Diffraction

Topics
Diffraction and wave theory of light
Single-slit diffraction
Intensity in single-slit diffraction
Diffraction at a circular aperture
Double-slit interference and diffraction
combined
Multiple slits
Diffraction gratings
Dispersion and resolving power
X-ray diffraction
Text Book:
PHYSICS VOL 2 by Halliday, Resnickand Krane(5
th
Edition)
Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of obstacles
or slits, and hence its encroachment into the region of geometrical
shadow is known as diffraction.
For diffraction effects to be noticeable, the size of the object causing
diffraction should have dimensions comparable to the wavelength of
light falling on the object.
DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
Diffraction pattern of razor blade
viewed in monochromatic light
Diffraction
For plane waves entering a single slit, the waves emerging from the
slit start spreading out, diffracting.
Huygens Principle: All points on a wavefront serve as point sources of spherical
secondary wavelets. After time t, the new position of the wavefront will be that of a
surface tangent to these secondary wavelets.
Light as a Wave
Fig. 35-2
Diffraction pattern occurs
whencoherent wave-frontsof
light fall on opaque barrier B,
whichcontainsanapertureof
arbitrary shape. The
diffraction pattern can be
seenonscreenC.
When C is very close to B a
geometricshadowisobserved
becausethediffractioneffects
arenegligible.
DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
Types of Diffraction
1. Fresnel Diffraction
2. Fraunhofer Diffraction
Fresnel diffraction & Fraunhoferdiffraction
Both Incident wave front are
spherical or cylindrical
Both the source and the screen
are effectively at finite
distances, from the aperture
causing diffraction.
No convex lens used
Anal ysi s of pattern is
complicated
Both incident and emergent wave
fronts are plane.
Both the source and the screen
are effectivel y at infinite
distances, from the aperture
causing diffraction.
Two convex lenses are used.
Analysi s of pattern is simple.
In laboratory Fraunhofer diffraction is realized by using converging
lenses for conversion of spherical wavefront into plane wavefront and
vice versa.
Interference
Superposition of two separate
wave fronts originating from
two coherent source.
The regions of minimum
intensity is perfectly dark
Equal fringes width
Uniform intensity
Diffraction
Superposition of secondary
wavelets originating from different
parts of the same wave front
The regions of minimum intensity
is not perfectly dark
Un-equal fringes width
Non- uniform intensity
SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
Suppose light is incident on single slit of width a, then all the
diffracted rays arriving at P
0
are in-phase.
Hence they interfere constructivel y and produce maximum
(central maximum) of intensity I
0
at P
0
.
When the path length difference between rays r
1
and r
2
is /2, the two
rays will be out of phase when they reach P
1
on the screen, resulting in
destructive interference at P
1
. The starting point of r
2
at the center of the
slit to point b.
At point P
1
, path difference between r
1
and r
2
is (a/2) sinu
2
sin
2

u =
a
This is satisfied for every pair of rays, one
of which is from upper half of the slit and
the other is a corresponding ray from
lower half of the slit.
u = sin a
So the condition for First minimum
For second minimum at P
2
, divide slit into 4 zones of
equal widths a/4 (separation between pairs of rays).
Destructive interference occurs when the path length
difference for each pair is /2.
(second minimum)
sin sin 2
4 2
a
a

u u = =
Dividing the slit into increasingl y larger even
numbers of zones, we can find higher order minima:
There is a secondary maximum approximatel y hal f
way between each adjacent pair of minima.
. . . 3, 2, 1, m
sin
=
= u m a
In General, the condition for m
th
minima,
Expression for Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction
To find the net electric fi eld E

(intensity o E

2
) at point P on
the screen.
The slit is equall y divided into
N zones, each with width x.
Each zone acts as a source of
Huygens wavelets. These
zones can be superimposed at
the screen to obtai n the
intensity as a function of , the
angle to the central axis.
INTENSITY IN SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION
u o

t
= | A sin x
2
phase path length
2
difference difference
t

| | | |
| |
=
| | |
\ .
\ . \ .
The phase relationships among the wavelets arriving from different
zones is given by
INTENSITY IN SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION
a) Central maximum
b) A direction slightly
shifted from central
maximum
c) First minimum
d) First maximum beyond
the central maximum
( corresponds to N = 18)
Phasors in single slit diffraction,
showing conditions at
Intensity in Single slit diffraction
If we divide the slit into
infinitesimall y wide zones x,
the arc of the phasors
approaches the arc of a circle.
The length of the arc is E
m
.
f is the difference in phase
between the infinitesimal
vectors at the left and right
ends of the arc. f is also the
angle between the 2 radii
marked R.
o
o
|
|
u
u
sin
E
2
sin
2
E
m
m
E
E
=
=
f is the phase difference between rays from the top and bottom
of the slit. The path difference for these rays is asin.
f is related to the path length difference across the entire slit.
R
E 2 /
2
sin
diagram, From
u
|
=
2
sin 2
|
u
R E =

