Introduction

This guide is written for students who are following GCE Advanced level (AS and A2) syllabuses in English Language. This resource ay also be of general interest to language students on university degree courses! trainee teachers and anyone with a general interest in language science. "n this #age $ use red ty#e for e #hasis. %rown ty#e is used where italics would appear in #rint (in this screen font! italic looks like this! and is un&ind on ost readers). 'eadings have their own hierarchical logic! too(

Main section headings look like this

Sub-section headings look like this
Minor headings within sub-sections look like this

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What do the examiners say about this subject?

$n #re#aring this to#ic area candidates should study( conversational analysis) stylistic analysis of te*ts) historical and conte #orary changes! as a##ro#riate. $n #articular they should e*a ine(

influential #ower (e.g. advertising! #olitics! edia! culture) instru ental #ower (e.g. law! education! business! anage ent).. %ac& to to# of #age What is it all about? "ne obvious feature of how language o#erates in social interactions is its relationshi# with #ower! both influential and instru ental. +either rule nor law! neither disci#line nor hierarchy sanctions influential #ower. $t inclines us or a&es us want to behave in certain ways or ado#t o#inions or attitudes! without obvious force. $t o#erates in such social #heno ena as advertising! culture and the edia. (Strictly! we are not coerced into buying what the advertiser shows us! nor will we suffer any #enalty for our ,sales resistance,.) $nstru ental #ower is e*#licit #ower of the sort i #osed by the state! by its laws and conventions or by the organi-ations for which we wor&. $t o#erates in business! education and various &inds of anage ent. ($n any! but not all cases! if we resist instru ental #ower! we will be sub.ect to so e #enalty or in trouble.)
+ote( instrumental here does co es fro the sa e root as the instrument we #lay to a&e usic / they are related ety ologically. %ut it has a 0uite different eaning today fro instrumental as used to describe usic. $n your studying instru ental #ower! #lease do not for a o ent thin& it has anything to do with the #ower of usic.

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$n so e s#heres of social activity! such as #olitics or law! both &inds of #ower the sa e ti e( we are sub.ect to laws (enforced by #enalties)! but

ay be #resent at

 so e legal #rocesses! such as trial by .ury! rely on atte #ts to #ersuade. 1oliticians i #ose laws! ta*es! and bureaucratic syste s (instru ental #ower) but see& to influence us to endorse their #olicies or turn out to vote for the (influential #ower). They ay wish to influence us to use our collective #ower to return the to office! where they will use their e*ecutive #ower to direct so e as#ects of our lives / a curious #arado* of our syste of #arlia entary de ocratic re#resentation. (That is they get us to give the the #ower to tell us what to do and how to live. And we really do have the choice! collectively! as we show when we vote for a change of govern ent.)
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$n loo&ing at how #ower is e*ercised through language! you should be able to refer to real e*a #les you have found! and e*#lain these te*ts. %ut you should also have a theoretical a##roach that will enable you to inter#ret language data you are #resented with in an e*a . A ong other things! you should loo& at #rag atics and s#eech act theory! le*is and se antics (for s and eanings)! for s that include or e*clude (insiders or outsiders)! structures (at #hrase! clause and discourse level)! for s of address! #hatic to&ens! as well as structural features of s#eech! which ay be used to e*ercise or establish #ower. And in so e conte*ts! you will need to be able to show how rhetorical devices are used to influence an audience Consider! for e*a #le! how conversational a*i s ay be ada#ted for reasons of e*#edience! rather than integrity. 2oes all #ower corru#t in language! as (according to Lord Acton) it does generally3
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Persuasive techniques in language Si ile and eta#hor 4 5i*ed eta#hor or si ile 4 E*tended eta#hor 4 Allusion 4 Lists of three 4 6e#etition 4 1arallelis 4 1u--led or redundant 0uestions 4 Alliteration 4 7ord#lay This guide loo&s at the different sub.ects that e*a iners s#ecify! but there are any techni0ues that are co on to various conte*ts. $n this section you will find so e guidance on these. As well as loo&ing for the in te*ts that you study! you ay try to use the in te*ts that you #roduce / for e*a #le in original writing or editorial writing tas&s.
Simile and meta hor

8ou ay thin& of these #ri arily as devices in #oetry! but they abound! consciously or unintended! in al ost all s#o&en and any written te*ts! as when #olitical re#orters tal& of a ,raft, of easures. Satan (Andy 'a ilton) in an e#isode (fro 299:) of Old Harry's Game (a radio sitco set in 'ell) re ar&s of one of the characters that he is ,sha&ing li&e a 5illenniu %ridge, and of another that he has ,the will#ower of %ill Clinton at a cheerleaders; convention,. The first is a si ile! the second a eta#hor. %oth were to#ical in 2999! and e*#loit assu ed attitudes in the audience / that we &now (and are a used by) the engineering #roble s of the 5illenniu %ridge (good to loo& at! #erilous to wal& on) and the re#utation of 1resident Clinton.
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George 7. %ush uses it for ore serious effect when (in a State of the Union address) he describes the A erican faith in freedo and de ocracy as ,a seed u#on the wind! ta&ing root in any nations., 8ou will find these techni0ues not only in grand and serious conte*ts. $f you want to collect eta#hors! listen to soccer re#orts on 6adio < / so e of the su ari-ers even have their own favourite stoc& of i ages. Stuart 'all can be relied on for these! whether he is using the dead eta#hor ,School of Science, for Everton =C or li&ening the soccer #layer E ile 'es&ey to a wildebeest.
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Mixed meta hor or simile

