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de/lcionline/ Liquid Crystal Display Fabrication

Introduction
I. Glass Cleaning A. Types of Contamination 1. Particulate 2. Organic films B. Cleaning Methods 1. ltrasonic 2. ! " O#one C. $ater %uality &. 'CI ( Industry Procedures II. Photolithography A. Photoresists B. Photomas)s 1. Chrome on Glass 2. Mylar C. *+posure systems 1. Mas) Aligners 2. ,teppers -. Contact .s. Pro+imity &. *tching III. Alignment 'ayers A. /e0uirements for &isplays B. Polyimides 1. Application a. ,pincoating1 printing

2. Typical thic)ness334553655 angstroms 2. /u22ing a. /u2 7heel .s. load ru22ing

Glass Cleaning
Glass cleaning is one of the most important steps in li0uid crystal display fa2rication. ,u2strates are cleaned 2efore processing and after many su2se0uent steps1 and improper cleaning can result in electrical shorts cell gap .ariations poor alignment of the li0uid crystal to name a fe7 fatal defects. It is therefore imperati.e to ha.e an efficient cleaning process to remo.e all contamination from the glass surface. Contamination can 2e classified into t7o groups8 particulate () organic thin film Particulate contamination can come from the operator 9in the form of hair1 s)in fla)es1 2acteria1 or clothing fi2ers:1 process e0uipment and supplies 9flec)s of dried photoresist1 7iper fi2ers1 dust1 etc.:1 or the glass itself 9fragments from cutting:. Because typical 'C& cell gaps are 2elo7 ten microns1 e.en a single particle a fe7 microns in diameter can cause a fatal defect. ;or this reason1 particulate contamination is the primary concern in the cleaning process. Thin film contamination can 2e caused 2y improper cleaning and stripping procedures1 or operator contamination1 such as s)in oils. These typically lea.e a thin organic film o.er all or a portion of the su2strate1 resulting in poor adhesion9<=>?@AB: or de7etting9CD 1?=EF:of su2se0uent coatings1 and in some cases incomplete etching. After many procedures1 a simple 7ater rinse is not sufficient to remo.e process chemicals. Photoresist in particular can sometimes re0uire ultrasonic agitation9G=HGH: in an organic sol.ent for complete remo.al.

Cleaning methods ;or 'C& fa2rication1 a typical cleaning process in.ol.es ultrasonic cleaning 7ith a mild9IA@G: detergent 9FBEJ:follo7ed 2y a ! " o#one cleaning to remo.e organic contamination. Production en.ironments 7ill often use 2rush scru22ing or Ket spray1 7ith ! " o#one cleaning an option. In ultrasonic cleaning1 the 2ath is agitated at ultrasonic fre0uencies in order to dislodge9 >DLD: particulate contamination .ia ca.itation9FAFC:. The 2ath consists of deioni#ed 7ater 7ith a neutral detergent1 and is often heated to 453M5NC to aid in cleaning. ltrasonic cleaning is most effecti.e on particles larger than -34 microns. After rinsing9BC@B:1 the su2strates are often dried using isopropyl alcohol.

! " o#one cleaners are e+tremely effecti.e on thin organic films. ,hort 7a.elength ! 92elo7 -55 nm: 2rea)s do7n more comple+ organics1 and the o#one reacts 7ith the films to form car2on dio+ide. !"o#one cleaning is used as the final cleaning step. This method can 2e time consuming 94325 minutes " su2strate:1 and the su2strates should mo.e 7ithin minutes to the ne+t process step. ! " o#one cleaning impro.es adhesion of photoresists and polyimides.

Cleaning test The effecti.eness of a cleaning process can 2e Kudged using se.eral methods. The simplest of these is .isual inspection1 usually under ! light illumination. ltra.iolet light is scattered 2y particulate contamination1 and thin films are readily .isi2le1 ma)ing it straightfor7ard to Kudge the cleanliness of the su2strate. An e+cellent method for testing su2strate cleanliness is 2y measuring contact angles 7ith 7ater. If a drop of 7ater is placed on an inorganic surface1 it should spread out and completely 7et the surface. If there is an organic film on the surface1 the 7ater 7ill tend to 2ead9O=FC1BPAE: and form a contact angle close to Q4N. This can 2e o2ser.ed 0ualitati.ely 2y spraying the su2strate 7ith deioni#ed 7ater if properly cleaned1 the 7ater should sheet9 <=LRD: off of the glass rather than 2eading.

Spincoating
A popular method for the application of thin films is spincoating. The su2strate is held flat 2y a chuc)1 the solution is poured onto the su2strate1 and the su2strate is then spun at high speed for 253-5 seconds to o2tain a uniform film. It seems counterintuiti.e that a high speed spin 7ould gi.e uniform film thic)ness1 2ut the method 7or)s remar)a2ly 7ell. The main dra72ac) to spincoating is the amount of material re0uired for a single su2strate334315 ml can 2e used on a single su2strate. he concept behind spincoating As the su2strate spins1 the solution spreads to co.er the entire su2strate1 and is pushed out7ard 2y the spinning. Ideally1 the atmosphere a2o.e the su2strate 7ill saturate 7ith sol.ent1 pre.enting the film from drying 2efore spinning is complete. $hen the spinning stops1 the film rela+es 2ac) into a uniform thic)ness 2efore 2eing dried on a hot plate. Most spincoaters enclose the chuc) 9holder: in a 2o7l9 <AFGR:1 7hich pro.ides 2oth safety and a 2arrier for the material 7hich is spun off. The 2o7l1 ho7e.er1 is usually stationary this means that tur2ulent air flo7 can )ic) up particles 7hich can strea) the su2strate1 and that the su2strate 7ill ha.e a 2uildup of material in the corners due to the effect of 7ind. The ideal solution is to ha.e the 2o7l FIGURE 1: Spin coating mechanism. spin 7ith the chuc) this eliminates all effects of 7ind tur2ulence1 and results in a uniform coating o.er the entire su2strate.

There are se.eral manufacturers 9e.g. ,olitec and Sead7ay in .,: of spincoating e0uipment. They pro.ide units for small and large su2strates 7ith .arious degrees of automation. ,ome manufacturers supply spincoaters 7ith the spinning 2o7l1 2ut these units are considera2ly more e+pensi.e. ,ome production en.ironments use spincoating for photolithography1 polyimide1 and 2arrier layers1 2ut printing is more desira2le 2ecause of its more efficient materials usage. The disad.antage of printing is the high capital cost of the e0uipment 9typically T4551555:. !oller coating A popular method in small production en.ironments is roller coating. This method can 2e used to coat photoresist for lo7 resolution photolithography. The film uniformity is considera2ly less than for spinning or printing1 2ut is ade0uate for direct addressed and other lo7 resolution panels. Dip coating Other methods of coating include dip coating and meniscus9F=JA>"F=GA>: coating. In dip coating1 su2strates are dra7n out of a solution at a uniform speed. Both methods enKoy limited usage1 2ut neither is e.en close to the spinning and printing methods.

"hotolithography
The e.olution in microelectronics technology1 and microlithography in particular1 has progressed at an astonishing rate. The con.entional photolithography1 7hich uses -M43Q54 nm irradiation1 7ere a2le to print 5.435.M mm features in production in the 1UU5s. Ad.ances in optics ha.e ena2led e+posure 2y shorter and shorter 7a.elengths. Indeed1 photolithography using 2Q6 and 1U- nm light promises to dominate production technology 7ell into the ne+t century. In semiconductor industry1 the three3dimensional circuit elements are fa2ricated 2y a series of process collecti.ely )no7n as VlithographyV. The pattern is first generated in a polymeric film on a de.ice V7aferV1 and this pattern is then transferred .ia etching into the underlying thin film. &ia#onaphtho0uinone3no.lac materials 7ill most li)ely remain the materials of choice for production of these de.ices. The costs of introducing ne7 resist materials and ne7 hard7are are strong dri.ing forces pushing photolithography to its a2solute limit. The technological alternati.es to con.entional photolithography are largely the same as they 7ere a decade ago1 that is1

near3 and deep3 ! photolithography scanning electron 2eam lithography W3ray lithography.