) E (
m
| R Arclength =
R
E
m
= |
2
where
|
o =
So we can write
3,..... 2, 1, m where m sin or,
3,..... 2, 1, m where m
0 sin minima, for eqn., above the From
intensity max. the is I where
sin
I
sin
E I intensity The
2
m
2
m
2
2
m
2
= =
= =
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
u
t o
o
o
o
o
o
u u
a
E
E
m
u

t
=
|
= o
u

t
= |
sin
a
2
So,
sin a
2
INTENSITY IN SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION
The intensity distribution in
single-slit diffraction for three
different values of the ratio a/
The condition for minimum is
asin= m
Phase difference is given by
= m
The condition for maximum is
asin= (m+ )
Phase difference is given by
= (m+1/2)
NOTE: = f /2 half the Phase diff
m=1,2,3,4,.
[1] When a monochromatic light is incident on a slit 0.022mm wide, the
first diffraction minimum is observed at an angle of 1.8
o
from the
direction of the incident beam. Find the wavelength of incident light.
Solution:
a sin= m
For first minimum, m=1,
=a sin
=(0.022mm) (sin1.8
0
)
=691nm
[2a] A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. For what value of a
does the minimum for red light ( = 650nm) fall at u = 15
o
?
Solution:
a sin= m
For first minimum, m=1,
a=/ sin
=650nm/sin15
0
a=2.51m
[2b] What is the wavelength of the light whose first diffraction
maximum (not counting the central maximum) falls at 15
o
, thus
coinciding with the first minimum of red light?
Solution:
The condition for maximum is ,
asin= (m+ )
= asin/ (m+ )
= [2.51m x sin15
0
)]/(1+)
= 433nm
Light of this wavelength is violet.
[3] A singl e slit is illuminated by light whose wavelengths are
a
and
b
,
so chosen that the first diffraction minimum of
a
component coincides
with the second minimum of the
b
component.
(a) What is the relationship between the two wavelengths?
(b) Do any other minima in the two patterns coincide?
Solution:
a) We have asin=m -----(1)
a sin
a
=
a
a sin
b
= 2
b
If the angles match, then so will the sine of the angles.

a
= 2
b
a a
b a
2 1
=
(b) Do any other minima in the two patterns coincide?
Using Eq. (1) and We have
a
= 2
b
m
a
= m
b
/2
when m
b
is an even integer m
a
is an integer. Then all of the direction
minima from
a
are overlapped by a minima from
b
.
a
m
a
b b a

=
a
m
a
m
a
b b b

=
2 m
a
[4] Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the maxima in the
single slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
Solution:
The maxima lie approximately half way between the minima and are
roughly given by = (m+1/2) , m=1,2,3.
Substituting into equation I

= I
m
(sin/ )
2
I

= I
m
[sin (m+1/2) / (m+1/2) ]
2
which reduces to
I

/ I
m
= {1 / (m+1/2)
2

2
}
This yield
I

/ I
m
= 0.045 ( m=1)
I

/ I
m
=0.016 ( m=2)
I

/ I
m
=0.0083 ( m=3) and so forth.
The successive maxima decrease rapidly in intensity.
[5] Monochromatic light with wavelength 538 nm falls on a slit with width
25.2m. The distance from the slit to a screen is 3.48m. Consider a point
on the screen 1.13cm from the central maximum. Calculate .
(a) u (b) o
(c)ratio of the intensity at this point to the intensity at the central
maximum
(a) This is a small angle approximation problem,
sin tan Y/D
=(1.13 x 10
-2
m)/(3.48 m)
=3.25 x10
-3
rad
(b) The phase difference, is
= (a/)sin
=( x 25.2 x 10-
6
m/538 x 10-
9
m) sin( 3.25 10-
3
rad)
= 0.478 rad
(c) The intensity at a point is related to the intensity at the
central maximum by Eq.
2
sin
(

=
o
o
u
m
I
I
926 . 0 =
2
) 478 . 0 (
) 478 . 0 sin(
(

=
rad
rad
[6] Find the width Au of the central maximum in a single slit Fraunhofer
diffraction. The width can be represented as the angle between the two
points in the pattern where the intensity is one-half that at the center of
the pattern. (Given a=5 in fig)
Solution:
We have I

= I
m
(sin/ )
2
and given I

=I
m
/2
(sin/ )
2
=1/2
Put cal in radian mode and start from
x
=1
Let us rewrite the equation as
x
=2 sin
x

x
= 1.39156 (ittertative)

x
=(a/)sin
x

x
= sin
-1
(
x
/ a )
= sin
-1
(1.39/ 5 ) By considering a=5
=5.1
0
The width of the curve is then found from = 2
x
=10.2
0
DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE
DIFFRACTION PATTERN DUE TO A CIRCULAR APERTURE
Light
u
a
Image is not a point, as expected from geometrical optics! Diffraction is
responsible for this image pattern.
Diffraction at a circular aperture
Infocusinganimage, alenspossesonlythelight that fallswithinitscircular
perimeter. Formthis pint of view, alens behaves likeacircular aperturein
anopaquescreen, suchanapertureforms adiffractionpatternanalogous to
that of asingleslit . Diffraction effects often limit theability of telescopes
andother instrumentstoform apreciseimages.
Distant point
source, e,g., star
lens
d
u
Image is not a point, as expected from geometrical optics! Diffraction is
responsiblefor thisimagepattern.
DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE
Themathematical analysisof diffractionbyacircular aperture
shows that the first minimumoccurs at an angle fromthe
central axisgivenby
aperture. of diameter the is d where
d
22 . 1 sin

= u
width slit the is a where
a
sin
is n diffractio slit single in minimum first for equation The

= u
In case of circular aperture, the factor 1.22 arises when we divide the
aperture into elementary Huygens sources and integrate over the
aperture.
Rayleighs criterion for optical resolution: The images of two closel y
spaced sources is said to be just resolved if the angular separation of the
two point sources is such that the central maxi mum of the diffraction
pattern of one source falls on the first minimum of the diffraction pattern
of the other.
d
is
d
R

u
u

u
22 . 1
as d appoximate be can it small, very since 22 . 1 sin
R
R
1
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

u
R
is the smallest
angular separation for
which we can resolve
the images of two
objects.
a. Notresolved
b. Justresolved
c. Well resolved
Application:
We can resolve an object of smaller angular separation in
lens by
1. Increasing the lens diameter or
2. Using a shorter wavelength
Example: Telescope, microscope
The pointillistic painting. The Seine at Herblay by Maximilien Luce
consists of thousands of colored dots. With the viewer very close to the
canvas, the dots and their true colors are visible. At normal viewing
distances, the dots are irresolvable and thus blend.
[1] A converging lens 32mm in diameter has a focal length f of 24 cm. (a)
What angular separation must two distant point objects have to satisfy
Rayleighs criterion? Assume that = 550nm. (b) How far apart are the
centers of the diffraction patterns in the focal plane of the lens?
Solution:
(a) We have