Careless s#ea&ers or writers ay i* eta#hors inadvertently! but so e authors do it intentionally. Even Sha&es#eare does this! as when 'a let #ro#oses ,to ta&e ar s against a sea of troubles, / #resu ably both the #laywright and the 1rince reali-e that this is a strange action. The audience sees it as a eta#hor of an i #ossible struggle. (7.%. 8eats used this idea in a #oe called Cuchulain's Fight With the Sea) 5i*ing eta#hors can have co ic effects! as when a character in 5el S ith;s :>?> fil ! The Tall Guy! re ar&s of an attractive wo an that( ,She;s li&e a hungry leo#ard in full bloo ., $n fiction! i*ing eta#hors in dialogue is a stoc& way to a&e the reader 0uestion the intelligence of a character. $n other conte*ts it ay co e fro the atte #t to co #are or relate things others have said. 5any years ago! the late Enoch 1owell! warning about the future effects of large/scale i igration referred to rivers of blood running in the @A. $n Banuary 299C the @A 'o e Secretary 2avid %lun&ett referred to %ritain as a coiled s#ring. $n ny !uestions (a radio #rogra e in which various e*#erts answer 0uestions fro the audience)! Bonathan 2i bleby! the host! first said! (su ari-ing others; co ents)! ,the country;s li&e a coiled s#ring and this could s#ill over..., then as&ed! DisE ,2avid %lun&ett;s coiled s#ring a tributary of Enoch 1owell;s river of blood3, 5r. 2i bleby a##ears to have seen that this is an inelegant i*ing of eta#hor! but his ain #ur#ose was! in #osing the 0uestion! to relate the state ents of others! who chose the original i ages.
%ac& to to# !xtended meta hor

$n rhetoric! a s#ea&er ay return to or develo# a eta#hor! to a&e an argu ent see ore co #elling. $n Bohn =. Aennedy;s :>F: $naugural Address to the A erican #eo#le! we find an e*tended eta#hor of lighting a fire to give light to the world( ,The energy! the faith! the devotion which we bring to this endeavour will light our country and all who serve it! and the glow fro that fire can truly light the world.,
"llusion

Another #owerful techni0ue is to refer to! or even 0uote! a #owerful #hrase that the audience ay already &now. There is so e ris& in this! as the author needs to be sure that enough of the audience will be aware of the allusion or reference! unless the 0uoted #hrase wor&s well even if its origin is not &nown. $n the lines 0uoted above! Aennedy see s to allude to the i age! in St. Bohn;s gos#el! of Besus as ,the light of the world,. 6onald 6eagan;s s#eechwriter! 1eggy +oonan! borrowed an i age fro Bohn Gilles#ie 5agee;s #oe High Flight to e*#lain the disaster in :>?F when the Challenger s#ace shuttle e*#loded( ,7e will never forget the (the crew)! nor the last ti e we saw the this orning! as they #re#ared for their .ourney and waved goodbye! and sli##ed the surly bonds of earth! to touch the face of God., (5agee;s #oe begins( ,"h! $ have sli##ed the surly bonds of earth, and ends ,...$;ve...1ut out y hand and touched the face of God.,)
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$n co enting on language data! you ay find it hard to detect allusion / in a way it is al ost i #ossible unless you &now what it is to which the s#ea&er or writer alludes. "n the other hand! there are any conte #orary te*ts in which a young #erson has ore chance of detecting a reference than an older one. A good e*a #le is a short feature (in the Guardian news#a#er;s tabloid su##le ent) that #ur#orts to be an e*tract fro a chat foru ! but is really a s#oof. $n a Banuary 299C edition! one of the chatroo guests was su##osed to be Ai 'owells! a .unior inister who has been in the news for attac&ing odern art. 'e rebu&es the other users of the chatroo for their non/standard s#elling! adding( ,$ bla e 5rs. 2yna ite,. The author intends

the reader to be a used by the way ,Ai 'owells, tries to show an awareness of youth culture! yet reveals his ignorance in changing the title fro 5s to 5rs (,5s 2yna ite,! as younger readers will &now! is the stage na e of the ra# singer +io i 5cLean/2aley.)
%ac& to to# #ists o$ three

Three/#art structures and lists are so e e*a #les(

e orable and resonant in

any &inds of te*t. 'ere are these three...

And now abideth faith! ho#e! St 1aul! " Corinthians :C.:C (Aing Ba es Gersion! :F::)

charity!

The grandest of these ideals is an unfolding A erican #ro ise that everyone belongs! that everyone deserves a chance! that no insignificant #erson was ever born. George 7. %ush! $naugural Address! 299: $f you;re a daring designer! a budding botanist or si #ly green/fingered! we want to hear fro you Alan Titch arsh! Gardeners' World #i$e! %%C TG! Bune 299: Lists of three are not so co on in un#re#ared s#ea&ing! but you should loo& out for the any language data you have to study.
%ac& to to# %e etition

in

A useful rhetorical device is to re#eat a &ey idea or #hrase / this ay see crude! but it ay lodge in the inds of the audience. 7e see it in a s#eech ade by 'arold 7ilson! during the :>HI @A General Election ca #aign( ,This election is not about the unions...,
%ac& to to# Parallelism

iners) not about the

ilitants) not about the #ower of the

5any writers! es#ecially those who write for #ublic s#ea&ing! will divide a sentence or clause into two balanced #arts. This was the basic #rinci#le of #oetry in uch of the ancient world. There are al ost li itless e*a #les in the #ages of the Aing Ba es %ible! which was translated to be a version for #ublic reading. So eti es the second half echoes or develo#s the first half / this is synony ous #arallelis . So eti es the two halves are o##osed or contradictory! and this is antithetic #arallelis or si #ly antithesis.
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Synonymous arallelism

7e see this in so e lines fro history as(

George 7. %ush;s $naugural Address! where he refers to @S

,...the story of a #ower that went into the world to #rotect but not #ossess! 4 to defend but not to con0uer., $n this e*a #le the thought of ,to #rotect but not #ossess,! is carried further by ,to defend but not to con0uer,. $n s#ea&ing these lines! there will be a #ause after ,#ossess,. =or a ore fa iliar e*a #le! loo& at the %ritish +ational Anthe ( ,God save our gracious 0ueen! 4 long live our noble 0ueen.,

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"ntithetic arallelism or antithesis