The leading candidate for the production of de.ices 7ith features as small as 5.- mm is deep3 ! lithography. The polymer that are used as radiation3sensiti.e resist films must 2e carefully designed to meet the specific re0uirements of the lithography technology and de.ice process. Although these re0uirements .ary according to the radiation sources and

de.ice process1 properties such as sensiti.ity1 contrast1 resolution1 etching resistance1 shelf life1 and purity are u2i0uitous9 [=>J DR? XYJH 1Z=PH:. In display applications high resolution has 2een made possi2le 2y decreasing the minimum feature si#e of the circuit element. The con.entional means of increasing the resolution1 that is1 of increasing the circuit density1 has 2een to ma)e the acti.e elements in the de.ices smaller1 there2y increasing the num2er of acti.e circuits that can 2e accommodated on a gi.en area of display. #lectrode patterns In order to pattern the electrodes on each su2strate1 a photolithographic process is used. This is the same process that is used in printed circuit 2oard and integrated circuit fa2rication. *ach su2strate is coated 7ith a photosensiti.e material 9photoresist:1 and selecti.e areas are e+posed to ! light 9this pattern is generated 2y a photomas):. A de.eloping process lea.es resist only on the desired electrodes. The su2strate is then placed in an etch 2ath1 7hich etches the ITO 9Indium Tin Oxide: from the areas not co.ered 2y resist. After stripping of the photoresist and cleaning1 the su2strate is ready for su2se0uent processing. Photoresists can 2e either positi.e or negati.e 7or)ing. Positi.e resists1 7hich include most commonly used li0uid resists1 are initially slightly solu2le9LALJ: in a de.eloper solution. pon e+posure to ! light1 they 2ecome highly solu2le. Therefore a Q43M5 second de.eloping 7ith agitation creates a positi.e image of the photomas). \egati.e resists are often dry] that is1 they are laminated9 [A@?F A=^G: onto the su2strate rather than spun. These dry resists do not ha.e high resolution capa2ilities1 2ut are highly suited to a production en.ironment. &e.eloping is done in a cham2er 7here the de.eloper solution is sprayed on the su2strate.
FIGURE 2: ITO electrode pattern.

!esist $aterials ,ingle3'e.el /esist Chemistry

ype 'egati%e resist "ositi%e resist Characteristics less solu2le in de.eloper more solu2le in de.eloper $echanism crosslin)ing chain scission 9 1B@FPB 1G=>A? _=<AC: or polarity change De%eloper organic sol.ent a0ueous sol.ent &d./Disad%. image distortion high resolution dry etch resistance Sensiti%ity high lo7

'egati%e resists

\egati.e resists are a class of materials that 2ecome less solu2le in a de.eloper after e+posure to radiation. Generally1 the chemistry of negati.e resists in.ol.es some form of radiation induced crosslin)ing. The parent polymers are usually solu2le in organic sol.ents1 7hich in turn are used as de.elopers. Materials include .inyl1 epo+y1 halogen containing polymers.
FIGURE 3

"ositi%e resists Materials that e+hi2it enhanced solu2ility after e+posure to radiation are defined as positi.e resists. The mechanism of positi.e resist action in most of these materials in.ol.es either main chain scission or a polarity change. Ordinarily1 the chain scission mechanism is only opera2le at photon 7a.elengths 2elo7 -55 nm 7here the energy is sufficient to 2rea) main chain 2onds. The 2est )no7n of these so called dissolution9>=FAP 1@=FAP: inhi2ition91BJAD? F=YGJ: resists is Vcon.entional positi.e photoresist] a photosensiti.e material uses a no.olac 9phenol3formaldehyde: resin 7ith a dia#onaphtho0uinone photoacti.e compound as a dissolution inhi2itor. pon irradiation1 the dia#onaphtho0uinone undergoes a $olff rearrangement follo7ed 2y hydrolysis to generate a 2ase solu2le indene car2o+ylic acid. As de.ice features mo.e into the su2micron regime1 ad.anced processing techni0ues and ne7 lithographic technologies 7ill need to accommodate high resolution1 high3aspect ratio imaging o.er de.ice topography. This necessitates9_AFYJ: the de.elopment of ne7 resist materials 7ith impro.ed etching resistance1 FIGURE 4 resolution and sensiti.ity. A recent de.eloped sensiti.ity impro.ing process in.ol.es the concept of chemical amplification. The chemical amplification principle has 2een used to design a num2er of negati.e resists 2ased on acid cataly#ed cation9 A?=AC I=A: polymeri#ation of appropriate monomers9single unjoined organic molecule: a relatively light, simple organic molecule that can join in long chains with other molecules to form a more complex molecule or polymer : or crosslin)ing9`: of polymers.

"hotomas(s Photomas)s can 2e of se.eral types depending on the resolution ( dura2ility re0uired1 and the type of e+posure system. Most mas) aligners re0uire chrome on glass mas)s33these are more e+pensi.e 9T45531455 typical:1 2ut pro.ide good dura2ility and high resolution. Mylar emulsion mas)s9`: pro.ide medium to lo7 resolution 9do7n to a2out 24 microns:1 2ut are cheap 9less than T45: and can 2e used in many contact printers.

!adiation sources Mercury arc lamps are the most popular light source for photolithography. 'ight in the -453 Q45 nm range is most effecti.e 7ith con.entional photoresists used for medium resolution patterning. $hen resolutions 2elo7 se.eral microns are re0uired1 0uasi3monochromatic light 9g3 and i3line: is often used1 or shorter 7a.elengths are used. ,ince it is difficult to relia2ly etch ITO features smaller than 4315 microns1 con.entional mercury lamps suffice for most 'C& applications 9Thin Film Transistor 3 T;Tas typically re0uire the greatest resolution:. #)posure systems A .ariety of e+posure systems are a.aila2le. Most production lines employ some type of step and repeat photolithography e0uipment for ma+imum throughput9 B>=P<:. In research and prototyping settings1 mas) aligners are most common. These allo7 the mas) to 2e aligned 7ith the su2strate and"or pre.iously placed features on the su2strate 2efore e+posure. This is most important 7hen doing multiple mas)ing steps1 such as those necessary for color filter and T;T fa2rication. Many mas) aligners allo7 2oth pro+imity and .acuum contact printing. Pro+imity printing increases mas) lifetime1 and decreases need FIGURE 5: U ill!mination "or ITO etching. for mas) cleaning] 2ecause mas) aligners ha.e collimated9IH==AR: sources1 the su2strate can 2e held a short 915314 microns: distance from the mas) 7ithout sacrificing much in accuracy. Contact printing is necessary for accurate gaps 2elo7 14 microns or so. 'o7 resolution e+posure systems consist of a ru22er mat1 on 7hich the su2strate and Mylar mas) are placed1 co.ered 2y flat glass. The air 2et7een the mat and glass is e.acuated1 resulting in .acuum contact 2et7een the mas) and su2strate. ! e+posure can then 2e carried out. These systems offer ease of use and lo7 cost1 2ut accurate alignment is not possi2le1 and mylar mas)s must 2e used. Liquid !esist $ethod Photoresist is spun on the su2strate at -4553Q555 rpm for -5 seconds. This results in a film thic)ness of a2out 2 microns. After spincoating1 the su2strate is placed on the U4NC hotplate for U5 seconds. ,u2strates are e+posed on \uArc e+posure unit 9lo7 resolution: for 25.5 units. Process &e.elopers for most positi.e li0uid resists are a0ueous al)aline solutions 9tetramethyl3 ammonium hydro+ide1 TMAS1 in this case:. The su2strate is immersed in the de.eloper solution and gently agitated for Q43M5 seconds. The su2strate is then rinsed and 2lo7n dry 7ith nitrogen. Before etching1 a hard 2a)e at 114NC for 23Q minutes is re0uired. It is important that all li0uid has 2een 2lo7n off of the su2strate 2efore hard 2a)e] if not1 it is .ery common to ha.e a film residue 7hich may pre.ent etching. &onnelly recommends etching their ITO coatings in an acid 2ath of SCl8S2O8S\O- heated to 44NC. ,u2strates are immersed in this 2ath for U5 seconds then rinsed.