R
= 1.22 (/d)
= 1.22 ( 550 x 10
-9
/32 x10
-3
)

R
= 2.10 x 10
-5
rad
(b) The linear seperation is X=f
R
=0.24 x 2.10 x 10
-5
rad
=5m
[2] The wall of a large room is covered with acoustic tile in which small
holes are drilled 5.2mm from the center to the center. How far can a
person be from such a tile and still distinguish individual holes
assuming ideal conditions? Assume the diameter of the pupil of the
observers eye to be 4.6mm and the wavelength to be 542nm.
Solution : Given d = 4.6mm =542nm and y = 5.2mm D=?
Solution:
(a) We have

R
= 1.22 (/d) and
R
=y/D
1.22 (/d)=y/D
D =y d / (1.22 )
=5.2 x10
-3
x 4.6 x10
-3
/ (1.22 x 542x10
-9
)
D=36.2m
[3] If Superman reall y had x-ray vision at 0.12nm wavelength and a 4.3
mm pupil diameter, at what maximum altitude could he distinguish
villains from heroes, assuming the minimum detail required was 4.8cm ?
Solution : Given d = 4.3mm =0.12nm and y = 4.8cm D=?
Solution:
(a) We have

R
= 1.22 (/d) and
R
=y/D
1.22 (/d)=y/D
D=y d/ (1.22 )
=4.8 x10
-2
x 4.3 x10
-3
/ (1.22 x 0.12x10
-9
)
D=1400km
[4] The painting contains small dots(~2 mm in diameter) of pure pigment,
as indicated in figure. The illusion of colour mixing occurs because the
pupils of the observers eyes diffract light entering them. Calculate the
minimum distance an observer must stand from painting to achieve the
desired blending of color. ( = 475nm, diameter of pupil = 4.4mm)
Solution:Given d=4.4mm and =475nm
(a) We have

R
= 1.22 (/d)
= 1.22 ( 475x 10
-9
/4.4 x10
-3
)

R
= 1.32 x 10
-4
rad
The dots are 2 mm apart, so we want to stand a
distance D away such that
D>y/
R
= 2x 10
-3
/1.32 10
-4
rad
=15m
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTIONCOMBINED
Fig. shows the double slit producing both interference and diffraction pattern
Interference
Diffraction
Interference +Diffraction
( )
cos
2
INT m, INT ,
I I =
u
2
(

I =
u

sin
DIF m,
DIF ,
I
( )
2
2
(

| I =
u

sin
cos m
I
(c) Two Single slits a
~
l
(a)Two vanishingly narrow slits a<<l
(b)Single slit a
~
l
In Young's double-slit expt, we assumed
that the slit width a<<. What if this is
not the case?
( )
cos

sin
I
2
2
2
m
(

=
u
I
SINGLE-SLIT
DIFFRACTION PATTERN
YOUNGS DOUBLE-SLIT
INTERFERENCE
PATTERN
We know, Intensity (amplitude)
2
Intensity of Interference pattern for two infinitesimally narrow slit is
Intensity for the diffracted wave from either slit is
( ) u

t
|
u
sin ,
int
d
where I
m
= =
cos
2
int
I
u

t
o
o
o
u
sin ,
2
a
where
in
I
dif m
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
s
diff
I
Combined pattern leads to
Figure shows the geometry for the anal ysi s of double slit interference
and diffraction combined. Each of the two slits is divided into N zones.
The net electric field at P is found by adding the N electric field vectors
(N phasors).
Expression for Intensity using phasor method:
Fig shows the first N phasors (corresponding to the upper slit) and
the resultant E
1.
There is phase difference of A| = |/N between each of
the N phasors where | is the phase difference between1
st
phasor and
N
th
phasor.
Adding all the phasors, we get the resultant E
1
due to the first slit. is
the phase difference between the light waves at the point P, emitted from
bottom edge of the first slit and top edge of the second slit. E
2
is the
resultant due to the second slit. E
u
is the resultant of E
1
and E
2
.
) .........(
2
cos
2 2
sin
2
sin A
Also
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
| | t o
) (
2 2
2
sin 2
1
| t o
t
|
o
|
o
u
+ =
= + + +
=
or
where
E E
1
2 /
2
sin
diagram, From
E
E
u
o
=
|
o
cos
2
sin
, ), (
=
get we A eqn in this ng Substituti
u

t
sin ) (
2
a d =
,
sin
2
aboveeqn of sides both to
a
Adding u

t |
=
| u

t |
is which d sin
2
=
+
pathdiff Phasediff

t 2
=
u

t
sin ) (
2
a d =
From single slit diffraction, we have
the electric amplitude at P due to
one slit,
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
o sin
1 m
E E
SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
PATTERN
DOUBLE-SLIT
INTERFERENCE PATTERN
2
2
sin
) (cos
|
.
|

