LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT

In this project, pulsed light is used to cancel ambient light. This is suitable for arraied sensors that scanned in sequence to avoid interference from next sensor. The microcontroller starts to scan the sensor status, sample an output voltage, turn on LED and sample again the output voltage. The difference between the two samples is the optical current by LED, output voltage by the ambient light is canceled. The other sensors are also scanne'd the same avobe in sequence. Only the moderated signal from the light emitter can be detected. VNG. Of course the detector must not be saturated by ambient light; this is effective when the detector is working in linear region. The microcontroller scans four sensors and calculates the line position by output ratio of two sensors near the line. Thus the line position can be detected linearly with only six sensors. All the sensor outputs are captured as analog value that is proportioning to reflection ratio, and the sensitivity have variation between each one of them. In this system, to
?3

remove the variations from the outputs, calibration parameters for each sensor can be held into non-volatile memory. This can be done with online

!i mode.

LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT

When any line sensing error has occured for a time due to getting out of line or end of line, the motors are stopped and the microcontroller enters sleep state of zero power consumption. The robot is a flat platform (base) with 4 wheels. Pair of Servo motors are used for front wheels. The rear wheels are free spinning. The electronics, i.e. the PCB with components, is mounted on the base. A set of sensors is placed at the front such that it can detect the line.

Electronics :
AT89C2051 (Atmel) Controller 20pin 1C with inbuilt memory Line sensor IR photo-reflectors Power supply 3.6V Battery pack (Rechargeable) Motor Two Servo motors for left wheel and right wheel An Atmel AT89C2051 is used for the controlling and it is powered by a set of battery pack. This battery pack also powers the drive motors, four photo-reflectors are mounted at front end of the chassis. They sense reflection rate of the floor under them. Motors are driven in PWM to control rotation speed linearly. The robot uses IR sensors to sense the line, an array of 8 IR LEDs (Tx) and sensors (Rx), facing the ground has been used in this setup. The output of the sensors is an analog signal which depends on the amount of light reflected back, this analog signal is given to the comparator to produce Os and Is which are then fed to the uC.

STUDY OF COMPONENTS
1.RESISTOR: A resistor is arretectronic component which, as the name suggests, resists the flow of electrical current. For a fixed applied voltage, the higher the value of resistor, the more it will resist the flow of current, i.e. less current will flow. This relationship is proportional and linear within normal working limits and forms the basis of the most common calculation in electronics, namely Ohms Law. Ohms law is shown below V = I x R where V= voltage in volts, I=current in amps and R=resistance in ohms Schematic Symbols In circuit diagrams, resistors may be shown using one of the symbol Resistor Values Resistors come in a very wide range of values, from less than 1 Ohm, to millions of Ohms. As the values can be so high, additional prefixes are used

Resistor Colour Codes : Resistor Color Codes (with gold or silver strip on right end) Color First Stripe Second Stripe Third Stripe Fourth Stripe Black Brown

0 1
2

0 1 2

xl xlO
xlOO xl-,000 xl 0,000 xlOO,000 xl,000,000

Red

Orange 3 Yellow 4 Green Blue Purple Gray White Gold Silver

3
4

5
6
7

6 7 8 9

9 5%
10%

2. CAPACITOR : Capacitor is a device that stores energy in the electric field created between a pair of conductors on which equal but opposite electric charges have been placed. Typical designs consist of two electrodes or plates, each of which stores an opposite charge. These two plates are conductive and are separated by an insulator or dielectric. The charge is stored at the surface of the plates,

at the boundary with the dielectric. Because each plate stores an equal but opposite charge, the total charge in the device is always zero.
c?

a
3 3

+o
""

Piste are?)

A
:::'

i '

T7I

iilecti ic
field F

Plate separation d

Capacitor Symbols :
Charge

m
-O Electric field Dielectric \ | j Polarized molecules

Variable Capacitors : 3. TRANSFORMER: A transformer generally consists of one or more coils (winding) of conducting wire, wound on a former (bobbin) that surrounds the centre limb (sometimes all limbs) of a circuit of magnetic material (core). The winding wires are insulated and the core is made from thin sheet steel plates known as laminations (this reduces 'eddy current1 losses). The assembly is held together by metal cheeks known as clamps, these clamps