,u2strates are then soa)ed in bOS solution 9to neutrali#e surface: for M5 seconds. A full cleaning is then necessary 2efore proceeding to polyimide application.

Sur*ace &lignment
In the li0uid crystal de.ices1 one of the most important pro2lems is the surface alignment of the li0uid crystal molecules. There are four 2asic surface alignments as sho7n 2elo7. In practical application1 a small tilt from parallel and perpendicular as sho7n in figures 9c: and 9d:1 namely1 pretilt is important for o2taining domain3free orientation under electric field. Mechanism and method to o2tain sta2le surface alignment ha.e 2een studied 2y many researchers. bahn empirically descri2ed the alignment is determined 2y the competition 2et7een the surface tensions of li0uid crystal and su2strate. cd. Cognard1 Mol. Cryst. 'i0. Cryst.1 e61 ,upl.1.11 91U62:] '.T. Greagh and A./. FIGURE 6: #asic li$!id cr%stal alignments bmet#1 Mol. Cryst. 'i0. Cryst.1 2Q1 4U 91Ue-:] ;. bahn et al.1 Proc. I***1 M11 62- 91Ue-:] T. chida1 Mol. Cryst. 'i0. Cryst.1 12-1 14 91U64:f1 7hich is 2ased on the relation 2et7een surface energies of the su2strates and li0uid crystal1 7hile se.eral e+perimental results contradicting their theory ha.e also 2een reported. cI. Saller8 Appl. Phys. 'ett.1 2Q1 -QU 91UeQ:] T. chida et al.1 Mol. Cryst. 'i0. Cryst.1 M51 -e 91U65:f. Saller reported that

The dispersion force is considered as the only alignment factor. It is assumed that the 'Cs align perpendicular to the free surface.

Mechanisms of the parallel1 perpendicular and tilted homogenous alignments

"arallel &lignment Parallel alignment is usually o2tained as long as the surface is microscopically flat and li0uid crystal does not contain amphiphilic impurity as 7ell as surface polarity is too lo7 to a2sor2 the impurity. \ormally1 surface coated 7ith fluorinated material 9to+ic reacti.e
chemical element8 a to+ic pale yello7 gaseous element of the halogen group that is the most reacti.e and o+idi#ing agent )no7n. ,ource8 fluorite1 cryolite. se8 7ater treatment1 ma)ing fluorides and fluorocar2ons: gi.es lo7 surface energy. Therefore1 sta2le

parallel alignment is o2tained 2y decreasing the surface polarity 2y coating polymer or surface coupling agent1 of 7hich molecules tend to adsor2 parallel to the surface. So7e.er1 these alignment are random FIGURE !: &arallel '&lanar( alignments parallel alignment. In order to o2tain homogenous alignment1 unidirectional ru22ing is necessary. Mechanism of the alignment parallel to the ru22ing direction is analy#ed 2y Berreman cPhys. /e.. 'ett.1 261 1M6- 91Ue2:f.

"erpendicular &lignment There are three proposed alignment mechanisms to o2tain perpendicular alignment. Amphiphilic materials 9surfactants: assisted alignment1 i.e.1 amphiphilic material a2sor2s perpendicular to the polar surface and 'C aligns according to the amphiphilic material. The second mechanism is the use of surface coupling agents such as silanes 9silicon-hydrogen compound: a compound of silicon and hydrogen belonging to a group analogous to the paraffin hydrocarbons. Formula: Si H : 7ith long al)yl chains. The third mechanism is microscopic columnar structure3assisted alignment 7hich is o2tained 2y ,iO3rotati.ely o2li0ue9AH=LRDX: e.aporation as reported 2y Siroshima et al. cdapan. d. Appl. Phys.1 211 'eU1 FIGURE *: &erpendic!lar '*omeotropic( 91U62:f. The three alignment mechanisms are illustrated 2elo7. Materials and process for li0uid crystals alignment in 'C&s Alignment on the clean inorganic surfaces It has alignments. 2een )no7n empirically that some li0uid crystals align perpendicular to inorganic smooth surface such as In 2O- film. The reproduci2ility and uniformity of this type of alignment is poor as the su2strate surface is ill defined. The cleaning procedures employed in the su2strate preparation also play a role1 e.g.1 MBBA 9limited to ,chiff 2ases: molecules 7ill align perpendicular to the surface of acid treated glasses of o+ides1 2ut non3uniform alignment parallel to the su2strate surface is o2tained 7ith fired or detergent cleaned glass. O+idation of In 2O- coating in an o+ygen plasma lead to layers causing parallel alignment of 2iphenyls. cG. ,pro)el and /. M. Gi22son1 d. *lectrochem. ,oc.1 12Q1 44e 91Uee:f
n 2n 2

In general1 the polarity of .arious metal o+ides increases the tendency of perpendicular alignment of 'Cs increase. $ea) surface polarity of metal o+ides fa.ors the parallel alignment. A ta2le summari#ed 2y chida is gi.en 2elo7. Alignment on the surfaces organic polymers "olymer coatings on glass substrates can be employed to align liquid crystals+ 2ut film uniformity and the su2strate used influence the o2ser.ed results. ,e.eral methods ha.e 2een used to form the polymer layer 7hich is prefera2ly thin in order to a.oid an e+cessi.e potential drop in the dielectric layer. The film may 2e transferred to the surface from a li0uid1 7hereas polymer casting and thermal or plasma polymeri#ation of the monomer ha.e also 2een used. The most common method is to form the polymer from partially polymeri#ed solution 2y dipping or spin coating follo7ed 2y curing. Polyimide layers are the most popular polymers in 'C& manufacturing to align 'Cs parallel 7ith some pretilt. Polymer coatings do not sustain high temperatures are not suita2le as the alignment layers. In general1 polymers orient the nematic director parallel to the su2strate 2ut do not induce uniform1 reproduci2le9 <=D=>D=JB I=H==R <JF: 'C alignment. Polyimides 2ecame popular in the early 1U65as as 'C& alignment layers1 and their ease of use1 sta2ility1 and reproduci2le results ha.e made them the industry standard. Most polyimides are not easily dissol.ed 9gamma32utyrolactone is a common sol.ent: and do not spincoat 7ell. Because of this1 they are usually supplied in a precursor ("hemi"al "om#ound #re"edin$ another% a "hemi"al "om#ound that leads to another& usuall' more sta(le& #rodu"t in a series o) "onne"ted rea"tions) solution of polyamic acid and an organic sol.ent such as \MP. These solutions are highly hygroscopic (a)sor)ing moist!re% "a#a(le o) easil' a(sor(in$ moisture& e $ )rom the air )1 a2le to a2sor2 se.eral percent of their 7eight in 7ater 7ithin se.eral hours] for this reason1 they are typically stored in tightly sealed containers in a free#er. After spincoating1 the films are imidi#ed 9cured: at 2553-55NC for one hour. In production settings1