The first e*a #le co es fro a s#eech of 7inston Churchill! in which he challenges the #uftwaffe (the Ger an air force)( ,8ou do your worst / and we will do our best,. A celebrated e*a #le co es fro Aennedy;s $naugural Address (0uoted above)( ,And so! y fellow A ericans! as& not! what your country can do for you. 4 As& what you can do for your country., And we can see antithesis in George 7. %ush;s i ages of A erica;s ,faith in freedo de ocracy,! first as a roc&! then! by contrast! as a seed( and

,Through uch of the last century! A erica;s faith in freedo and de ocracy was a roc& in a raging sea. 4 +ow it is a seed u#on the wind! ta&ing root in any nations.,
%ac& to to# Pu&&led or redundant questions

$f you wish to a&e a state ent! it ay be a good idea to as& a 0uestion or series of 0uestions to introduce it. This is a co on techni0ue in infor ation leaflets! which often #ose the 0uestion fro the reader;s view#oint / ,'ow can $ #rotect y baby fro co on infections3, and so on. $t can also be #owerful in #olitical rhetoric / ,'ow can a Labour govern ent raise standards in education3, leading to an e*#osition of the #arty;s #olicy. =or e*a #le! Welcome to the #a%our &arty! a boo&let which gives infor ation to new e bers! contains #ages where state ents are introduced by 0uestions! each set out as a section heading! such as( ,'ow can $ get involved3,! ,7hat ha##ens at local #olicy foru s3,! ,2o $ have to go along to a local #olicy foru ,7hat is the future3,

to have

y say3, and

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@sing the sa e initial consonant is a co on #loy of #oets and advertisers. $t can be irritating if it;s overdone! but a&es lines 0uotable or e orable. $n George 7. %ush;s inaugural s#eech we note ,faith in freedo , and ,roc& in a raging sea,. 7inston Churchill! in his s#eech about the Luftwaffe addresses the +a-i leaders and refers to the +a-i #arty as ,the grisly gang who wor& your wic&ed will,.
%ac& to to# Word lay

8ou can create so e good effects by using si ilar words but with slight differences of for and eaning. Andy %odle in a listings article for the fil 'ancid luminium does this by describing the fil as ,#art arthouse! #art shithouse,. 'ere are a cou#le of e*a #les. The first co es fro 2orothy L. Sayers; $ntroduction to her translation of 2ante;s great narrative #oe ! &urgatory( ,%etween the bisho#s who assure us that the fa ily is the one and only seedbed of all the virtues! and the #sychiatrists who warn us that it is a hotbed of all the vices! we hardly &now how to advise any child to enter u#on the ha-ard of e*istence., The second co es fro Gladi ir +abo&ov;s essay ,"n a boo& Entitled #olita,. This is an a##endi* to his novel of the sa e na e. $n the essay! +abo&ov clai s (or #retends) that he can ad ire but cannot e ulate(

,...the accuracy of .udg ent of those who #ose the fair young a als #hotogra#hed in aga-ines where the general nec&line is .ust low enough to #rovo&e a #ast aster;s chuc&le and .ust high enough not to a&e a #ost/ aster frown.,
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In$luential ower - advertising %roadly s#ea&ing! advertisers #ersuade their audience to ado#t attitudes to lifestyle! #roducts and services. $t is rare to find advertising that see&s to influence e*#licitly or directly. Less rare are advertise ents in which the lin& to a #roduct or service is i #licit or a biguous. Consider a TG advertise ent (5ay 2999) which de#icts Ai ee 5ullins a odel (who is also a #araly #ic athlete! s#rinter! and double below/the/&nee a #utee) #re#aring for the finale of a fashion show for Ale*ander 5cJueen / the advertise ent was ade for an $nternet service #rovider! =reeServe! but did no ore directly to advertise =reeServe than show the co #any na e and logo. There is an obli0ue lin& to the na e of the co #any in the idea of the odel;s freedo to run with the wild ani als de#icted in the fashion show. At the sa e ti e the advertiser s&ilfully lin&s a #ossibly un/se*y technical service with ideas of beauty! fashion and #ositive discri ination.
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Advertising has a le*icon! which ay change over ti e! but is fairly stable / new! i #roved! #roven and other 0ualifiers are seen as reliable. 2avid "gilvy in Confessions of an d$ertising (an (0uoted by Shirley 6ussell) Grammar) Structure and Style! "*ford! :>>I! #. :HH) identifies a basic le*icon of 0ualifiers such as( new) good) crisp) %etter) fresh) natural) fine) free ! and of verbs such as( %uy) gi$e) taste) go) look) feel and use. S#ecial registers (technical! scientific or #seudo/ scientific) ay be used for a##ro#riate #roducts. Tor*ue) +H&) $al$e) +S for cars or keramides) pro,+) hypoallergenic in #ersonal hygiene #roducts. Loo& out for s#ecial le*ical uses according to #roduct! i age and target ar&et. ,1ot +oodle / everything else is .ust #ants,. &ants is (or was in 2999) fashionable as a ild ter of disa##roval a ong young #eo#le (es#ecially young en) who ay be su##osed to want food which is ine*#ensive! 0uic& to a&e! and needs no s#ecial #re#aration or utensils. Advertising borrows and ada#ts structures and for s fro te*ts of all &inds. 5any broadcast advertise ents are dra atic! with a narrative conducted through dialogue. "thers ay show a narrative by i ages alone! to the acco #ani ent of usic andKor a voiceover. Can you thin& of e*a #les3 1uns! alliteration! assonance! ono ato#oeia! rhy e and other &inds of co ic or #oetic word#lay are co on in advertising. A biguity! irony and allusion (reference) are also #owerful techni0ues.
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"dvertising and s ecial lexis Advertising often a&es use of short te*ts / whether in #rint or broadcast edia / where every word has to wor& hard (in this res#ect very uch li&e #oetry). $t is very co on for the advertiser to use words that belong to so e other s#ecial le*icon! as if to establish a ra##ort with the target audience. So a 2992 television advertise ent for Bohn S ith;s %itter (beer) o#ens as if it were a broadcast of an international diving event (the advertise ent a##eared shortly after the 2992 Co onwealth Ga es). After divers fro other countries e*ecute technically #erfect dives! the %ritish diver .u #s in! a&ing a great s#lash and al ost losing his trun&s! to ra#turous a##lause and #erfect ar&s fro the .udges. The co entator utters the #hrase! which is the slogan of the ca #aign( ,to# bo bing,. The non/standard noun! %om%ing! suggests so ething which is ty#ically ale! fun and de otic / it is un#retentious! ai ed at #eo#le who have traditional ideas of bitter as a down/to/earth and blo&eish drin&! in contrast to continental lagers or drin&s with other social #retensions.
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$t is very easy to find s#ecial le*is in any advertise ent. %ut in e*#laining how it wor&s! you will need to thin& about how far the co#ywriter is using a #articular register! or feature of style! which in turn is related to the #roduct brand and i age! and the attitudes or values of the audience. Loo& at the following e*a #les of e*tracts of te*t fro adverts! culled fro a 0uic& loo& through a selection of news#a#ers and aga-ines (the #roduct and the #roducer a##ear in #arenthesis after the advertise ent te*t)( The %ritish Airways Sale. Go on. Ta&e off. (6educed/#rice flightsK%ritish Airways) $ agine a healthier fitter you. (Tanita body fat onitor) 5ove 5ountains. (Si City I 1CK2i*ons) +ot so uch a #rice as an invitation. (=lights to S#ainK$beria Airways) Every year C>!299 wo en are newly diagnosed with breast cancer. (5edical insuranceKALA 111 healthcare) Go 5obile. (Goyager la#to# co #uterKEvesha Technology) A win! win! win! win! win! win situation. (F onths; free business ban&ingK%arclays) 2e on slashes all broadband set/u# fees. (%roadband $nternet serviceK2e on) +ot even the ta* an can catch it. (Saab >< saloon) 7e don;t need your tears we need teachers urgently (Goluntary Service "verseas) Lose weight! the healthy herbal way. (7eight Loss AidK'erbal Conce#ts) Great tasting nutritious su##le ents. (%uild/@# +utritionK+estlM) 'el#s reduce and overco e s o&ing at your own #ace. (+ico%loc) Always on call. (2ay N +ight +urse) Technology with style. (27=F:ISS dishwasherKS eg) $t only ta&es a few seconds to reali-e a diesel can have Ga Ga Goo . (6enault Clio) Aurt Geiger for her. 1aul S ith for hi . Ta*/free #rices for you. (Air#ort sho##ingK%AA) Authentically =rench ellow cheese. (CheeseK1ort Salut) 'aving your own ringtone saves you answering so eone else;s call. (Call SignK%T)