are held in place by long screws that are insulated from the rest of the structure (again to limit eddy currents). The winding wires are either made off to terminals mounted on the clamps or the wire may leave the coil by 'flying leads'. 4.DIODE : A diode is a two-terminal semiconductor (rectifying) device that exhibits a nonlinear current-voltage characteristic. The function of a diode is to allow current in one direction and to block current in the opposite direction. The terminals of a diode are called the anode and cathode. There are two kinds of semiconductor diodes: a P-N junction diode, which forms an electrical barrier at the interface between N- and P-type semiconductor layers, and a Schottky diode, whose barrier is formed between metal and semiconductor regions. Diode Types: (i) Zener diodes: The Zener diode is designed to have a specific reverse breakdown voltage (i.e., conduction voltage when reverse-biased). Because of this, Zener diodes can be used by themselves as voltage-sensitive switches, or in
p

series with a current-limiting resistor to provide voltage regulation.

r
(ii) Photodiodes : All P-N junctions are light sensitive; photodiodes are just P-N junctions that are designed to optimize this effect. Photodiodes can be used two ways - in a photovoltaic (here it becomes a current source when illuminated -- see solar cell), or photoconductive role. To use a photodiode in its photoconductive mode, the photodiode is reverse-biased; the photodiode will then allow a current to flow when it is illuminated. (iii) Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs): All diodes emit some light when forward-biased. LEDs are made from a special semiconductor (like gallium arsenide phosphide) which optimizes this light output. Unlike light bulbs, LEDs rarely burn out unless their current limit is passed. When current is flowing through an LED the voltage on the positive leg is about 1.4 volts higher than the voltage on the negative side (this varies with LED type ~ infrared LEDs have a lower forward voltage requirement, others may need up to 1.8 V). Remember that there is very little resistance to limit the current, so a resistor must be used in series with the LED to avoid destroying it (note, though, that some panel-mount LEDs come from the factory with a current-limiting resistor soldered to them).

5. VOLTAGE REGULATOR: The 78xx Series of Regulators : There are many types of regulator 1C and each type will have different pin-outs and will need to be connected up slightly differently. The 78xx series ICs are the most common regulator in use. There are seven regulators in the 78xx series, and each can pass up to 1A to any connected circuit. There are also regulators with similar type numbers that can pass a higher or lower current, as shown in the table below. In addition, variable regulators are available, as are regulators that can provide negative regulation voltages for circuits that require them.
Type Number
78105

Regulation Voltage +5V

+ 12V + 15V

Maximum Current
0.1A 0.1 A 0.1A

Minimum Input Voltage +7V

+ 14.5V + 17.5V

78L12
78115

78M05 78M12 78M15

+5V + 12V + 15V

0.5A 0.5A 0.5A

+7V + 14.5V + 17.5V

7805 7806 7808 7812 7815 7824

+5V +6V

l.A 1A 1A 1A 1A 1A

+7V +8V + 10.5V + 14.5V + 17.5V +26V

+y
+ 12V + 15V +24V

78S05 78S09 78S12 78S15

+5V +9V + 12V + 15V

2A 2A 2A 2A

+8V + 12V + 15V + 18V

6. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR : Also known as a photoconductive cell or photoresistors. This is a device whose resistance decreases with exposure to light.

\\
Cadmium Sulphide track

LDR Construction : Light dependent resistor (LDR) is made from cadmium sulphide. Cadmium Sulphide is a II-VI semiconductor. (It is so called because Cadmium is in group II and Sulphide is in group VI.) It is light sensitive. When the light shining on it is stronger, the resistance of the LDR is smaller. It is important to note that light has dual properties. On the one hand, light is electromagnetic wave, on the other hand, it can be seen as photons (energetic particles). When light shines on the LDR, the photons break the bonds in the cadmium sulphide and release electrons for the

8. INFRARED LIGHT GATE The use of an infrared light source is an obvious choice for this type of implication. In the first place for intruder alarm application the light beam ^-^ must be invisible, which limit the choice to infrared or ultra violet light. Ultn1. violet can cause visible fluorescence of certain material; which makes it less suitable than infrared^hrThe second place, relatively powerful solid state inirared sources, and infrared sensors, are available at modest cost, where as there is no solid state uv sources commercially available. The circuit describe here uses the Siemens LD24I infrared emitter and BPW34 IR photodiode. All though devices are not exorbitantly priced, neither are inexpensive, so in order to minimize the number of IR emitters necessary to achieve a given range the transmission system should be as efficient as possible. Since the light level received at several metro distance from the transmitter will be very low the receiver must have a high gain. This is immediately exclude the simpler types of photoelectric switch that use a continuous light beam and a DC coupled receiver, since a high Oaw DC coupled receiver amplifier would be prone to offsets, temperature drifts an other effects that could lead to poor sensitivity on the one and, or false triggering on the other. The choice therefore falls on an AC modulator light beam and AC coupled receiver, since a high AC gain can be achieved without offset problem. Such a system can be either narrowband or wideband the advantages of narrowband system are a higher signal tonoise ratio and les susceptibility to extraneous interference, either in the form of ambient light or transients on the supply lines. The disadvantage of narrow band