an offset printer is often used for polyimide coatings. The ad.antages of this are 2etter materials utili#ation and a2ility to mas) off the gas)et9 AJ=g [EX: seal area. ;ilm thic)nesses are typically 4553655 angstroms. The cured films at this point ha.e no preferred alignment direction33ru22ing the surface of the polyimide gi.es it this direction. The cured films are ru22ed 7ith a .el.et cloth1 7hich is usually 7rapped around a rotating drum. Alternati.ely1 in a research or prototyping setting1 load ru22ing can 2e used. In load ru22ing1 a flat 7eight co.ered 7ith .el.et is dra7n accross the su2strate at a uniform speed. The ad.antage of load ru22ing is its reproduci2ility and 0uantitati.e nature. Sard ru22ing is not necessary1 and can lead to .isi2le scratches 9due to scattering: in the completed cell. /u2 strength can 2e characteri#ed 2y a pressure1 2ut 7hen a ru2 7heel is used1 it is often useful to discuss ru2 strength in terms of millimeters of pile contact length. \issan pro.ides data using this method. /u22ing is still one of the least understood aspects of 'C& fa2rication. It seems clear that there is 2oth a mechanical and a chemical component to ru22ed alignment in polyimides. /u22ing causes some groo.ing of the surface1 7hich is .isi2le 2y A;M1 and chida has sho7n that a stamped1 groo.ed9ZAFC: epo+y 7ill align li0uid crystal. So7e.er1 purely mechanical models do not accurately predict pretilts for ru22ed alignment. dohn $est has in.estigated purely chemical alignment 2y irradiation of cured polyimide films 7ith polari#ed ! light 9245 nm:. This clearly gi.es a chemical anisotropy to the film and results in good alignment. *arly polyimides ga.e planar alignment 7ith a small 913-N: pretilt1 2ut materials are no7 a.aila2le that gi.e pretilts up to Q5N1 as 7ell as homeotropic alignment. So7e.er1 o2taining relia2le1 reproduci2le pretilts in the 153Q5N range is not yet possi2le33these materials are still in a preliminary stage. \issan Chemical is essentially the sole supplier of these specialty polyimides1 and the materials are .ery e+pensi.e 9\OT*8 although the \issan materials are the 2est a.aila2le1 they are impractical to spincoat in a production setting33they must 2e printed to 2e cost effecti.e:. 'o7 pretilt materials are a.aila2le from numerous sources1 including &uPont1 and are accordingly more afforda2le. Polyimide chemical structures are not al7ays a.aila2le1 2ut some insight can 2e gained from pretilt studies. ,ome crude9 @?=GJ XD 1AJD=g: classifications of the alignment mechanism can 2e made 2ased on the 2eha.ior of the pretilt 7ith increased ru22ing strength. If pretilts are small1 2ut increase 7ith ru22ing strength1 the main chain structure is thought to 2e responsi2le for alignment. If pretilts are larger1 and decrease 7ith ru2 strength1 side chains pro2a2ly contri2ute to the pretilt. dapan ,ynthetic /u22er 9d,/: has pu2lished numerous papers in 7hich polyimides 7ith )no7n chemical structures are in.estigated1 2ut little is )no7n a2out most commercially a.aila2le materials1 especially those from \issan.

&lignment on groo%ed sur*aces and stamped morphology 9<AP=g Z=C B@A@J: /u22ing1 tangential e.aporation or shallo7 angle ion 2eam etching produce a 7a.y surface. It is ac)no7ledge that any ru22ing material gi.es good results of producing groo.ed surface

on the su2strate. So7e.er1 the reproduci2ility of the ru22ing process is not .ery good on su2strates that are simply ru22ed 9as seen in the A;M photo of ru22ed PI alignment layer:. A stamped morphology method has 2een introduced 2y chida c,I& &igest1 U4e 91UU-:f to create groo.es for 'C alignment. The non3ru22ing alignment method has the ad.antage of accurate control of pretilt angle and a#imuthal surface anchoring energy 2y changing the surface morphology. The material of the alignment layer is a 2isphenol A type epo+y resin1 7hich 7as added methanphenylenediamine as the hardener and +ylene as the sol.ent. After spin coating on ITO3glass1 the film 7as pre2a)ed at 65Co for 15 mins. The replica 7as pressed on the su2strate 7ith 455 g"cm2 force and )ept this state until the epo+y resin is stiffened. Then cooled to room temperature 2efore remo.ing the replica from the su2strate. In this 7ay1 the morphology of the replica is transferred to the su2strate. 9The photos of principle of the stamping process and morphology are sho7n 2elo7:

FIGURE +: +F, pict!re o" groo-ed s!r"ace.

&lignment on silane and Si,) treated sur*aces The silanes sometimes are considered as surface acti.e agents and sometimes as polymer forming compounds. The al)o+y silanes and chlorosilanes interact strongly 7ith silanol groups of glass surface or hydrolysis of the silane to silanol 7hich 7ill further condense into a linear polysiol+ane layer. ,urface treatments 7ith silanes ha.e 2een effected 2y dipping during 4s to 1h in 1h34h solution of the silane in 7ater1 toluene1 diluted acetic in 7ater or acetone. $ater solution are only sta2le for a fe7 hours. In the case of 0uaternary ammonium sylil compounds these methods ga.e poor results1 ho7e.er1 impro.ement 7as made 2y dipping in hot solution 9e4Co:. ,ilane3treated surface gi.e 2oth the homogenous and homogeneous alignment1 depending on the length of the al)yl chain.
FIGURE ,-: +lignment on Silane treated s!r"ace.

The e+istence of hysteresis has 2een attri2uted to contamination of either the li0uid or the solid1 rough surfaces or a2sor2ed surfaces film immo2ility.

,blique e%aporation o* silicon o)ide O2li0ue e.aporation of silicon o+ide 7as first reported 2y danning cAppl. Phys. 'ett.1 211 1e91Ue2:f. The tilt angle achie.ed 2y this method is controlled 2y the e.aporation angle. Goodman et al. cI*** Trans on *lectron &e.ices1 1 *&32Q1 eU4 91Uee:f proposed a columnar model 2ased on o2ser.ations 2y transmission electron microscope. O2li0uely deposited films ha.e a titled columnar structure 7hich is generated 2y the geometric self3shado7ing of the incident atoms 2y those already present in the gro7ing film. The o2li0ue e.aporation method can control the pretilt angle and the e.aporated film is compati2le 7ith high temperature process.

Langmuir--lodgett Films I)eno et al. cdapan. d. Appl. Phys.1 2e1 62e 91U66:f demonstrated the utility of polyimide3'B films for orienting 'Cs 7ithout performing ru22ing. Monomolecular films of amphiphilic compounds 7ere transferred to hydrophilic su2strates 2y dipping a cleaned glass plate into and out of a solution 7ith constant surface pressure 2y means of a motor dri.e. Someotropic alignment is o2tained at lo7 pac)ing density. sing this techni0ue it is possi2le to 2uild up monolayer or multilayer functional films of organic materials. The polyamidic acid 'B films for 'C alignment are the most e+tensi.ely studied material. The polyamidic acid 'B film 7ere prepared from al)ylamine salt and then remo.ed the al)ylamine to o2tain the polyamidic acid 'B film. So7e.er1 t7isted nematic 9T\: and supert7isted nematic 9,T\: 'C&s using these 'B films ha.e alignment defects1 such as re.erse t7ist and re.ere9 ?F @=?R ^=RFD 1@?=RJ: tilt caused 2y the fact the use of 'B films does not result in pretilting of li0uid crystal molecules. cI)eno et al.1 ,I& &igest1 p. Q41 91U66:f The 0uality of 'B film is high in microscopic region 2ut is poor in macroscopic areas.

"hoto-Induced &lignment o* Liquid Crystals .ith "olari/ed Light The photosensiti.e polymer1 poly9.inyl metho+y cinnamate: 9P!MC:1 7hen corsslin)ed 7ith linear polari#ed ! light 4 K"cm2 at -25nm induces proclaim9 OAFRBD 1<=DgD: optical changes and anisotropy 7hich force 'C to align homogeneously. cM. ,chadt1 dapan. d. Appl. Phys.1 -11 2144 91UU2:f The techni0ue has 2een applied to the T\ cells resulting hy2rid 'C& 7ith high resolution of alignment pattern. Its hy2rid molecular configuration is opera2le in a 2lac) and 7hite mode as 7ell as in color.
FIGURE,,:&hoto ind!ced alignment o" li$!id cr%stals .ith polari/ed light.

,urface3induced alignment of nematic li0uid crystals 7ith polari#ed laser light 7as reported 2y Gi22son et al. c\ature1 -411 QU 91UU1:f. The dia#odiamine dye at a dye8PI 7eight ratio of 182. The chemical structure is gi.en 2elo7. A cell using this coated glass su2strate as the top plate and a second1 coated 7ith PI1 as the 2ottom plates1 separated 7ith 11 mm spacers. Both PI layers 7ere ru22ed antiparallely. The cell is then filled 7ith a nematic 'C i'I31U62 and the li0uid crystal is found to align along the ru22ing direction. The cell is illuminated 7ith a polari#ed argon ion laser 941Q.4 nm: 7ith the direction of laser polari#ation parallel to the ru22ing a+is. $ithin the illuminated region1 the molecules of 'C assumed a t7isted nematic structure1 i.e.1 the 'C molecules adKacent to dye3doped surface 2ecame oriented perpendicular to the ru22ing direction 9as sho7n 2elo7:.