\
|
I = I
o
o
|
u m
|
o
o
u
cos
sin
) 2 (
|
.
|

\
|
=
m
E E
2
sin 2
1
o
u
E E =
Case 1: Interference Minima: Interference minima occurs
Case 2: Diffraction Minima
Occurs when = ,2 3 --- p, where p is an integer.
u t

u t
|
t
t t t
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
m sin
2
1
m
sin
;
2
1
m - - - - - - - - -
2
5
,
2
3
,
2
d or
d
ie
-) - - - - - - - 3,- 2, , 1 ( sin ,
sin
., = = = = p p a or p
a
ie u t

u t
o
Case 3: Interference Maxima
Occurs when = o , 2, 3, ------ + m , ,
-) - - - - - - - 3,- 2, , 1 , 0 ( sin ,
sin
., = = = = m m d or m
d
ie u t

u t
|
Case 4: Missing orders
Occurs when the condition for a interference maximum and
that of a diffraction minimum are both fulfilled for the same
value of u.
ie., d sin u = m (m = 0,1, 2, 3,-----------)
a sin u = p (p = 1, 2, 3, 4, -----------)
ie., d / a = m / p. This ratio determines the orders which are
missing.
If d /a = 2, orders 2, 4, 6, -------- are missing.
If d / a = 3, orders 3, 6, 9, -------- are missing.
d / a = 1, all orders are missing. (single slit)
.... 6 , 4 , 2
..... 3 , 2 , 1
2
2
=
=
=
=
m then
p If
p m
p
m
Thus the orders 2, 4, 6 etc of the
interference maxima will be missing in
the diffraction pattern.
Thus the orders 3, 6, 9 etc of the
interference maxima will be missing in the
diffraction pattern.
.... 9 , 6 , 3
..... 3 , 2 , 1
3
3
=
=
=
=
m then
p If
p m
p
m
m=4p
M=5p
m=2p
m=3p
PROBLEMS
[1] In a double slit experiment, the distance D of the screen from
the slits is 52cm, the wavelength is 480nm, slit separation d is
0.12mm and the slit width a is 0.025mm.
a) What is the spacing between adjacent fringes?
b) What is the distance from the central maximum to the first
minimum of the fringe envelope?
(a)The spacing between adjacent fringes is given by
Ay = D/d
=(480x10
-9) (
52x10
-2
)/(0.12x10
-3
)
=2.1mm
Solution:
Angular separation of the first minimum is
asin =m
sin =/a (m=1)
= 0.0192
0
Y = D tan = D sin =(52x10
-2
)(0.0192)
Y = 10mm
d/a= 0.12mm/0.25mm=4.8
i.e , 4+4+1=9
There are about complete 9 fringes in the central peak of the
diffraction envelope
(b) What is the distance from the central maximum to the first
minimum of the fringe envelope?
[2] What requirements must be met for the central maximum of the
envelope of the double-slit interference pattern to contain exactl y 11
fringes? Solution:
The condition for the interference maximum is given by
dsin=m--------------(1) where m=0,1,2,.
The condition for the diffraction minimum is given by
asin=p --------------(2) where p=1,2,3,.
d/a= m/p
The condition is met if 6
th
Intf. maxima coincides with the 1
st
Diff minima.
For Intf. maximum m=6 and Diff. Minimum p=1 d/a=6
The 6
th
interference maximum is squelched by the diffraction minimum.
Then there are onl y 5 complete fringes on either side of the central
maximum. 5+5+1=11
[2] What requirements must be met for the central maximum of the
envelope of the double-slit interference pattern to contain exactl y 11
fringes? Solution:
The condition for the interference minimum given by
dsin= (m+1/2)/ ----(1) where m=0,1,2,.
The condition for the diffraction minimum is given by
asin=p --------------(2) where p=1,2,3,.
[1]/[2] d/a= (m+1/2)/p
The condition is met if 6
th
Intf. minimum coincides with the 1
st
Diff
minimum.
For sixth Intf. minimum m=5 and Diff. Minimum p=1
d/a=11/2=5.5
The slit separation d must be 11/2 times the slit width a. This condition
depends only on the ratio of d/ a and not at all on the wavelength.
[3] (a)How many complete fringes appear between the first minima of the
fringe envelope on either side of the central maximum for a double-sli t
pattern if = 557nm, d = 0.150mm, and a = 0.030mm? (b)What is the ratio
of the intensity of the thi rd fringe to the side of the center to that of the
central fringe?
Solution:
(a) The condition for the interference maximum is given by
dsin=m-----(1) where m=0,1,2,.
The condition for the diffraction minimum is given by
asin=p --------------(2) where p=1,2,3,.
d/a= m/p Here p=1 for first minimum
m=d/a=(0.150)/(0.030) = 5.
The 5
th
interference maximum is squelched by the diffraction minimum.
Then there are onl y 4 complete fringes on either side of the central
maximum. 4+4+1=9
(b) We have I

= I
m
(sin/ )
2
(cos )
2
Where =asin / and =dsin /
For the third fringe m = 3,
dsin=m dsin=3 (bright fringe)
Then = dsin /= ( 3 ) /
= 3
=[asin ] /
=[ a(3/d]/ since sin=3/d
=3 a/d
So the relative intensity of the 3
rd
fringe is
I