system is that the transmitter and the receiver frequencies have to be accurately aligned. In wideband system the source is simply pulsed on and off and the amplification stages of the receiver have a fairly large bandwidth. The advantages of this system are simplicity and ease of alignment, out the disadvantages are poor signal to noise ratio and susceptibility to interference. However advantages may be taken of the fact that the infrared emitting diode will withstand a peak current that is much larger than the average current (I A peak as against lOOmA continuous). A small duty cycle, higher power pulses may thus be transmitted, which will be give an improved signal to noise ratio over a large duty cycle transmission of the same average power. The effect of external sources of interference may be reduce by careful attention to constructional layout; mounting the unit in a screened box, and suppression of the supply lines. With these precautions of wideband systems can give quite acceptable performance and was chosen because of its other advantages. Transmitter Circuit The simple transmitter circuit is as shown in fig.I Its consist of a 555 timer connected as an astable multivibrator; driving a out put transistor which switches the IR emitter on and off. The duration of the transmitted light pulses is about 10 micro seconds and the repetition rate is just less
.

than 1KHz. The average current drawn by the circuit is about 12mA and the peak current through the IR diode is around 700mA

LXNk

This page describes how DC motors work, and how we can use them to liu'ikl the traction system of a robot. It covers both permanent magnet motors, and series wound motors (such as car starter motors). If you arc interested in converting a starter motor for use in a robot, see the separate page Converting starter motors. Motor principles: All motors require two magnetic fields, one produced by the stationary part of the motor (the stator, or field), and one by the rotating pan (the rotor, or armature). These are produced either by a winding of coi'ts carrying a current, or by permanent magnets. If the field is a coil of wire, this may be connected in a variety of ways, which produces different motor characteristics. The basic law of a motor, the reason why they rotate, is governed by Fleming's left hand rule (see figure below). This tells you the direction of the force on a wire that is carrying current when it is in a magnetic field.

current left hand motor rula

LJNE FOLLOWING KO8OV

The next diagram shows the force acting on a wire carrying current. obeying the left hand rule: force If we now bend the wire round in a loop, and place it in a magnetic field caused by two permanent magnets, we have the situation shown in the diagram below. Here, both sides of the wire loop will have a force on them, trying to make the wire loop rotate. The current is applied to the loop through the commutator, which is shown as two pieces of metal formed into a ring in the figure. Current is applied to the commutator by stationary graphite blocks, called brushes, which rub against the commutator ring.
commutator
(ii) D. C. motor

LINE FOLLOWING KUISU ,

The loop will continue to rotate anticlockwise (as we see it in the figure) until it is vertical. At this point, the stationary brushes won't be applying current around the loop any more because they will be contacting ! the gap between the commutator segments, but the inertia of the loop keeps | it going a little more, until the DC supply reconnects to the commutator jj segments, and the current then goes around the loop in the opposite direction. The force though is still in the same direction, and the loop continues to rotate. This is how DC motors work. In a real motor, there are many wire loops (windings) all at varying angles around a solid iron core. Each loop has its own pair of commutator segments. This block of core and wire loops is called the rotor because it rotates, or the armature. The fixed magnets in the diagram above generating the field may be replaced by electromagnets which are generally more powerful. The electromagnets are supplied by the same power supply as the armature winding, either in series (series connected) or in parallel (shunt connected) as shown in the diagram below. If permanent magnets are used, the motor is said to be a permanent magnet (PM) motor. DC motors can also have permanent magnets in the armature, and electromagnets for the stator coils. In this case, the stater windings must be switched in some way to make the permanent magnets in the rotor follow them to cause rotation. This connection is less common for small motors.

LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT

Tracking control Position Center Error

;''

Right v.'heel Left-* Steering command "-Right

The line position is compeared to the center value to be tracked, the position error is processed with Proportional/Integral/Diffence filters to generate steering command. The line folloing robot tracks the line in PID control that the most popular argolithm for servo control. The proportional term is the commom process in the servo system, it is only a gain ampliflre. without time dependent process. The differencial term is applied in order to improve the responce to disturbance, and it also compensate phase lag at the controled object. The D term will be required in most case to stabilize tracking motion. The I term is not used in this project from following resons. The I term that boosts DC gain is applied in order to remove left offset error, however, it often decrease servo stability due to its phase lag. The line following operation can ignore such tracking offset so that the I term is not required.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD DESIGN AND FABRICATION: A. Layout Planning: The layout of PCB has to incorporate all the information on the board before one can proceed to artwork preparation. The planning procedure depends upon many factors. B. Layout Scale: Depending upon the accuracy required art work procedure should be at !:i or 2:i or even 4:i scale according to size of artwork will be equal four time greater sixteen times that of the actual PCB the layout is often prepared on same scale as artwork C. Sketch Layout: The end product of layout designing is the pencil- sketched component and conductor driving which called layout sketch which called layout sketch contain all the relevant information for preparation of artwork. Beside the component outlines component holes and into connection lines the layout should also include the information on include the information on A. Diameter of component hole, usually in given PCB most of the hole required for particulars diameter is 3.8mm. / 4.8mm. in transistor pads.

B. Minimum spacing ' ..cween the conducting fines must be produced. C. Standard conductor width should be used for specifying application. Width of Supply Lines: When the supply lines are to be put on the layout extreme care be taken. The width of such lines and pattern in which they are distributed of highest in pootanle for stability of circuit voltage. An unstable supply or system can lead to different problems some points are: i. Maximum possible currents on a PCB should be always known to enable design of the conductor and the width. ii. Special attention must be given to the design of TIL circuit board. Short circuit spikes are introduced when the gates are switching over from one logic state to another also the space required by the component of different rating should be carefully rated while drawing the artwork sketch. Package Density: High package densities on PCB artwork is attractive and give the impression of any optimum design. But in the most cases a high package density is less reliable and cdStly. Switching and fault finding becomes extremely complicated if the package density is very high. Also, the circuit may have offer complication at high frequency.

Layout Check: After the completion of layout design a through check should be carried out. This will be eliminates any possible error in the future process. ARTWORK PREPARATION Preparation of the artwork is considered as the first step in the preparation of the PCB. Different procedures are available to prepare a good network. Among them the block taping on a transparent base foil is widely used in industries for all kinds of artwork preparation. BLOCK TAPING ON TRANSPARENT BASE FOIL i. Pads: Basically they are available into two forms. a) Self adhesive type. b) Transfer type. Self adhesive type are available on sheets were a number of such pads are truck on a paper examples are those for terminals on the PCB. Transfer type pads are printed on thin adhesive film (about 1mm thick) e.g. those for 1C pads the whole printed piece is taken transferred on the artwork. ii. Tapes: Self-adhesive types are available in the wide range of widths. Then are supplied in roes and have a width tolerance of as littlie 0.05 to 0.01.mm depending upon the manufactures.

3. Art work base foil The armature base foils mostly used are polyester films, which provide an exeHent dimensiojial-^rsGIlityT They are available in many thicknesses. HOLE DIAMETER It should be a small as possible, soldering results are obtained; if the diameter of finalized and placed holes gives about 0.2. to 0.5 mm. Clearance as compared to the nominal diameter of the component lead. PREPARATION OP ARTWORK Transparent base foil (Garware Nylon Sheet) is placed on layout drawn on a graph sheet and with the help of pads and tapes; the layout is traced on nylon sheet, some of thee general rules while sticking artwork here are: 1. The pads and tapes must be placed exactly on the layout sketch. 2. They should be placed firmly. 3. Scratching of the tapes must be firmly avoided otherwise, then will be shrunk later on and will break or crack which can't be recognized. 4. Cutting the tube on the base foil should be avoided which will let to hair width breaks. 5. Always try to begin and end with pads when sticking the tape. 6. Very sharp cerner turns should be avoided. * ETCHING