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Loo& for the le*ical words (nouns! verbs! ad.ectives and adverbs). 7hat ideas do they suggest3 2oes the te*t suggest the ideas of good value (low #rice)! of style! status! so#histication! convenience! fitness and so on3 The $berian Airways advertise ent re#eats the idea found in any airline ads of good value! while at the sa e ti e suggesting so ething #ersonal about visiting S#ain! through the noun ,invitation, / which we associate with #arties and celebrations. The advertise ent for %AA;s Air#ort sho##ing wor&s in a si ilar way( it refers to the low (ta*/ free) #rices! yet targets its audience very #recisely by na ing the fashionable brands on sale / if we do not &now what Aurt Geiger or 1aul S ith a&es! then the advert will #ass us by. There is also an assu #tion that the brands a##eal to the different se*es! which wor&s in that the writer of this guide recogni-es 1aul S ith as a designer of for al clothes! but does not &now Aurt Geiger. (The advertise ent also has a three/#art structure to #oint u# the s#ecial le*is.)
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The advertise ent for %T;s Call Sign service will a##eal to a wide audience! but until we &now what a ringtone is! we are not li&ely to wish to have our own. The eaning of the noun is self/ e*#lanatory / but here it oves fro its original conte*t of use ( obile #hones) to the related conte*t of fi*ed tele#hones / so the advertise ent targets householders rather than #redo inantly young #eo#le with s#ending oney. The %arclays advertise ent uses a #hrase that is a clichM or bu--word a ong business #eo#le( a ,win/win situation, i #lies an arrange ent that benefits #eo#le at either end! and challenges the received wisdo that if L gains then 8 loses. So in using the #hrase! the advertiser &ee#s to a register fa iliar to the business custo er! while #rinting the ad.ective si* ti es to indicate the nu ber of onths for which the free offer runs.