A second e+ample of dye chromophore1 tetraa#operimidine dye1 7as dissol.ed 1.6h in the li0uid crystal host to form a guest3host mi+ture. The guest3host li0uid crystal cell 7as then

illuminated 7ith an argon ion laser 941Q.4 nm: polari#ed along the ru22ing a+is. After 125 min e+posure at 6 $"cm2 po7er density1 'Cs 7ithin the illuminated region oriented perpendicular to the laser polari#ation. The 'Cs for the guest3host system remain aligned in the a2sence of the laser light and can 2e reoriented again 2y su2se0uent illumination. It 7as found that the guest3host 'Cs aligned this 7ay assumed a t7isted nematic structure 7ithin the illuminated region. The system may ser.e as a model system to pro2e t7o dimensional phase transition at interfaces.

FIG URE 12

&lignments *or 'ematic+ Smectic+ and Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 0 . 1chida+ 2345678 In nematic li0uid crystal cells1 there are si+ commonly used com2inations of surface alignment8 Somogenous1 homeotropic1 t7isted1 hy2rid1 165o ,T\ and 2e5o ,B*. As for smectic 'C cells1 there are three fundamental alignments8 planar1 homeotropic and focal conic. $hile in cholesteric 'C cells1 there are three corresponding alignments8 planar1 0uasi3 planar and focal conic.

&lignment *or Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals 2FLC7 One of the most important pro2lems 7ith ;'Cs is to o2tain homogenous and"or 2ista2le alignment. Because chiral smectic C phases are difficult to align 7ith a uni0ue molecular a+is 92oo)shelf te+ture:1 the phase sometime sho7s unfa.ora2le defect lines 9#ig3#ag defects: of che.ron(a heraldi" ornament in the )orm o) a .ide in/erted 01sha#e) structure. In order to remo.e #ig3#ag defects1 uniform tilt alignment is achie.ed 2y o2li0uely e.aporated ,iO and antiparallel sealed cell. The 2ista2le surface sta2ili#ed ;'C re0uires 7ea) surface anchoring. In practical1 ;'Cs can 2e made to form 2oo)shelf structures 2y lo7ering the surface energy and applying .oltage.

Spacers: &pplication
niform cell spacing is achie.ed through the use of spacers. ,pacers are usually glass or

polystyrene spheres1 or glass fi2ers of a precisely controlled diameter] they are usually a.aila2le in half micron increments. The spacers are distri2uted e.enly throughout the cell. Cell thic)nesses .ary depending upon the type of display. The ta2le 2elo7 sho7s gaps for se.eral different types of displays. T7ist cell thic)nesses are usually determined from phase matching conditions. ,T\ cells in particular are e+tremely sensiti.e to thic)ness differences.
ype o* Display T7isted nematic ,uper t7isted nematic P&'C ,,CT P,CT ypical Cell Gap 4315 microns Q36 microns 15345 microns Q34 microns 15314 microns

,,CT8 ,urface ,ta2ili#ed Cholesteric Te+ture. Bista2le reflecti.e displays P,CT8 Polymer ,ta2ili#ed Cholesteric Te+ture 9normal ( re.erse mode: Choice of spacer type is dependent upon desired properties as 7ell as display materials. Plastic spacers are necessary 7hen plastic su2strates are used. An ad.antage of plastic spacers is that their thermal e+pansion is similar to that of the li0uid crystal material. This means that at higher temperatures 7hen the li0uid crystal e+pands and causes the cell to 2o7 out7ard1 the spacers 7ill e+pand at the same rate1 maintaining the cell gap. Glass spacers do not e+pand as 0uic)ly1 and can float freely at higher temperatures. Glass fi2ers are e+tremely effecti.e at maintaining cell thic)ness1 2ut are not used .ery often in acti.e matri+ applications for fear of scratching 3 glass spheres are used instead. A .ariety of methods are a.aila2le for spacer application1 though most in use are 2ased on the same concept. The preferred method of application is to use a controlled pulse of air to disperse the spacers1 7hich then settle onto the su2strate. Many industry applicators consist of a glass 2o+ into 7hich a fine cloud of spacers is introduced. The spacers then settle onto the su2strate. This is sometimes aided 2y static charge1 2ut static in the cham2er 9especially from tri2oelectric effects: can cause spacers to clump9^=g: together. The 'CI uses a medical de.ice called a ne2uli#er9DPFGJ: to disperse the spacers. A short pulse of air 9a hand3held dispenser unit 7or)s 0uite 7ell for this: is applied to the ne2uli#er1 dispersing a fine cloud of spacers from the outlet port. One ad.antage to dry application is that re7or)ing is easy. A nitrogen gun can 2e used to remo.e the spacers. ,ol.ent assisted application can also 2e used. An air2rush or spray 2ottle can 2e used 7ith a safe sol.ent to apply the spacers. This has the distinct disad.antage of contacting the alignment layer 7ith the sol.ent. This can destroy alignment if the materials are not compati2le1 or cause more su2tle changes li)e pretilt lo7ering 9especially in high pretilt materials:. In addition1 su2strates cannot usually 2e re7or)ed1 as the spacers tend to stic) 0uite 7ell to the su2strate. One area of interest is in the de.elopment of Vstic)yV spacers. If the spacers could 2e coated 7ith some sort of adhesi.e material1 adhesi.e curing 7ould seal the entire area of the cell1 not Kust the perimeter. This 7ould eliminate the need for pressing of the cell after filling.

#dge-Seal &pplications
'i0uid crystal displays are sealed using a thin line of adhesi.e around the perimeter of the cell. A small port is left on one side for li0uid crystal inKection. ;or capillary filling1 t7o opposite sides are sealed. There is no one perfect adhesi.e for sealing li0uid crystal displays. The adhesi.e must 2e a2le to maintain 2ond strength in .ery thin layers 94315 microns:1 stand up to typical heat and humidity 9for outdoor displays:1 and 2ond dissimilar materials 7ell. Adhesi.es that 2ond 7ell to 2oth glass and polymers do not al7ays ha.e the desired characteristics. One solution is to mas) the polyimide so that the perimeter is not coated] this can 2e done 2y screen printing 9difficult to coat thin enough films: or 2y photolithography for some polyimides. Many companies de.elop custom adhesi.es1 or use com2inations of commercially a.aila2le 2rands. Adhesi.es for 'C&as should also 2e non3reacti.e 7ith the li0uid crystal and react close to 155h 9little or no .olatiles:. *dge3seal adhesi.es can 2e applied 2y automated or handheld dispensers1 or1 7ith smaller displays1 2y screen printing. ,creen printing can affect the alignment layer in the cell interior through screen contact1 and so is not fa.ored for larger displays. Automated dispensers com2ine programming features 7ith precise mechanical control of needle speed and adhesi.e flo7 rate] they gi.e e+tremely reproduci2le results and allo7 for fle+i2le processing. &ispenser units are a.aila2le from Asymte)1 Accudyne1 and *;&1 to name a fe7. The dispensing method is usually most effecti.e for medium .iscosity materials. !3cure and thermal3cure adhesi.es are 2oth used in the 'C& industry. !3cure adhesi.es are easy to 7or) 7ith and 7ell3suited to dispensing application. Materials are a.aila2le from \orland1 Master Bond1 ThreeBond1 and 'octite. !3cure materials can 2e formulated to 2ond 7ell to glass1 plastics1 and metals1 2ut do not usually ha.e the strength or temperature sta2ility of thermal cure materials. Thermal cure materials are usually more suited to screen printing. The 'CI currently uses \orlandas \OA M61 7hich is .ery easy to 7or) 7ith 2ut 7hich has limited temperature sta2ility. After application of spacers and then adhesi.e to one su2strate1 the cell is assem2led 2y placing the other su2strate on top. At this point1 the t7o su2strates can 2e aligned if necessary1 2efore they are pressed together for the curing process. $hile curing1 the su2strates must 2e pressed together so that they rest on the spacers. Thermal cure adhesi.es are placed in a heat press1 7hile ! materials are pressed together so that the adhesi.e is e+posed. One method is to place the cell on a .acuum plate and co.er 7ith a transparent1 fle+i2le material 9such as Sandi3$rap: that 7ill conform to the cell and lightly press it do7n onto the spacers. At this point1 monochromatic light can 2e used to inspect cell uniformity] if nonuniform1 \e7ton rings 7ill 2e .isi2le. After curing1 the cell 7ill usually sho7 interference fringes in 7hite light. The reason for this is that stresses in the glass gi.e it a tendency to 2o71 and after sealing1 the t7o sides of the display 2ulge9CPH<BD 1E=D?D: out7ards. These interference fringes usually form concentric rings around the cell center.