Finally copper pattern is formed by selective removal of all unwanted copper which is not protected by itch itself resist under etching and over etching complicated matter during the etching process; it is expected that TKe itching progress vertically however in practice there is also and etching action side process attacking pattern below action etch resist if etching is not stopped immediate after all unwanted 'Cu! has been removed etching mil continue and can result in under etching can be immediate minimized lay reducing the etching time as much as possible then wording enchant towards the surface (screen etching). SPRAY ETCHING Etching is pumped under pressure from pump via pipe network to nozzle and form this gets splashed on the board air oxygen absorb fresh supply of etch ants given high rate. ARTWORK PREPARATION Soldering: Soldering is a process used for joininO metal parts. It is necessary to use often metal known as solder. The meltinO temp of solder is below that of the metal joined so that its surface is only wetted without melting. Fig. shows the various operations involved during soldering a joint. During1 soldering, relative positioning of the surface to tHe joined wetting of these surfaces with often solder and cooling time for solidification is important. For the wetting of surface of metal to be joined, it is necessary that atoms of solder must, come down within atomic distance from the

surface. It is necessary that the surface should be clean for good electric contact. The wetting angle should be reasonable wetting. Soldering fluxes: Flux is the medium used to improve the degree of wetting. The fluxes used in soldering electronic circuits are non-corrosive fluxes .The following points should be considered while selecting flux. 1. Flow promoting properties of flux. 2. Solder composition. 3. Composition of materials to be soldered. 4. Surrounding in which soldering is to be carried out. 5. Soldering technique. 6. Form in which the flux is to be applied. 7. Soldering temperature and 8. Properties of flux residues. The flux consists of pure water rosin 2.0% dissolved in isopodan. Activators such as glycol acids, ammonium chlorides and organic halides. Soldering & Soldering techniques:
*

There are basically 2- types of soldering techniques a) Manual Soldering with iron b] Mass soldering Iron Soldering:

The iron consists of an insisting handle , connected via a metal shank to the bit. The function of bit is to: i. Store heat and convey it to the components, ii. To store and deliver molten solder & flux, iii. To remote surplus solder from joint. Soldering with iron: The surface to be soldered must be cleaned and fluxed. The soldered iron is switched ON and allowed to attain soldering temperature. The solder in form of the wide is applied near the component to be soldered and treated will? iron. The surface to be solder is filled/ iron is removed and the joint is cooled without disturbing. TYPE OF SOLDERING Mass Soldering: Mass sobering is used where large numbers of joints are to be soldered simultaneously. Dip Soldering: A prefixed Po with assembled components is dipped vertically into clean solder bath to a depth. The temp of bath is around 140 degree to 2.50 degree The board is kept in bath for 2 to 3 seconds. The board is kept in bath for 2 to 3 seconds. While taking out the hoard an angle path; should be followed.

Wave Soldering: The assemble board is applied flux . It is preheated by while passing through conveyor belt. It then passes over I of wave solder.The assemble board is applied flux. It is preheated by while passing through conveyor belt. It then passes over i of wave solder. ETCHANTS Among the etch ants available Feel has the earlier one used OH a major scale with availability of etching which can be regenerated and which is compatible, resist FeCiS is stiff used for small PCB facility where etching is occasionally carried out of small boards. Other etchants are CuCL2. chromic acid; alkaline ammonia etc. CHEMICAL EQUATION AND REACTIONS For FeCL3 free acid to attack the Cu is formed by hydrogen reaction and FeCl + 3HZO = Fe(OH)3 + 3 HCL The Cu is oxidized with FeCl ions producing cuprous chloride CuCl and ferrous chloride. 2FeCl + Cu 2FeCl + CuCl Cuprous chloride CuCl oxidized further in the etching solution to cupric chloride.

2FeCl + CuCl 2FeCl + CuCl

The built up cupric chloride itself reaches Cu forms again Cuprous chloride. CuCl + Cz - CuCl Advantages of Ferric Chloride method: Sort time of the worker and little under etching feel matches well to photo and screenprinted resist for solvent and alkali soluble ones. Disadvantages: FeCl is impossible to regenerate economically. This rule out its value, its use in bigger setup where a constant etching speed is must. Rinsing: After the etching is over, FeCI contaminated surface should be cleaned. The usual practice follows water rinse lip in percentage (by volume] oxalic acid. A vigorous final water rinse has to flow. Drilling: T | Drilling or mechanical holes for mounting is most important operation. Holes are made-r5^drilling"whenever superior hole finish for plated^ through hole is required and were looking coasts for punching is not justified. Hence, drilling by all professional grade manufactures and