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,Technology with style, is one e*a #le of a #attern fa iliar here / that suggests that the #roduct has two things that the audience ay thin& to be nor ally contradictory or o*y oronic (the idea of ,having your ca&e and eating it,). So eti es the o##osition is of #rice and 0uality (as in the clai that good food costs less at Sainsburys). 'ere the advertiser contrasts functionality and aesthetic a##eal! and clai s that the brand in 0uestion (S eg) has both of these at once. Si ilarly the advertise ent for +ico%loc co bines the idea of efficaciousness (it wor&s) with that of its not being too difficult for the would/be non/s o&er to sto# s o&ing. This a##ears in the suggestion of reducing (consu #tion) before sto##ing altogether. The verb ,overco e, has connotations of victory in battle! rather than the brea&ing of a habit or a si #le change in behaviour. These is #robably very a#t! since the target audience for this advertise ent ay well have an e*tre e view! and see the atte #t to sto# s o&ing as a&in to a great ilitary action. (The advertise ent co es fro Healthy Times a aga-ine distributed! free to readers! by the retail che ists @niChe / so the audience has already been targeted. Advertise ents for #roducts that hel# #eo#le sto# s o&ing do of course a##ear in ore general conte*ts! as in TG advertising.)
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This sa e contrast also a##ears in the 6enault Clio advertise ent / but here the le*is is ore e*#licitly a&ing the distinction! in diesel and -a -a -oom. The ad.ective diesel has i ediate denotations of the &nown #ro#erties of this engine ty#e / the engine has a longer life! is ore de#endable and gives better fuel econo y! but ta&es longer to reach high s#eeds. The advertiser wants to suggest that the car nonetheless has a co bination of style! flair! #ower and youth a##eal (not nor ally associated with diesel engines). 6ather than use any of these words! 6enault has invented its own co #ound abstract noun / -a -a -oom. This is alliterative! and has an interesting sound / being 0uite e orable. The advertisers develo# the i age by association with! for e*a #le! the soccer #layer Thierry 'enry / who is =rench! but lives and wor&s in England! and is e*ce#tionally talented and athletic. At the sa e ti e! 5. 'enry is shown in situations that suggest a caring and fe inine side / with #ets! sitting at ho e a ong soft furnishings! for instance. $n this way the advertise ents a##eal to #otential drivers of both se*es! and are highly s#ecific to one a&e and odel of car. %y inventing the word! the advertisers are able to ada#t it so that it carries e*actly the suggestion they wish to a&e to the audience / it should have no #rior negative connotations. "ne of the advertise ents #layfully suggests that the new ter is #art of the standard English le*icon by as&ing what is the =rench for -a -a -oom3
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'rammar and advertising 2oes advertising have distinctive gra ar3 8es / in several ways. =irst! advertising! li&e #oetry! often allows the author ore licence to de#art fro standard for s than in other &inds of te*t. And second! it a&es use of short for s! of what 1rofessor Crystal calls inor sentences. There is a connection with #rag atics! therefore! in that the advertiser a&es very great assu #tions about the audience. $t is acce#table to #u--le or intrigue in ways that would not be at all a##ro#riate if the audience really de#ended on the advertisers; infor ation. "ne very co on techni0ue is for the author to set nouns and noun #hrases or verbs on their own! where the reader or listener su##lies the issing ele ents by con.ecture / rather as in inter#reting notes! so that! for instance! ,does what it says on the tin, is understood as ,this #roduct eets the clai s that are #rinted on the side of the tin,. This for ay so eti es but not always rese ble the for s used in headlines! so that it is es#ecially suitable for adverts in news#a#ers. 'ere are so e e*a #les ta&en ore or less at rando fro a trawl through so e daily news#a#ers (Banuary 299C)( 'a##y +ew 6ate 2eals to re e ber Currys saleK=ree delivery #lus %uy now #ay 299I

E5A$L! $+TE6+ET N TELT 5ESSAGES 7inter welco e =ree servicing for C years Su er seats on sale new year new fares The confidence to succeed 1recious etal for #recious little

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"n their own! these do not tell you how ty#ical they are. A casual ental count suggests that! in these news#a#ers! the advertise ents in which the first line (or te*t nearest the to# of the dis#lay bo*) is not a gra atically co #lete structure (sentence or ain clause) outnu ber those that are co #lete in a #ro#ortion of at least three to one. %ut a ore co #lete survey fro a bigger sa #le would be a suitable tas& for research. A ong the few co #lete structures are( i want e*tra 5"+E8 A##ly now 'ow do you see yourself3 Loo& at the clues Travel with Eurotunnel fro .ust O<

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$n the :>F9s advertisers would often use gra atical conversion! ta&ing a brand na e (a noun) and using it as ad.ective! adverb or verb. This tendency has recently returned as in these e*a #les( That;s so Su-u&i 'ow refreshing! how 'eine&en There is no atte #t to alter the for of the word to corres#ond to its gra atical category! such as by adding an affi* li&e /ish! ,ic or ,es*ue! nor of using an e*tra word( ,that;s so li&e Su-u&i, ,how li&e 'eine&en,.
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Semantics and advertising $n the @A! there are so e state controls on what advertisers ay or ay not clai about their #roducts. Advertisers! therefore! often e*#loit the #ossibilities of connotation (suggested eaning) rather than strict denotation (stated eaning) and i #ly that #roducts have various erits! without saying so e*#licitly. "ne co on way of doing so is to use #seudo/technical le*is or scientific na es for everyday things. 'owever! this is not desirable in all conte*ts. $n cos etic and #har acological #roducts! ost advertisers will use scientific le*is to suggest efficacy! as in these e*a #les( ,1erle de Caviar draws the essential ele ents of long/lasting beauty and a youthful co #le*ion fro the de#ths of the ocean...trace ele ents! a ino acids! ineral salts! iodine and #lan&ton. Co bining a #erfect balance of these #recious ele ents! each 1erle de Caviar #roduct #rovides an intense thalassothera#y treat ent designed to hydrate and regenerate., ,one si #le tablet hel#s safeguard your diet with botanicals! natural caratenoids! vita ins and essential trace inerals...Advance your beauty regi e with 1erfectilP / because true radiance starts fro within.,
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,6egi e, elevates the use of cos etics to so ething co #le*! while the P sy bol suggests that there is so ething technically so#histicated in the #roduct. $t ay really si #ly denote the