Cell Filling and Sealing

Cell filling1 sometimes referred to as li0uid crystal inKection1 is done in a .acuum cham2er to

minimi#e defects caused 2y trapped gases in the li0uid crystal material. Capillary filling is sometimes used in a research setting 2ecause of its ease. &egassing of the li0uid crystal is e+tremely important. If the li0uid crystal is not properly degassed1 trapped gases 7ill com2ine o.er time to produce 2u22les in the display1 rendering it useless in most cases. $hen the cham2er is e.acuated1 trapped gases in the li0uid crystal material 2oil out. This process is sometimes aided 2y ultrasonic agitation of the li0uid crystal1 as 7ell as heating to the isotropic phase for filling. Although desira2le1 heating is a delicate process 2ecause e.aporation of li0uid crystal can occur. All 2road range nematic li0uid crystals are eutectic 9*ormed at the lo.est *ree/ing point8 descri2es a mi+ture1 especially an
alloy1 that has the lo7est free#ing point of all com2inations or constituents1 or the temperature at 7hich this occurs:

mi+tures of many different pure li0uid crystals1 each ha.ing different .apor pressures. Care must 2e ta)en to pre.ent e.aporation of certain components 9mi+tures containing PCS3-21 in particular1 are suscepti2le to this:. ;or the same reason1 ultimate .acuum pressures should not 2e smaller than necessary] 153-5 millitorr is usually ade0uate. Once the li0uid crystal material has 2een degassed and ultimate pressure is reached1 the cell is ready to 2e filled. The li0uid crystal is 2rought into contact 7ith the display filling port1 and the material 2egins to fill into the cell through capillary action. If the port is co.ered 2y li0uid crystal1 the cham2er .acuum can 2e slo7ly released to speed filling33the pressure differential 2et7een the cham2er and cell interior 7ill force the material into the cell. ;illing stations are commercially a.aila2le in a num2er of configurations1 2ut are often custom made. The 'CI uses a 2ell Kar .acuum cham2er. The li0uid crystal material is placed in a trough9BDG<:. The unfilled cell is mounted a2o.e the trough on a mo.a2le stage1 7ith the filling port facing the li0uid crystal trough. After the cham2er is pumped do7n and the li0uid crystal degassed1 the cell is lo7ered into contact 7ith the li0uid crystal. The disad.antage of this setup is its 7astefulness. Only a fraction of the li0uid crystal material is used inside the cell1 the rest is 7iped from the outside of the cell or lost in the transfer ( pipetting from 2ottle to trough. A 2etter method uses small VpitchersV of se.eral drops of li0uid crystal1 7hich are 2rought into contact 7ith the fill port. Production filling stations are often .acuum o.ens that ha.e 2een modified to allo7 for cell filling. A long trough can 2e used for filling a large num2er of cells at once. The 7ic) method can also 2e used] a 7ic) protruding9E=D?D 1XAY=BD: from the li0uid crystal 2ottle is contacted to the filling port. This method eliminates the 7aste from pipette9<FP=P^: transfer. After filling1 the cell has once again 2o7ed1 and must 2e pressed do7n to the spacers 7hen sealing the fill port. This is done 7ith a 2ladder9 <AC=PD^ IAAGJ: press. 4315 P,I is ade0uate pressure to apply to the cell 9pressures j 1 atm can lead to .oids in the cell:. After applying pressure1 e+cess li0uid crystal is 7iped from the cell edge1 and epo+y is applied to seal the cell. One difficulty encountered 7ith the filling process is flo73induced alignment. $ith some alignment materials1 the flo7 of the li0uid crystal during filling is enough to induce an alignment different than desired. This can 2e eliminated 2y an annealing 2a)e after cell sealing. This heats the li0uid crystal to the isotropic state1 and su2se0uent cooling yields alignment unaffected 2y flo7. This tends to 2e a 2igger pro2lem 7ith high pretilt polyimides.

0i$!id 1r%stal 1ells &reparation 2escription o" &rocesses

2ro"ess% 2ol'imide% Thinner% ;ix% >#in% @aAin$% Thi"Aness%

3li$nment la'er )or 2lanar 456s 78 (7ita"hi 8u#ont) 2I9555 T+-:+ ,<2ol'imide= 5<Thinner ,min at ?--- R2; (a) Ram# to )rom room tem#erature to 95-6 in , hour (() @aAe at 95- 6 )or , hour (") 8o.n )rom 95- 6 to room tem#erature in , hour B9-nm (on CuartD)

"rocedure:
General Re$!irements: a 6leanin$ "hemi"als% a"etone& I23& !E deter$ent 5F in 8I .ater& 8I .ater .ith resisti/it' lar$er than ,-; ohms& and sometimes toluene("lamma)le colorless li$!id: a "olorless liGuid aromati"
h'dro"ar(on resem(lin$ (enDene& (ut less )lamma(le Use% sol/ent& hi$h1o"tane )uel& or$ani" s'nthesis Formula% 6 !7* )

( " d e ) $

h i

The $rade o) "hemi"als to (e used should (e ele"troni" $rade 6lean room% "lass ,-8ress reGuirements% as #er "lean room "lass ,-6lean room tem#erature% ,!61956 7umidit'% ?-166leaned tools% maAe sure ea"h #ro"ess ste# has its main "lean tools su"h as (eaAers& 2etri dishes& and t.eeDers(HIJKL) 6lean room tools% )ilters& s'rin$es(MNOPQ)& to.els& t.eeDers& s.a(s(RIQ)& et" & should (e a##ro#riate )or "lass ,-- "lean room .ith em#hasis on their a(ilit' not to $enerate an' "ontamination (ein$ or$ani"& #arti"les or ions Tools should (e stored in a##ro#riate "ontainers #er the #ro"edure (elo. >tora$e% maAe sure $lass and >i .a)ers are stored in "lean& dr' lo"ations under their "orre"t name a""ordin$ to (at"h num(er& date& et" 8istin$uish (et.een "leaned and dirt' #ie"es Sa)ers trans)er #ro"edure% 8i"e >i .a)ers should (e re"ei/ed )rom #ro"ess in a la(elled "ontainer to$ether .ith the Sa)er Trans)er Form .ith the same la(el 8i"ed $lass .a)ers in a la(elled "ontainer should (e re"ei/ed )rom the #ro"ess .ith the Glass Run 6ard .ith the same la(el Tou must /eri)' that the #ro#er la(el has (een atta"hed

1. 1leaning: The )ollo.in$ #ro"edure a##lies to non1"lean #ie"es o) $lass and >i I) the #ie"es ha/e under$one(OU &V) a "leanin$ #ro"edure (ut .ere l'in$ in a "lean dr' #la"e then rinsin$(&WIX YZH) in I23 and a"etone is usuall' adeGuate(NLVQ) I) the #ie"es are "oated .ith resist then [um# to , !% , , For GuartD #ie"es .ith remnants o) .ax )rom the di"in$(R\\N\] RY) (other.ise [um# to , 9)& 'ou should "lari)' in .hat "hemi"al this Aind o) .ax dissol/es (4ote% Se had ex#erien"ed some Aind o) .ax that .e "leaned in toluene )or ?5 min in ultrasound .ith heatin$ and another Aind that .as sim#l' dissol/ed in a"etone .ithout heatin$) 3)ter this ste# do not #er)orm , 91 , ? ^um# to , 5 , 9 >.a( the su(strates all o/er .ith "otton .ool(OQJ) soaAed(_\LV) in deter$ent , : Rinse in 8I .ater )or at least :- se" , ? 2ut the su(strates in deter$ent ultrasoni" (ath )or :-min , 5 Rinse in 8I .ater )or at least :-s