laboratories. To compensate for the laminate resilience, the drill bit is chosen 0.05 mm bigger than hole diameter. Drilling bits: The drilling of holes into paper phenolic laminate with drill bits made of high speed steels (HSS) does not cause much difficulties. However, if the same-drift kits are used for glass epoxy the cutting edges-will become blunt after short time and restriction of reshaping h&$ to be avoided. Hence; drilling bits of tungsten carbide are widely used for PCB drifting operation even for the paper phenolic laminate. PITCH Description Standard Fine pitch Very Fine Pitch - -Ultra Fine pjtcjx Center line spacing 0. 1.3mm 0.32" to 0.025mm 0.80mm to 0.65mm 0.020" to 0.012mm 0.50mm to 0.30mm 0.010" or less 0.25mm or less Example Pad/Space For 50 pitch 0.002470.026 0.60mm/0.66mm For 25pitch
0.01270.013"

0.30mm/0.33mm Forl 5 pitch 0.00870.007"

"" '~ "*"' 3Ki

0.20mm/a007 ForlOni 0.005"0.005" 0.13mm/0.13mm

LINE FOLLOWING ft

Sensor Circuit :
The resistance of the sensor decreases when IK light falls on it. A good sensor will have near zero resistance in presence of light and a very large resistance in absence of light.We has used this property of the sensor to form :i potential divider. The potential at point '2' is Rsensbr / (Rsensor + Rl).

Again, a good sensor circuit should give maximum change in potential al point '2' for no-light and bright-light conditions. This is especially important if you plan to use an ADC in place of the comparator.
LM324H Censor; 1C1A . ^Schematic of a single senso

L-1NE

Software Using photo-effectors

qj-

o
0-y

<D O

0
Optical current by LED light Optical current by LED light Optical current by ambient light

Dark current
ON ON

OFF OFF Detector Emitter

" \ yS
rnbienty Ambient
Lieht

^Ak

To detect a line to be followed, most contestants are using two or more number of potoreflectors. Its output current that proportional to reflection rate of the floor is converted to voltage with a resister and tested it if the line is detected or not. However the threshold voltage cannot be fixed to any level because optical current by ambent light is add.vj fo ihc output current like the image shown right. Most photo-detecting modules for industrial use are using moderated light to avoid interference by the ambient light. The detected signal is filtered with a band pass filter and disused signals are filtered out. Therefore only the modurated signal from the light emitter can be detected. Of course the detector must not be saturated by ambient light, this is effective when the detector is working in linear region.

LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT

Signal processing of line detection :

Line (Black toner) White paper 1
-12.5 -7.5 -2.5 2.5 7.5

Sensor

12.5 Line Position [mm]

Right image shows the actual line posisiton vs detected line position in center value of 640. The microcontroller scans four sensors and calcurates the line position by output ratio of two sensors near the line. Thus the line position can be detected lineary with only six sensors. All the sensor outputs are captured as analog value that proportioning to reflection ratio, and the sensitivity have variety between each one of them. In this system, to remove the variations from the outputs, calibration parameters for each sensor can be held into non-volatile memory. This can be done with online mode. The microcontroler enters the online mode when an ISP cable is attached, and it can be controlled with a terminal program in serial format of N81 38.4kbps. SI command monitors sensor values, and S2 command calibrates variation of sensor gain on the reference surface (white paper). The ATmegaS must be set to 8MHz internal osc.

LINE FOLLOWING KOOOl

Features of 89c2051 microcontroller

e * * e * * * * Compatible with MCS-51 Products 2K Bytes of Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles 2.7V to 6V Operating Range Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Two-level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 15 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial UART Channel Direct LED Drive Outputs On-chip Analog Comparator Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT

Description of iC AT 89C2051:
The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 2K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Almel's high-densiuv nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industrystandard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C205 1 is a powerful Microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89C2051 provides the following standard features: 2K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 15 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, a precision analog comparator, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C2051 is designed with static logic' for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The power-clown mode saves the RAM. contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

Pin C< anfiguration

PD1P/SOIC
RST/VPP C (RXD)P3.0C (TXD) P3. 1 C XTAL2 C XTAL1 C (TRT5) P3.2 C (iNTT) P3.3 C (TO) P3.4 C (T1) P3.5C GNDC V1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 DVCC H P1.7 3 P1.6 3 P1.5 3) P1.4 I] P1.3 3 P1.2