registration of the trade na e to #rotect against isuse. This #seudo science is not si #ly found in the advertise ents #ro#er but in the .oined/u# ar&eting! so that #eo#le who a##ly and de onstrate the #roducts are ,beauty thera#ists, / which ay i #ly si ilar learning! acade ic 0ualifications and status to! for e*a #le! s#eech thera#ists or #hysiothera#ists. The ,beauty thera#ist, wears a white gar ent li&e a lab coat! i #lying so e &ind of li&eness to a #har acist. Co #are the e*a #les above with one designed for a scientifically 0ualified readershi#. This is an advertise ent for Lalatan a 9.99Q< eye dro# solution of latano#rost! licensed for use in 5arch 2992! and advertised in The &harmaceutical .ournal of +ove ber 2992. The advertise ent includes details of nine references to the #roduct in #ublished scientific sources! followed by detailed #rescribing infor ation! divided under standard headings such as &resentation) /ndication) 0osage and dministration) Contra,indications) &recautions) Side 1ffects) /nteractions) and information a%out the drug's effects in &regnancy) #actation and for 0ri$ing) O$erdosage) &harmaceutical &recautions) #egal Category) &ackaging !uantities and +asic 2HS price and details of the &roduct #icence 2um%er and Holder. This degree of infor ation distinguishes licensed #har aceutical #roducts fro beauty treat ents. $n the latter case! the advertisers ight wish us to believe that #a%oratoires Garnier and the &onds /nstitute are co #arable to edical research institutions. $n the west! 1onds a##ears to have dro##ed references to the fictitious institute / a search on the 7eb leads to so e a using s#oofs! though the 1onds $nstitute is still used in advertise ents in the develo#ing world. A register of #har aceutical laboratories in =rance (at www.#har a*ie.co ) does not show Laboratoires Garnier under entries for the letter g.
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$n relation to food and drin&! however! advertisers are usually &een to stress its naturalness. So while the #roduct #ac&aging will list all additives! flavourings and colourings! advertise ents will identify the brand and basic food content! as in ,=ili##o %erioKThe 7orld;s =inest "live "ilK=ili##o %erioK"live "ilK1ure Genius, / the brand na e and the #rinci#al ingredient a##ear twice! along with the ad.ective ,#ure,! to suggest the idea that there is nothing but the natural oil in the bottle that the advertise ent de#icts. A full/#age advertise ent for Cobra beer! in Sains%urys (aga3ine for Banuary 299C! shows lots of blan& s#ace! a s all #hotogra#h of two bottles of Cobra! the 7eb site address! and this te*t( ,$f you li&e Cobra!Kdrin& Cobra, and ,The less gassy bottled beer that #uts you under no #ressure,. There are so e e*ce#tions to this rule of thu b! however / vita ins and for e*a #le / which advertisers do so eti es ention. Pragmatics and advertising Advertisers occu#y the s#aces where we are ty#ically attending to other things / watching television! reading or browsing a aga-ine on the way to wor&! loo&ing at #osters on an underground train! #latfor or escalator! or fro a car! bus or bicycle. They will try to a##eal to all our senses and different language #rocessing faculties at the sa e ti e. $t is 0uite co on for a TG advertise ent to feature any or all of these at the sa e ti e( usical trac&! sound =L! voiceover! dialogue s#o&en by character or celebrity in or out of role! static te*t! oving te*t or te*t s#elling out letter by letter on screen! with or without e*tra gra#hic e bellish ent. 7hat we do! if anything with these! ay vary fro #erson to #erson / but is so ething one can research. 8ou can do this! for e*a #le! by showing advertise ents to #eo#le (categori-ing the #eo#le by whether they have seen the advertise ent before! and how often! as well as by other things li&e se* and age)! then as&ing the whether they thin& the advert contains an e*a #le of each of the &inds of te*t that the researcher has identified. ($t is #ossible to add so e that are not there! as distractor 0uestions! to eli inate so e &inds of res#ondent.) A very good #rag atic a##roach is to consider the #osition and view#oint that the audience is being as&ed to ado#t. This can be so ething very si #le! as in an assu #tion that we all want to save oney. This assu #tion is very wides#read a ong advertisers and ar&eters. 6egularly so eone tele#hones e to as& if $ would li&e to save a given figure on y utility bills. 5y stoc& res#onse is to say that $ do not wish to save this a ount (or even a lot ore) to change ono/unsaturated fats!

so ething with which $ a currently content! thin&ing it a fair #rice for a reliable service. This often leads the caller to 0uestion whether $ really ean what $ say! and to revert to a scri#t that stresses this #otential saving.
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%y no eans all advertise ents a&e this assu #tion. "thers assu e that the reader or listener has an*ieties about his or her self/i age! and that he or she can beco e ore attractive by wearing the watch or clothes advertised! or driving a different car. An e*tre e (and offensive) e*a #le was a TG advert that featured a young an ounting a su#er ar&et trolley and racing it around a su#er ar&et. A fe ale voiceover s#o&e the #hrase( ,$nade0uate car,. (The advert is offensive in suggesting that the choice or ownershi# of a ar0ue of car is the easure of a hu an being.) Garious advertisers of obile #hones try to #ersuade e*isting owners that they need to re#lace a odel that is not stylish and a li&ely cause of ridicule! as in an advertise ent series (shown on @A television) for 1honesI@. $n these adverts the co edian 1aul 5erton s#ea&s a voiceover( ,7e;ll find the right #hone for you,. 2oes the advertiser consider how far the audience ay resist the notion that there is a ,right #hone, for us3 A ore ob.ective a##roach to #rag atics ight be to consider what gra atical #erson or for of address advertisers use! if they try to s#ea& directly to us. 2o they use i #eratives (,Loo& at the clues,)! do they a&e state ents (,7e don;t serve lobster in the directors; dining roo ,) or do they #lant noun/#hrases (,=ree servicing for C years,) and leave us to wor& out what to do about these3 (iscourse structures in advertising Advertising is highly derivative and i itative (if not #arasitic or #lagiari-ing) in the genres! te*t ty#es and structures it uses. $n effect! any &ind of te*t that e*ists for any other #ur#ose ay be the blue#rint for an advertise ent. (This is not a one/way relationshi#( dra atic narratives and co ic ani ations often borrow structures and techni0ues that first a##eared in advertising. And there are any e*a #les of television or #rint fiction that started life as advertise ents / the Teenage (utant 2in4a Turtles in the :>>9s or Torchie the +attery +oy in the :>F9s.) A very co on general a##roach (for any broadcast ediu and cine a) is to create narratives / which ay be self/contained or e#isodic. 7hile the advertiser ay not wish to #oint out that these are narratives! this is not always the case. A series of advertise ents for the %57 5ini car uses the for at of stories with a #lot consisting of three or four state ents! read as voiceover with acco #anying action / the sub.ect of each sentence is usually ,+ew 5ini,! and each e*a #le ends with( ,The end. $t;s a 5ini adventure,. At the o##osite e*tre e would be a series of advertise ents #roduced by the agency 5cCann Eric&son for +escafM;s Gold +lend brand of instant coffee. This ca #aign ran fro +ove ber :>?H to :>>C! containing twelve e#isodes released at the rate of one or two a year. The agency #roduced a co #ilation of the first eleven e#isodes before screening the conclusion. The ,story, was ada#ted as a ro antic novel! entitled #o$e O$er Gold.
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An even longer/running series featured the "L" cou#le ,Aatie, and ,1hili#,! in a series of do estic scenes. The Gold %lend series ay have #ro #ted the advertisers of the 6enault Clio to a&e a series of advertise ents featuring a =rench father and daughter (,1a#a, and ,+icole,) into a ore coherent narrative! ending with a wedding! which sends u# the classic fil The Graduate. $n this advertise ent! two entertainers! then at the height of their #o#ularity (Gic 6eeves and %ob 5orti er) #layed the .ilted groo and the successful old fla e who runs off with the girl. A Channel I #oll showed this series to be the ost #o#ular of all @A TG adverts! while other studies have clai ed that the series was the ost successful in ter s of the audience;s ability to identify the #roduct advertised. As styles of TG broadcast have develo#ed (say lifestyle #rogra es or reality shows)! so advertise ents have oved to e ulate the . So we see the ho e a&eover and 2$8 show irrored by advertise ents for 'o ebase! in which +eil 5orrissey and Lesley Ash a##ear as a