= I
m
(sin/ )]
2
(cos )
2
I
3
/ I
m
= [sin (3 a/d) / (3 a/d)]
2
(cos 3 )
2
I
3
/ I
m
=0.255
Solution:
(a)The condition for the interference maximum is given by
dsin=m-----(1) where m=0,1,2,.
The condition for the diffraction minimum is given by
asin=p --------------(2) where p=1,2,3,.
d/a= m/p
d/a=4 d=4a
Hence,ifd=4atherewill benofourthinterferencemaximum!
(b)Wheneverm=4ptherewill beamissingmaximum.
i.e4,8,12,16..Interferencemaximumwill bethemissing
[4] Design a double slit system in which the fourth fringe, not
counting the central maximum, is missing. What other fringes , if
any are also missing?
MULTIPLE SLITS
Multiple slit arrangement
will be the interference
pattern multiplied by the
single slit diffraction
envelope. This assumes
that all the slits are
identical.
Condition for principal
maxima,
d sin u = m
m=0,1,2,3,
where d is the separation
between adjacent slits.
Location of principal
maxima is independent of
number of slits.
MULTIPLE SLITS
Intensity pattern for
(a) Two-slit diffraction
(b) Five-slit diffraction
(diffraction effect is neglected)
MULTIPLE SLITS
Width of the maxima: Central maximum
The pattern contains central maximum with minima on either
side.
At the location of central maximum, the phase difference
between the waves from the adjacent slits is zero.
At minima, the phase difference is such that,
slits of number the is N where
N
2t
= | A
Corresponding path difference is,
N 2
L

= | A
|
.
|

\
|
t

= A
Expression for the width of the central maxima
Also we know,
N 2
L

= | A
|
.
|

\
|
t

= A
Nd
Nd
sin
sin d
N
sin d L
0
0
0
0

~ ou

= ou
ou =

ou = A
From the equation, for given and d
if we increase number of slits (N),
then the angular width of principal
maximum decreases. ie the principal
maximum becomes sharper.
Expression for the width of the other principal maxima
For the m
th
principal
maximum at u by a
grating:
d sinu = m .
For the first minimum at
u + ou after the m
th
principal maximum
( )
N

m sin d
+ = o +
MINIMUM AT +o
m
th
PRINCIPAL
MAXIMUM AT
MINIMUM AT
+o
m
th
PRINCIPAL
MAXIMUM AT
( )
N

m sin d
+ = o +
N
m d

ou u ou u
ou
+ =
(
(

+

sin cos cos sin
1
( ) N m cos d sin d + = ou u + u

( ) N m cos d m + = u A u +
u

= ou
cos d N
The principal maximum become sharper as number of slits (N)
increases
ANGULAR HALF WIDTH OF m
TH
PRINCIPAL MAXIMUM AT u
Effect of increasing the number of slits (N) in Fraunhofer
diffraction (Diffraction grating):
PROBLEMS
[1] A certain grating has 10
4
slits with a spacing of d = 2100 nm. It
is illuminated with yellow sodium light ( = 589 nm).Find
(a) the angular position of all principal maxima observed and
(b) the angular width of the largest order maximum.
(a) Solution
d sinu = m
sinu = m / d
m=1 u =16.3
0
m=2 u =34.1
0
m=3 u =57.3
0
For m=4 sinu>1. Thus m=3 is the highest order observed, which gives
a total of 7 principal maxima. A central maxima and 3 on either side.
(b) The angular width of the largest order maximum.
.
) 3 . 57 )(cos 2100 )( 10 (
589
cos
, max 3 ) (
0 4
nm
nm
Nd
imum m the For b
= =
=
u

ou
imum principal narrow y exceedingl an is This
rad x
max
0030 . 0 10 2 . 5
0 5
= =

[2]Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normall y on a diffraction
grating. Two adjacent principal maxima occur at sinu =0.20 and sinu= 0.30.
The fourth order is missing.
(a) what is the separation between adjacent slits?
(b) what is the smallest possible individual slit width?
(c) Name all orders actuall y appearing on the screen with the values
derived in (a) and (b).
(a) SOLUTION
The principle maxima occur at points given by
d sinu
m
= m
sinu
m
= m / d
The difference of the sine of the angle between any two
adjacent orders is
sinu
m+1
- sinu
m
= (m+1) / d - m / d= / d
sinu
m+1
- sinu
m
=/ d
d= / (sinu
m+1
- sinu
m
)
=600nm(0.30-0.20)
d=6m
(b) If the fourth order maxima is missing it must be because the
diffraction pattern envelope has a minimum at that point.
dsinu
m
= m sinu
m
= m /d
sinu
4
= (4 x600nm) /6m
sinu
4
= 0.4
We have diffraction minimum given by
a sinu
m
= m a= m / sinu
m
=m(600nm)/0.4
The minimum width is when m = 1 i.e ., a = 1.5 m.
(c) The visible orders would be integer values of m except for when m
is a multiple of four.
[3] With light from a gaseous discharge tube incident normally on
a grating with a distance 1.73 m between adjacent slit centers, a
green line appears with sharp maxima at measured transmission
angles u = 17.6, 37.3, -37.1, 65.2 and -65.0. Compute
wavelength of the green line that best fits the data.
Solution:
We want to find a relationship between the angle and the order
number which is linear. We'll plot the data in this representation,
and then use a least squares fit to find the wavelength. The data to
be plotted is
We have
dsin
m
=m
sin
m
= (/d) m +c
Y= (slope).x+Intercept
Therefore
/d= Slope
/d=0.302
= (0.302)(1.73 m)
= 522 nm
Y=0.302X
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
m Sin
-3 -65.0 -0.906
-2 -37.1 -0.603
-1 -17.6 -0.302
1 17.6 0.302
2 37.3 0.606
3 65.2 0.908
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
The diffraction grating, a useful device for
analyzing light sources, consists of a large
numberofequallyspacedparallel slits.
Atransmissiongratingcanbemadebycuttingparallel groovesona
glassplatewithaprecisionrulingmachine. Thespacesbetweenthe
groovesaretransparenttothelightandhenceactasseparateslits.
Areflectiongratingcanbemadebycuttingparallel groovesonthe
surface of a reflective material. The reflection of light fromthe
spacesbetweenthegroovesisspecular, andthereflectionfromthe
groovescutintothematerial isdiffuse.
Diffraction grating spectrometer
Intensity versus sin u for a diffraction grating
Any regular periodic structure can
be serve as a diffraction grating.
Diffraction grating spectrometer
set up is as shown in the figure.
The entire spectrum can be
viewed by rotating telescope
through various angles. In
general, gratings may produce
several images of spectral lines,
corresponding to
m = 1, 2, 3. in
dsin = m
Sample spectra of visible light emitted by a gaseous source
m =0 m =1 m =2 m =3
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
lines spectral of wavelength between Difference
lines spectral between separation Angular
Dispersion =

