
• Support of colleagues
• Personal sacrifice, etc.
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While obviously many of these points can’t be quantified and perfectly
compared, the theory argues that managers should seek to find a fair
balance between the inputs that an employee gives, and the outputs
received.
The Adams’ Equity Theory of motivation states that positive outcomes and
high levels of motivation can be expected only when employees perceive
their treatment to be fair. An employee’s perception of this may include
many factors. The idea behind Adams’ Equity Theory is to strike a healthy
balance with outputs on one side of the scale; inputs on the other – both
weighing in a way that seems reasonably equal. (refer to fig. 2.2)
If the balance lies too far in favor of the employer, some employees may
work to bring balance between inputs and outputs on their own, by asking
for more compensation or recognition. Others will be demotivated, and still
others will seek alternative employment.
Professor Edwin A Locke, Retired Dean’s Professor of Motivation and Leadership at the Robert
H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland, College Park. His pioneering
research has advanced and enriched our understanding of work motivation and job satisfaction.
The theory that is synonymous with his name — goal-setting theory — is perhaps the most
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widely-respected theory in industrial-organizational psychology. In order to direct
If other people set us goals without our involvement, then we are much
less likely to be motivated to work hard at it than if we feel we have set or
directed the goal ourselves.
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inaccurate is high. Unsurprisingly, people invest more effort in
achieving accuracy goals, as any deviation costs, and a large
deviation may well more. Their deliberation also makes them realize
that there is a real chance that they will not achieve their goal. When
we have an accuracy goal we do not get to a 'good enough' point and
stop thinking about it--we continue to search for improvements.
If you want someone to deliberately think about what they are doing, give
them an accuracy goal.
Choose your own goals. Notice the difference between when you are
diving into action and when you are carefully thinking.
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Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation
of a pleasant consequence
Negative reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an
unpleasant consequence
Operant conditioning strategies
Punishment
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation
of an unpleasant consequence
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of a
pleasant consequence.
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement
Law of contingent reinforcement
Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited
Law of immediate reinforcement
The more immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement
value it has.
Guidelines for using positive reinforcement
Clearly identify desired work behaviors.
Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards.
Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.
Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
Guidelines for using punishment
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Tell the person what is being done wrong.
Tell the person what is being done right.
Match the punishment to the behavior.
Administer punishment in private.
Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement. Ethical issues in
reinforcement
Ignores individuality
Restricts freedom of choice
Ignores the possibility of other types of motivation
Key ethical question concerns whether it is ethical to not control behavior
well enough to serve both individual and organizational goals.
Applications
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• Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
• Enhance cognitive processing
• Determine what consequences are reinforcing
• Lead to improved performance.
Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need
situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the
teacher creates.
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higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition,
empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful
motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of
motivation and Douglas McGregor's Theory X and theory Y
demonstrate. Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy
and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor
places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor
motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category
and are considered stronger motivators than money.
• Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.
• Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
• Motivated workers are more productive.
Elton Mayo found out that the social contacts a worker has at the
workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks
lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be
motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel
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important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions
on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups.
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