cou#le (loosely rese bling the characters they #layed in the sitco (en +eha$ing +adly) while #ost/watershed docu entaries about se*ual behaviour clearly have ins#ired the ca #aign (starting in 2992) for 1ot +oodle (,$t;s dirty but you want it,) in which a young an visits various clubs and as&s young wo en in underwear or bondage gear whether they ,do, 1ot +oodle! or in which a young wo an (see ingly a girlfriend) accuses the young an of indulging in his 1ot +oodle habit.
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)inding more 8ou can find any advertise ents by going to the 7eb sites of the various agencies! or loo&ing for na ed directors of co ercials. %ut two big #ortals worth visiting are( www.adfli#.co / dflip clai s to be the world;s biggest archive of advertising scri#toriu .lib.du&e.eduKadaccess / d5access is a vast historical archive of adverts. As a criti0ue of advertising! you should loo& at d%usters! at adbusters.orgKho e.

In$luential ower - olitics

The features of #olitical language vary! as do its #ur#oses. 7here #oliticians interact with society generally! their #ur#oses ay be! to #ersuade voters with a #arty loyalty to turn out to vote) to ove a floating voter;s #arty allegiance! or to a&e us ado#t general #olitical or social attitudes! so we su##ort a given #olicy. 1oliticians ay also use #articular language for s when answering .ournalists; 0uestions. 7here #oliticians engage in language interactions with other #oliticians! they ay use other #articular for s / either loosely or under the rule of an arbiter! such as the S#ea&ers in the @A 'ouse of Co ons and the @S 'ouse of 6e#resentatives. And finally! a conte #orary feature of #olitical language use is what is &nown as ,s#in, / #roviding infor ation to the edia in such a way as to favour a desired inter#retation! not e*#licitly stated. Political rhetoric 1ersuasive language techni0ues! es#ecially in s#eech! ta&e their na e fro the Gree& noun for a #rofessional s#ea&er! rhetor (the Latin e0uivalent is orator). 5any of these techni0ues are found in written records of s#eeches in the ancient world / such as Besus; use! in 5atthew;s and Lu&e;s gos#els of #arable! antithesis and #atterned s#eech which even survive translation into English( ,%lessed are those who they shall see God., ourn! 4 for they shall be co forted. %lessed are the #ure in heart! 4 for

7e have si ilarly ancient records of #olitical s#eeches! such as those of 2e osthenes! that show the use of techni0ues that are as effective today! as they were in the #ast. 5a* At&inson! of "*ford @niversity! suggests that #olitical s#eechwriters consistently rely on a range of #owerful techni0ues( alliteration! allusion! antithesis (inversion)! as&ing 0uestions and suggesting answers! lists (es#ecially of three ite s)! eta#hor (es#ecially e*tended eta#hor)! #arallelis ! #arenthesis! re#etition and redundant 0uestioning.

To see these in action! you should loo& at e*a #les of s#eeches written for #oliticians! and find out how these wor&. "btaining e*a #le data for this #ur#ose is very easy. 8ou can use the official record of the @A 'ouse of Co ons. (This is called Hansard after Tho as Curson 'ansard! who began #roducing re#orts unofficially! and #ut his na e to the record in :?2>. 'ansard;s re#orts were so accurate that they beca e the standard record on erit. At the start of the 29th century the @A govern ent established an "fficial 6e#ort. $t dro##ed the Hansard na e! but #o#ular usage #reserved it! and in :>IC the na e was officially reinstated! even though the re#ort now has no connection with the 'ansard fa ily.) Hansard;s re#orts are available in #rint and on the 7orld 7ide 7eb! as are records of #roceedings in the #arlia ents of any other countries (which also use the na e Hansard). $n the @A! the %%C has a digital television channel (++C &arliament) that broadcasts debates and eetings of select co ittees / fro which you can a&e recordings and transcri#ts. The federal govern ent and state govern ents in the @SA also #ublish the te*t of s#eeches! such as the 1resident;s $naugural Address and State of the @nion s#eeches. "nce you have found your transcri#t! what can you do with it3 "ne e*ercise is to loo& for rhetorical techni0ues in action. Consider this e*tract fro a s#eech ade by the late 'arold 7ilson! the Labour leader! before the :>HI @A General Election( ,This election is not about the iners) not about the ilitants) not about the #ower of the unions( it;s about the disastrous failure of three and a half years of Conservative govern ent which has turned %ritain fro the #ath of #ros#erity to the road of ruin., 7hat is 5r. 7ilson doing here3 7e find re#etition of the for ula ,not about,! and antithesis between ,is not about, and ,it;s about,. ,1ath of #ros#erity, and ,road of ruin, re#eat the sa e for ! use alliteration and are related eta#hors. $n Bohn =. Aennedy;s $naugural Address fro Banuary 29! :>F:! we find an e*tended (of lighting a fire to give light to the world) and a concluding antithesis( eta#hor