D
=
The ability of a grating to produce spectra that permit precise
measurement of wavelengths is determined by two intrinsic
propertiesofthegrating,(1)Dispersion(2)Resolvingpower
Dispersionis useful quantityindistinguishingwavelengthsthatare
closetoeachother, agratingmustspreadapartthediffractionlines
associatedwiththevariouswavelengths.
Dispersion
Dispersion
d sinu = m
Differentiating the above equation,
cos d
m

= = D
To achieve higher dispersion we must use a gratingof smaller
gratingspacingandworkinhigherorderm.

D
=
d cosu Au = m A
Ability of the grating to resolve two nearby spectral lines so that
the two Lines can be viewed or photographed as separate lines.
To resolve lines whose wavelengths are close together, the lines
should be as narrow as possible.
For two close spectral lines of wavelength
1
and
2
, just
resolved by the grating, the resolving power is defined as
A

= R
2 1
= A
2
2 1
+
=
RESOLVING POWER
cos d
m

= = D
u

= u A
cos d N
u
=
A
|
|
.
|

\
|
u

cos d
m
cos d N
m N R =
A

=
Resolving power increases with increasing N
We have,
Putting second equation in first equation,
Resolving power
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Intensity patterns of two close lines
due to three gratings A, B, C.
(A)
N =5,000
d =10,000 nm
R =5,000
D =1.0x 10-4 rad/nm
(B)
N =5,000
d =5000nm
R =5,000
D =2.0 x 10-4 rad/nm
(C)
N =10,000
d =10,000 nm
R =10,000
D =1.0 x 10-4 rad/nm
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
Fig a: shows the maximum of one
line falls on the minimum of the
other using Grating A.
Fig b: Grating B has twice the
dispersion of A but same the
Resolving power.
Fig C: Grating C has twice the
Resolving power of A but same
Dispersion
The width of the grating is W=Nd
A=50mm B=25mm C=100mm
(A)
N =5,000
d =10,000 nm
R =5,000
(B)
N =5,000
d =5000nm
R =5,000
(C)
N =10,000
d =10,000 nm
R =10,000
Intensity patterns of two close
linesduetothreegratingsA, B,C.
u

= u A
cos d N
GRATING
[1] A diffraction grating has 10
4
rulings uniformly spaced over
25.0mm. It is illuminated at normal incidence by yellow light from
sodium vapor lamp which contains two closel y spaced lines of
wavelengths 589.0nm and 589.59nm. (a) At what angle will the
first order maximum occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b)
What is the angular separation between the first order maxima of
these lines?
A) SOLUTION
Spacing b/n slits, d =W/N= (25x10
-3
m) /10
4
Wavelengths,
1
=589.0nm &
2
= 589.59nm,
Grating equation, d sin u = m
u = sin
-1
(m
1
/d) Here m =1
=13.6 degrees
B. Dispersion relation, d u = (mA)/ d cos u
=2.4 x 10
-4
radians
or 0.014 degrees.
As the spectral separation increases with the order no. d u value
increases with the order no.
[2] Givenagratingwith400rulings/mm, howmanyordersof theentire
visiblespectrum(400-700nm)canbeproduced?
SOLUTION:
: mm 10 2.5
mm 400
1
d
3 -
1 -
= =
3.57
m) 10 (700x
m) 10 x (2.5 d
m
9 -
-6
= = <

To find the number of orders of the entire visible spectrum that will be
present we need onl y consider the wavelength which will be on the
outside of the maxima. That will be the longer wavelengths, so we only
need to look at the 700 nm.
d sinu = m
Using maximum angle 90
0
so there can be at most three orders of the entire spectrum.
[3] White light (400 nm < < 700 nm) is incident on a grating . Show
that, no matter what the value of the grating spacing d, the second-
and third-order spectra overlap.
SOLUTION:
If the second-order spectra overlaps the third-order, it is because the
700 nm second-order line is at a larger angle than the 400 nm third-
order line.
Multiply wavelengths bytheappropriateorder
2(700nm) > 3(400nm)
Divide both side by d,
2(700nm)/d > 3(400nm)/d
We have d sin u =m sin u= =(m )/d
sin u
2,=700
> sin u
3,=400
Regardless of the value of d.
[4] Agratinghas 9600lines uniformly spacedover a width3cmandis
illuminatedbymercurylight.
a) What istheexpecteddispersioninthethirdorder, inthevicinityof
intensegreenline( =546nm)?
b) Whatistheresolvingpowerofthisgratinginthefifthorder?
nm
cm
N
w
d 3125
9600
3
= = =
0
6 . 31 cos 3125
3
cos x nm d
m
D Dispersion = =
u
nm nm rad x / 646 . 0 / 10 13 . 1
0 3
= =