, 6 2ut in ultrasoni" (ath o) 8I .ater )or ,-min& three times "han$in$ the .ater ea"h time (total :-min) , ! 2ut in ultrasoni" (ath o) a"etone )or :-min (I) the #ie"es are "oated .ith resist start here) , * 2ut in ultrasoni" (ath o) iso#ro#'l al"ohol (I23) )or :-min , + Rinse .ith 8I .ater and determine ho. "lean the su(strates (' o(ser/in$ .hether the .ater .ets the su(strates sur)a"es I) the 8I .ater )ilm is not uni)orm /isuall' then more a$$ressi/e "leanin$ is reGuired Use the "lean su(strates onl' and lea/e the un"lean ones aside )or )uture re1"leanin$ , ,@lo.1dr' the "lean ones .ith "lean 49 2urit' s#e"% ++ ++F , ,, >#innin$ and s.a((in$ "an o(tain a hel#)ul )inal "leanin$ #ro"edure% 2ut the "lean su(strate on the s#inner "entered on the "hu"A .ith the side to (e "oated u# >#in it at 5---R2; (ram# o) ,----R2; #er se") )or ,min (re"i#e +) and durin$ the s#innin$ #our some I23 and s.a( it I) ne"essar' re#eat .ith a"etone 2. S!)strates Inspection: 9 , 5ooA on the su(strates under the mi"ros"o#e usin$ , 95x and 9-x o([e"ti/es )or )urther "on)iden"e in their "leanness The un"lean ones should not (e used Tou ma' tr' no. to re1 "lean .ith the s#inner as #er , ,, 9 9 5a' the $lass su(strates on the o#ti"al )lat under the $reen li$ht and .at"h the sur)a"e Gualit' (maAe sure the )lat is "lean and its (ottom sur)a"e on a "lean di))usi/e sur)a"e I) not "lean then s.a( it .ith I23 "are)ull') I) the inter)eren"e )rin$es(M\X) are strai$ht lines then the su(strate "an (e used& (ut i) the "ur/ature o) the inter)eren"e )rin$es is lar$er than hal) a )rin$e then do not use it Srite a note on the Gualit' o) the su(strates 9 : Re#eat 9 9 .ith the >i su(strates (ut here the o#ti"al )lat is on to# o) the >i .ith the (are >i side (ein$ ins#e"ted 9 ? For lon$1term stora$e (more than a da')& store the "leaned su(strates in a "lean dr' (ox .ith sili"a $el sa"As in it For short1term stora$e (u# to )e. hours)& #la"e the "leaned su(strates in a "lean 2etri dish that has a "lean "o/er until 'ou start the next ste# 3. Spin coating o" pol%imide: : , Use the #ol'imide 2I 9555 diluted in its thinner(,%9- (ZQ (' .ei$ht The (ottle is Ae#t in the re)ri$erator and has ma$neti" stirrer(XY\ )in it 2ut it on the stirrer (.ithout heatin$) )or ,5 min (e)ore usin$ I) the solution is #re#ared )or the )irst time then it needs to (e stirred )or ,hours (e)ore use Re#la"e the ne.l' #re#ared (ottle e/er' : months : 9 Fill a "lean s'rin$e (i) not& "lean it )irst .ith 8I .ater then .ith a"etone and I23 and dr' it .ith 49) and atta"h to its end a su(1mi"ron )ilter : : 2ut the "lean su(strate on the s#inner "entered on the "hu"A .ith the side to (e "oated u# >#in it at 5---R2; (ram# o) ,----R2; #er se") )or ,min (re"i#e +) and durin$ the s#innin$ #our some I23 This ste# is /er' hel#)ul to ensure "lean sur)a"e #rior to the a##li"ation o) the #ol'imide For the >i #ie"es s#ra' a"etone and then I23 : ? I) the .i#ers around the s#inner are .et due to the I23 or a"etone s#ra'in$& then #re)era(l' re#la"e them as the /a#ours "an arri/e to the su(strate and a))e"t the 2I la'er(2hoto Indu"ed la'er) : 5 For the >i #ie"es onl'& the adhesion o) the 2I .as )ound to (e (etter i) 'ou heat them )or ,-min at +-6 either in the o/en or on the hot #late #rior to 2I a##li"ation : 6 Shile the su(strate on the "hu"A& #our the #ol'imide on it )rom the "lean s'rin$e throu$h a su(1mi"ron )ilter until it is "o/ered Use ele"troni" $rade )ilter to a/oid ioni" "ontamination : ! For the >i #ie"es onl'% s#in at ?---R2; (ram# o) 5--R2; #er s") )or ,min (re"i#e *) This #rodu"es a )ilm o) 9-nm For ea"h (rand ne. (ottle "he"A the thi"Aness o) the 2I )ilm : * For the $lass #ie"es onl'% s#in at ?---R2; (ram# o) :---R2; #er se") )or ,min (re"i#e !)

: + 7a/e a looA at the (a"Aside o) the su(strate and "lean it )rom ex"ess 2I .ith a"etone and s.a( ;aAe sure the a"etone does not arri/e to the to#side : ,5a' the su(strate on a "lean 2etri dish s#e"i)i"all' )or 2I "oated su(strates and #ut in the o/en at ,9-6 )or :-min then hard (aAe at 9?5 6 )or , hour then let it "ool naturall' .ith "losed door The .hole #ro"ess o) heatin$ the o/en& maintainin$ it at 9?5 6 )or , hour and "oolin$ to sa' 5- 6 should taAe a(out : hours : ,, It is #ossi(le to Aee# the su(strates in a "lean dr' #la"e )or u# to !9 hours (e)ore $oin$ to ste# ?& other.ise #re)era(l' re1heat at ,9-6 )or :-min `ee# the "oated #ie"es in a "lean dr' (ox .ith sili"a $el inside 4. R!))ing: Using the rubbing machine: ? , @lo. some "lean dr' 49 on the drum "oated .ith the Ra'on(R\abQ XQ) "loth ? 9 2ut the su(strates on the sta$e o) the ru((in$ ma"hine and .ith a #en maAe a si$n on one ed$e )or the ru((in$ dire"tion On the >i #ie"e 'ou "annot maAe a si$n .ith a #en& so use the "onta"t or an' other si$n to maAe sure o) the ru((in$ dire"tion 3lso this /aries de#endin$ on the $ratin$ dire"tion and .hether the "ell is TE or T; This in)ormation "an (e o(tained )rom the .a)er trans)er )orm ? : Turn the motor o) the ru((in$ .heel O4 at ? 0olts ? ? >lo.l' lo.er the .heel and .at"h )or the /olta$e measured .ith the /oltmeter Shen the /olta$e [ust starts to dro# ()e. m0olts)& sto# lo.erin$ and start mo/in$ the sta$e to.ards the ma"hine in a s#eed su"h that ea"h su(strate $et ru((ed 5-1,-- times (re/olutions o) the .heel) Ex"ess #ressure ma' "ause the 2I to start #eelin$ o)) the sur)a"e ? 5 >to# the /olta$e su##l' and hi$her the .heel so that it is #ossi(le to taAe the su(strates out ? 6 TaAe the su(strates out and (lo. "lean dr' 49 on them ? ! 6o/er the ru((in$ ma"hine .ith its (a$ Using manual rubbing: ? * 2ut the su(strates on the sta$e o) the ru((in$ ma"hine and .ith a #en maAe a si$n on one ed$e )or the ru((in$ dire"tion On the >i #ie"e 'ou "annot maAe a si$n .ith a #en& so use the "onta"t or an' other si$n to maAe sure o) the ru((in$ dire"tion 3lso this /aries de#endin$ on the $ratin$ dire"tion and .hether the "ell is TE or T; This in)ormation "an (e o(tained )rom the .a)er trans)er )orm ? + For ru((in$& use the (la"A Ra'on "loth stret"hed on a "u(i"al (ox (.ith a siDe that is eas' to handle) and maAe sure it is re#la"ed e/er' 5- "ells @lo.1dr' 49 on it (e)ore use ? ,Ru( the su(strates unidire"tionall' !- times @e)ore ru((in$ (lo. some dr' "lean 49 to remo/e dust 8o not a##l' an' #ressure& sim#l' let the "loth )eathers tou"h the sur)a"e In order to maAe sure that the ru((in$ is done in the same dire"tion 'ou ma' use a ri$id and strai$ht .all in the le)t side to a"t as a $uide to 'our hand ? ,, TaAe the su(strates out and (lo. "lean dr' 49 on them ? ,9 >tore the ru((in$ tools in a "lean dr' (ox .ith sili"a $el sa"As inside 3. Spacers applications and assem)l%: 5 , 6lean the su(strates assem(l' holder )rom an' dust 5 9 Use the s#a"ers sus#ension in U06, $lue inside the s'rin$e o) the dis#enser 5 : 3##l' six dots& : alon$ ea"h side o) the *mm axis o) the >i su(strate 5 ? 5a' the >i su(strate on the assem(l' holder `ee# the $lass su(strate on a "lean sur)a"e 5 5 Usin$ "lean t.eeDers handle .ith "are the se"ond su(strate and la' it on to# o) the ,st so that the ru((in$ dire"tions are anti4parallel to ea"h other