3 P1.1 (AINl) ~3 P1.0 (AINO)

U P3.7

LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT

Internal block of LM324

Connection Diagram
Oual-irv-LJne Package
<WPWI' 4* &KD ItefUT J

ri_ /H / 92 sro - i
Top View

3A

FEATURES of 4423 motor driver

(3A DUAL HIGH-SPEED POWER MOSFET DRIVERS.) ' High Peak Output Current ............................. 3A Wide Operating Range .......................... 4.5V to 18V High Capacitive Load Drive Capability <* Short Delay Times Matched Rise/Fall Times Low Supply Current * With Logic "1" Input * With Logic "0" Input * Low Output Impedance ISOOpF in25nsec <40nsec Typ. 3.5mA 35()j.iA 3.5Q Typ. Latch-Up Protected.. .Will Withstand 1.5A Reverse Current Logic Input Will Withstand Negative Swing Up to 5V

General Description LM124/324(OP-AMP) :

The LM124 series consists of four independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide rant2,e of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventional op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For example, the LM124 series can be directly operated off of the standard a5V power supply voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring the additional g!5V power supplies.

UNL: FOLLOWING

Features of LM317
(1.2V TO 37V VOLTAGE REGULATOR) * Output voltage range : 1.2 to 37v

* *

Output current in excess of 1.5a 0.1% line and load regulation Shutdown and soa control

* Floating operation for high voltages

* Complete scries of protections : current limiting, thermal e DESCRIPTION OF 1C LM 317

it a

The LM117/LM217/LM317 are monolithic Integrated circuit in TO-

i!
220, ISOWATT220, TO-3 and D2PAK packages intended for use as Positive adjustable voltage regulators. They are designed to supply more than 5.5A ot" load current with an output voltage adjustable over a 1.2 to 37V range. The nominal output voltage is selected by means of on!}' a |! I resistive divider, making the device exceptionally easy to use and eliminating the stocking of many fixed regulators.

UNE FOLLOWING ROBOT

Features of 1C LM 124/324
& * Y Internally frequency compensated for unity gain Y Large DC voltage gain 100 dB Y Wide bandwidth (unity gain) 1 MHz (temperature compensated) Y Wide power supply range: Single supply 3V to 32V or dual supplies gl.5V to g!6V

* *
\

Y Very low supply current drain (700 mA) Essentially independent of supply voltage Y Input common-mode voltage range includes ground

* Y Low input biasing current 45 nA (temperature compensated) Y Low input offset voltage 2 mV and offset current 5 nA Y Differential input voltage range equal to the power jupph voltage

* Y Large output voltage swing 0V to Va b 1.5V Unique Characteristics : Y In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output voltage can also swing to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply voltage Y The unity gain cross frequency is temperature compensated Y The input bias current is also temperature

Advantages
*> It is less expensive as compared with computer controlled line follower because there is no need of long multi core cable

Applications
> Automated cars running on roads with embedded magnets , > Guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc

#include<req51.h> mi crocontrot1ers #include<delay.h> #include<lcd.n> #include<adc.h> #define fw OxOA; Obstacle //header file for 8051 series of

#define bw 0x05; #define It 0x08; #define rt 0x02; #define Is 0x09; #define rs 0x06; #define Ib 0x04; #define rb 0x01; #define stop 0x00; #define swO p30 unsigned char Isen, void avoid () ; //function for stri void avoidQ

rse n; eki ng

//header //header //header //forward //backword //left turn //right turn //left spin //right spin //left back //right back //stop file for generating time delay file for interfacing 16x2 LCD file for Analog to Digital conversion //lsen->left lensor, rsen->right sensor

a robot Isen=getdata(0x40); rsen=getdata(0x60); if(1sen<100){Pl=rt;delay(500);}

if(rsen<100){Pl=lt;delay(500);} if((lsen>100)&(rsen>100)){Pl=fw} void main()
LCD_INIT(); //initializing LCD
LCD_STRING( obstacle

avoider");

while(l) { avoid(); Page 1

10.
1. 2.
3.

REFFERENCES
http://www.hobbyengineering.com/rmaplndex.html http://www.ridesotlcom/buildmgbots.html
http://www.seattlerobotics.org/guide/infrared.html

4. 5. 13

http://www.robotroom.com/RBFB.htmlI/ line following robot http://www.robotics.com/robomenu/index.html