SOLUTION (A)
0 1 1
6 . 31
3125
546 3
sin sin =
(

=
(

=

nm
nm x
d
m
u
b) What is the resolving power of this grating in the fifth
order?
Resolving power, R=Nm
R=(9600)(5)
R=4.80 x 10
4
Thus, near =546nm and in 5
th
order, a wavelength difference
given by
=/R
=546nm/4.80 x 10
4
=0.011nm can be resolved
[5] A diffraction grating has 1.20 X 10
4
rulings uniformly spaced
over a width W = 2.50cm. It is illuminated at normal incidence by
yellow light from a sodium vapor lamp. This light contains two
closely spaced lines of wavelengths 589.0 nm and 589.59 nm.
(a) At what angle does the first maximum occur for the first of
these wavelengths?
(b) What is the angular separation between these two lines (1
st
order)?
(c) How close in wavelength can two lines be (in first order) and
still be resolved by this grating?
(d) How many rulings can a grating have and just resolve the
sodium doublet line?
N
w
d , separation slit ) a ( = nm
x
d 2083
10 2 . 1
10 25
4
3
=

=

|
.
|

\
|

= u = u

d
m
sin m sin d Maxima
1
|
|
.
|

\
|

= u

9
9
1
1
10 2083
10 589 1 ) (
sin

4253 16
1
. : Answer = u
For the first order, m =1 and for the first of the wavelengths,
1
=589.0 nm
(a) At what angle does the first maximum occur for the first of these
wavelengths?

4253 16
1
. : Answer = u
|
|
.
|

\
|

= u

9
9
1
2
10 2083
10 59 589 1 ) . (
sin &

4422 16
2
. = u
) Answer ( .

0169 0
1 2
= u A = u u
|
.
|

\
|

= u = u

d
m
sin m sin d Maxima , Again ) b (
1
u
= A
= u A
u
=
A
u A
cos d
)] ( [ m
cos d
m
, ely Alternativ ) b (
1 2
(b) What is the angular separation between these two lines (1
st
order)?
m N R , power solving Re ) c ( =
A

=
R
R , Also

= A
A

=
4 4
10 2 1 1 10 2 1 1 = = = = . ) . ( m N R , m , order first the For
4
10 2 1 = = . Nm R , But
4
9
10 2 . 1
10 589

= A

But for sodium D lines,

2

1
= (589.59 589) nm = 0.59 nm. Therefore
the given grating can resolve the sodium D lines.
nm .0491 0 =
(c) How close in wavelength can two lines be (in first order) and still be
resolved by this grating?
N
m
m
m N R =

=
A
=
A
=

9
9
10 59 . 0
10 589

998 : = N Answer
For just resolve sodium doublet lines in the first order,
As the grating has about 12 times [(1.2 10
4
)/999 = 12] as many
rulings as this, it can easily resolve sodium lines.
(d) How many rulings can a grating have and just resolve the
sodium doublet line?
[6] The sodium doublet in the spectrum of sodium is s pair of
lines with wavelengths 589.0 and 589.6 nm. Calculate the
minimum number of rulings in a grating needed to resolve this
doublet in the second-order spectrum.
982
nm) (589.0 - nm) (589.6
nm) (589.0
R
by given is grating the of power resolving required The
: Solution
= =
A
=

491
(2)
(982)
m
R
N
so maxima, order second at the looking are We
982 R then is power resolving Our
= = =
=
[7] In a particular grating, the sodium doublet is viewed in third
order at 10.2 to the normal and is barely resolved. Find (a) the
ruling spacing and (b) the total width of grating.
m 9.98
) sin(10.2
nm) (3)(589
sin
m
d
0
m

u

= = =
328;
(3)
(982)
m
R
N
982 R least at be to needs grating the of power resolving The (b)
= = =
=
SOLUTION :
(a)
We have d sin u = m d= m/ sin u
The width of the grating W=dN
=9.98 m X 328
W=3.273 mm
Diffraction
Structural coloring occurs in the
facial skin of mandrill baboons
(and the skin on some other
animals) because of diffraction
from parallel collagen fibers
beneath the skin surface. Light
penetrates the skin, diffracts from
the flbers, and then emerges from
the skin. The fiber separation
results in constructive interference
for wavelengths around 460 nm,
so the skin is blue.
1895 : Wihelm Conrad
Roentgen di scovery of X-Rays
while experimenting with
discharge tubes
X-unknown radiation or X rays
When a beam of fast moving
electron is strikes on solid
target an invisible and high
penetrating radiation is
produced. These radiations are
called X rays.
X-RAYS
X-rays are electromagnetic radiations
of very short wavelength ranging from
0.1 (0.01 nm) to 100 (10 nm).
Soft x-rays - possessing lower
penetration power (low applied voltage,
higher wavelengths) medical
imaging.
Hard x-rays - possessing higher
penetration power (high applied
voltage, lower wavelengths) materials
crystal structure analysis
Hard X-rays: possessing higher penetration power (high applied voltage, lower
wavelengths) materials crystal structure analysis. (X-ray diffraction experiment, X-
ray scatteringexperiment, X-ray absorptionexperiment etc.)
Hard X-rays and uses
Soft X-rays: possessing lower penetration power (low applied voltage, higher
wavelengths) medical imaging.
Soft X-rays and uses
Typical medical X-ray tube
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelength ~1= 10
-10
m
(visible light ~5.5x10
-7
m).
X-Ray Diffraction
X-ray generation
X-ray wavelengths too short to be
resolved by a standard optical
grating.
This is too close to the central
maximum to be practical. A grating
with d= is desirable, but, because x-
ray wavelengths are about equal to
atomic diameters, such gratings
cannot be constructed mechanically.
( )( )
1 1
1 0.1 nm
sin sin 0.0019
3000 nm
m
d