5 6 2ress the su(strates to$ether until 'ou start to see the inter)eren"e )rin$es then tr' to ad[ust the #ressure to $et one uni)orm )rin$e ;aximum num(er o) allo.ed )rin$es is hal) )rin$e )or , 5um "ell ccc In order not to $et de)ormations a)ter remo/in$ the #ressure& 'ou should a##l' it on the s#a"ers 2ressure should (e the minimum adeGuate 5 ! I) the num(er o) )rin$es is lar$e& it means 'ou ha/e stron$ .ed$e(HNYZ &N\ZH) or de)ormations ori$inatin$ either )rom the su(strates themsel/es or )rom dirt There is no #oint in "ontinuin$ .ith these su(strates Tr' re1"leanin$ and re#la"in$ the s#a"ers and i) it does not im#ro/e& thro. the su(strates a.a' and use ne. ones 5 * I) 'ou are satis)ied .ith the assem(l' then "ure the $lue .ith the U0 $un )rom to# )or 6se"onds ;aAe sure 'ou .ear the U0 #rote"tion $lasses and dondt looA dire"tl' on the (eam The distan"e o) the $un li$ht out#ut )rom the su(strate should (e the minimum adeGuate (, "m is oA) I) 'ou ha/e to shine U0 li$ht )rom lar$er distan"e then in"rease the ex#osure time a""ordin$ to the sGuare o) the )ra"tional in"rease o) the distan"e 5 + TaAe the assem(led su(strates out o) the holder and seal the "ell sides .ith U0>+, alon$ the *mm and #art o) the 5mm sides lea/in$ inlet and outlet ,mm a#ertures )or 56 )illin$ 3##li"ation o) the $lue )rom the sides ser/es also as a sealant(M\Ib OQ\Y) 5 ,6ure the U0>+, sealant usin$ the 7$ lam# )or *min .hen the "ell is 9"m (elo. the )i(re exit ,a5e s!re %o! co-er the acti-e area o" the &I to )loc5 the U "rom irradiating it 5 ,, 5a' the o#ti"al )lat on the "ell sur)a"es under the $reen li$ht and .at"h the Gualit' o) ea"h sur)a"e Srite a note on the Gualit' o) the sur)a"es and .hether the assem(l' has #rodu"ed an' de)ormation 5 ,9 6lean and the dis#ensin$ tools .ith a"etone and I23& (lo. dr' .ith 49 and store in a "lean dr' (ox .ith sili"a $el sa"As in it 6. 01 "illing: 6 , TaAe the 56 (ottle to (e used )rom the re)ri$erator )e. minutes (e)ore usin$ 6 9 Turn the o/en O4 to start heatin$ u# to : de$rees a(o/e the "learin$ tem#erature (,--6 )or E??) For the /a"uum o/en it taAes 6-min to heat u# to ,--6& so 'ou ma' .ant to turn it on (e)ore the )illin$ (' 6-min 6 : 2ut the assem(led su(strates in a "lean 2etri dish s#e"i)i"all' )or this #ur#ose and maAe sure the o/en is #re1heated to the "learin$ #oint 6 ? Sith a shar# "lean needle stored in a s#e"ial (ox& taAe a small dro# o) the 56 material )rom the (ottle and #ut it on the ed$e (et.een the t.o assem(led su(strates The 56 .ill start )illin$ the $a# (' the capillar% s!ction e/en at room tem#erature 6 5 Immediatel' #ut the 2etri dish .ith the su(strates in it in the o/en and #um# it do.n to ,5-m@ar )or 9min& then slo.l' release the #ressure to normal 6 6 Turn the o/en OFF or i) 'ou ha/e an alread' #re#ared #ro$ramme& use it so that it starts "oolin$ at rou$hl' a rate o) - 56 #er min (et.een ,-:6 till 781& then 'ou ma' in"rease the "oolin$ rate i) 'ou .ish to ,196 #er min This latest rate "an (e a"hie/ed (' turnin$ o)) the o/en and o#enin$ the door sli$htl' 6 ! Tou "an taAe the sam#le out .hen the tem#erature is (elo. ?-6 6 * 6lean and the 56 )illin$ tools .ith a"etone and I23& (lo. dr' .ith 49 and store in a "lean dr' (ox .ith sili"a $el sa"As in it 9. Finishing and 1ell Inspection: ! , 6lean "are)ull' an' ex"ess 56 material .ith a dr' s.a( 8o not !se sol-ent #lease as these "an mi$rate inside the "ell ! 9 0isuall' looA at the "ell under the mi"ros"o#e I) it looAs oA to 'ou in terms o) uni)ormit' and "leanness& [um# to the next ste#& other.ise there is no #oint to "ontinue @est o(ser/ation is .hen the #olariDers are "rossed and rotate the "ell to see that the extin"tion #osition (darA

#osition) is o(tained .hen the #olariDer axis is alon$ the ru((in$ dire"tion or #er#endi"ular to it Retardation "olours are (est o(ser/ed .ith the ru((in$ dire"tion is at ?5o to the #olariDer axis ! : 5a' the o#ti"al )lat on the "ell sur)a"es under the $reen li$ht and .at"h the Gualit' o) ea"h sur)a"e Srite a note on the Gualit' o) the sur)a"es and .hether the 56 )illin$ has #rodu"ed an' de)ormation ! ? >eal the 5mm ed$es o) the "ell .ith U0>+, and "ure it .ith the 7$ lam# )or *min .hile protecting the 01 area "rom the U For #rote"tion use a metalli" sheet or a >i sheet .ith the "orre"t siDe 8istan"e o) the "ell )rom the )i(er exit should (e 9"m ! 5 Remo/e the 2I )rom the "onta"t area (' s"rat"hin$ the 2I .ith shar# needle ! 6 6onne"t the .ires usin$ sil/er #aste and some e#ox' on to# to hold them For "onsisten"'& the (la"A .ire to >i and the red to $lass :;<= :> ?@A BCDE F ! ! 6lean "are)ull' the sur)a"es o) the su(strates ! * O(ser/e retardation "olours :AG= :> ?@AF)) .ith , 95x o([e"ti/e& (est o(ser/ed .ith the ru((in$ dire"tion is at ?5o to the #olariDer axis and the anal'ser :> :HF)) is "rossed to the #olariDer ! + 3##l' lo. )reGuen"' (u# to 9-7D) ,-0##& sGuare .a/e to the "ell and .at"h i) it is )li"Aerin$ ! ,TaAe #i"ture o) the retardation "olour ma# at% -0& 50##& ,-0## at ,--A7D and at - 91 9A7D looAin$ )or an' "olour nonuni)ormit' di))erent )rom that at -0 2i"A the )reGuen"' that $i/es the .orst "olour nonuni)ormit'