u

= = =
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
For theobservationof diffractionphenomenonbygrating, the
gratingspaceshouldhavethedimensionof thewavelengthof
thewavediffracted. Sincethex-raywavelengthandtheinter-
planarspacingincrystalsareofthesameorder, acrystal canbe
asuitablegratingforobservingthediffractionofx-rays.
x-raydiffractionproducingLauespattern
X-ray tube
When a mono-energetic x-ray beam is
incident on a sample of a single crystal,
diffraction occurs resulting in a pattern
consisting of an array of symmetrically
arranged diffraction spots, called Laues
spots.
The single crystal acts like a grating with
a grating constant comparable with the
wavelength of x-rays, making the
diffraction pattern distinctly visible.
Since the diffraction pattern is decided
by the crystal structure, the study of the
diffraction pattern helps in the anal ysis
of the crystal parameters.
A Laue pattern of a
single crystal. Each
dot represents a
pointofconstructive
interference.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
NaCl crystal (a
0
=0.563nm)
A plane through a crystal of NaCl
NaCl unit cell
Fig. 36-29
Interplanar spacing dis related to the unit cell
dimension a
0
:
X-Ray Diffraction, contd
2
0 5
0 0 4
5 or 0.2236
20
a
d a d a = = =
Not only can crystals be used to separate
different x-ray wavelengths, but x-rays in turn
can be used to study crystals, for example, to
determine the type of crystal ordering and a
0
.
(36-22)
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
(a)Electron density contour of an organic molecule
(b)A structural representation of same molecule
The x-rays are diffracted by the electron concentrations in the material. By
studying the directions of diffracted x-ray beam, we can study the basic
symmetry of the crystal. By studying the intensity, we can learn how the
electrons are distributed in a unit cell.
Braggs Law
In every crystal, several sets of parallel planes called the
Bragg planes can be identified.
Each of these planes have an identical and a definite
arrangement of atoms.
Different sets of Bragg planes are oriented at different angles
and are characterized by different inter planar distances d.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION:BRAGGSLAW
u Glancing angle. ie angle
between the incident x-ray
beam and the reflecting
crystal planes.
For constructive
interference of diffracted x-
rays the path difference for
the rays from the adjacent
planes, (abc in the figure)
must be an integral number
of wavelength.
ie 2d sin u = m
PROBLEMS
[1]At what angles must an x-ray beam with wavelength = 0.110 nm
fall on the family of planes in figure if a diffracted beam is to exist?
Assume material to be sodium chloride (a
0
= 0.563nm)
SOLUTION:
The inter planar d spacing for these planes is given by
5
o
a
d =
nm
nm
252 . 0
5
563 . 0
= =
(

=
(

=

) 252 . 0 ( 2
) 110 . 0 (
sin
2
sin
1 1
nm
nm m
d
m
u
2d sin u = m
m=1 u =12.6
0
m=2 u =25.9
0
m=3 u =40.9
0
m=4 u =60.8
0
Higher order beams cant exist because they require sin u>1
[2] A beam of x-rays of wavelength 29.3 pm is incident on a
calcite crystal of lattice spacing 0.313 nm. Find the smallest
angle between the crystal planes and the beam that will result in
constructive reflection of the x-rays.
SOLUTION:
u m sin 2d =
0
9 -
12 -
1 -
2.68
m) 10 2(0.313
m) 10 x (1)(29.3
sin
is angle minimum Then the
nm. 0.313 d and 1 m means That
=
(

=
= =
u
We are looking for the smallest angle this will correspond to the
largest d and the smallest m.
[3] First order Bragg scattering from a certain crystal occurs at
an angle of incidence of 63.8, (ref. figure). Wavelength of x-rays
is 0.261nm. Assuming that the scattering is from the dashed
planes, find unit cell size a
0.
SOLUTION
m 10 4.04x
) sin(18.8 2
m) 10 x (1)(0.261
sin 2
m
d
10 -
0
-9
= = =
u

d 2 a
0
=
0.572nm =
m) 10 (4.04x 2
-10
=
0
2
0
2 2
a a (2d) + =
45
0
TUTORIAL
Exercise
E42-1, E42-16, E42-19, E42-26, E42-29
QUESTIONS DIFFRACTION
Discuss the diffraction due to single-slit. Obtain the
locations of the minima and maxima qualitatively. [5]
Obtain an expression for the intensity in single-slit
diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram. [5]
Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the first
three secondary maxima in the single-slit diffraction
pattern. [4]
Discuss qualitatively diffraction at a circular aperture. [2]
QUESTIONS DIFFRACTION
Explain Rayleighs criterion for resolving images due to a
circular apperture. [2]
Obtain an expression for the intensity in double-slit
diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram. [5]
Discuss qualitatively the diffraction due to multiple slits
(eg, 5 slits). [4]
Obtain an expression for the width of the central
maximum in diffraction pattern due to multiple slits. [4]
QUESTIONS DIFFRACTION
Obtain an expression for the width of a principal
maximum at an angle in diffraction pattern due to
multiple slits. [4]
Obtain an expression for dispersion by a diffraction
grating. [3]
Obtain an expression for resolving power of a diffraction
grating. [3]
Discuss Braggs law for X-ray diffraction. [3]
ANSWERS
E42-1: 690 nm
E42-11: 0.186, 0.478 radian, 0.926
E42-16: 36.2 m
E42-19: 1400 km
E42-21: 15 m
E42-26: (a) d =4a (b) Every 4
th
fringe
E42-29: (a) 9 (b) 0.255
E43-3: 523 nm
E43-5: (a) 6 m (b) 1.5 m (c) m =0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9
E43-9: 3
E43-17: 491
E43-21: (a) 9.98 m (b) 3.27 nm
E43-25: 2.68 degree
E43-33: 0.206 nm