,The energy! the faith! the devotion which we bring to this endeavour will light our country and all who serve it! and the glow fro that fire can truly light the world. And so! y fellow A ericans! as& not! what your country can do for you. As& what you can do for your country., The last two sentences use any of the sa e le*e es! but trans#ose (switch) the sub.ect and the indirect ob.ect. (8ou can find the whole te*t of the s#eech and an audio recording D6eal AudioE to download at the B=A Library and 5useu ! hosted by the @niversity of 5assachusetts 2e#art ent of Co #uter Science at( www.cs.u b.eduK.f&library =or a hu orous allusion! consider 5argaret Thatcher;s( ,To those waiting with bated breath for that favourite odern catch#hrase the ;@/ turn;! $ have only one thing to say( 8ou turn! if you li&e) the lady;s not for turningR, There is word#lay on the ho o#hones @/turnKyou turn! and a reference to 5rs. Thatcher;s ,$ron Lady, nic&na e! while the final #hrase is a #ainful #un on the title of Christo#her =ry;s #lay (about a witch)( The #ady's 2ot for +urning. 6onald 6eagan;s s#eechwriter! 1eggy +oonan! borrowed an i age fro Bohn Gilles#ie 5agee;s

#oe

High Flight to e*#lain the disaster in :>?F when the Challenger s#ace shuttle e*#loded(

,7e will never forget the (the crew)! nor the last ti e we saw the this orning! as they #re#ared for their .ourney and waved goodbye! and sli##ed the surly bonds of earth! to touch the face of God., +ow loo& at these longer e*tracts (fro which so e of the e*a #les above co e)! and see if you can find other ways in which the writer (not the sa e #erson as the s#ea&er! usually) uses s#ecific techni0ues to achieve #articular effects. ,$n the long history of the world only a few generations have been granted the r le of defending freedo in its hour of a*i u danger. $ do not shrin& fro this res#onsibility) $ welco e it. $ do not believe that any of us would e*change #laces with any other #eo#le or any other generation. The energy! the faith! the devotion which we bring to this endeavour will light our country and all who serve it! and the glow fro that fire can truly light the world. And so! y fellow A ericans! as& not! what your country can do for you. As& what you can do for your country., Bohn =. Aennedy

,Suddenly the nation has been #lunged into a idwinter election. 8ou ust be as&ing why has 5r. 'eath decided to a&e a des#erate run for it. $t can;t be because of the dis#ute with the iners. 5r. 'eath can;t be as&ing you to vote hi bac& so that he can a&e an honourable settle ent with the iners. +o! 5r. 'eath is a&ing a run for it! in the ho#e that the s o&escreen of the iners; dis#ute / a dis#ute that he has deliberately sto&ed u# / will distract you fro the real issues. This election is not about the iners) not about the ilitants) not about the #ower of the unions( it;s about the disastrous failure of three and a half years of Conservative govern ent which has turned %ritain fro the #ath of #ros#erity to the road of ruin., 'arold 7ilson ,$;ll tell you what ha##ens with i #ossible #ro ises( you start with far/fetched resolutions) they are then #ic&led into a rigid dog a cold. And you go through the years! stic&ing to that( outdated! is#laced! irrelevant to the real needs. And you end in the grotes0ue chaos of a Labour council / a Labour council / hiring ta*is to scuttle round a city! handing out redundancy notices to its own wor&ers. $; telling you now( no atter how entertaining! how fulfilling to short/ter egos / $;ll tell you and you;ll listen / $; telling you! $; telling you / you can;t #lay #olitics with #eo#le;s .obs and #eo#le;s services., +eil Ainnoc&

,And $ want to say so ething to the schoolchildren of A erica who were watching the live coverage of the shuttle;s ta&e/off. $ &now it;s hard to understand! but so eti es #ainful things li&e this ha##en. $t;s all #art of the #rocess of e*#loration and discovery. $t;s all #art of ta&ing a chance! of e*#anding an;s hori-ons. The future doesn;t belong to the faint/hearted. $t belongs to the brave. The Challenger crew was #ulling us into the future and we;ll continue to follow the . 7e will never forget the ! nor the last ti e we saw the this orning! as they #re#ared for their .ourney and waved goodbye! and sli##ed the surly bonds of earth! to touch the face of God., 6onald 6eagan Parliamentary and un arliamentary language $n the @A 1arlia ent! a range of s#ecial language features a s#ecial le*icon and for s of address! disallowing #ersonally abusive e#ithets ar&s #roceedings. These include(

use of s#ecial structures 1arlia entary #rivilege / freedo fro liability for slander rules for ta&ing and holding turns #rocedures for su##ortive and e*#licatory interventions sub ission to the arbitration of the chair an or wo an! the S#ea&er and 2e#uty S#ea&ers.

2avid Crystal (Cam%ridge 1ncyclopedia of the 1nglish #anguage ! #. CH?) suggests also that a*i s of conversational theory do not a##ly to #arlia entary dialogue. "ther #artici#ants or co entators do not assu e that s#ea&ers are telling the truth! are s#ea&ing clearly or with relevance. This ay need so e clarification. $n so e ways! debate is li&e social conversation / #eo#le s#ea& in se0uence! res#ond to each other and develo# ideas. And outside of occasions when 51s ado#t ritual en ities (1ri e 5inister;s Juestion Ti e or the #resenting of a new draft bill! say)! the s#ea&ers ay follow coo#erative rules and observe conversational a*i s. %ut they have other otivations than the success of the conversation / and (in #rag atic ter s) ay want the e*change not to be successful! that is in co ing to an acco odation. =or an e*haustive discussion of how different theoretical odels usefully e*#lain #arlia entary discourse! have a loo& at Chris Christie;s &oliteness and the #inguistic Construction of Gender in &arliament6 n nalysis of Transgressions and pology +eha$iour at www.shu.ac.u&Kw#wK#oliteness. $n this article! Chris Christie effectively 0ualifies 1rofessor Crystal;s assertion! as she does see what ha##ens if one uses odels fro 1rag atics (s#ecifically #oliteness theory) to e*#lain 1arlia entary e*changes. S ecial lexis in olitics =or s of address in #arlia ent 4 1arlia entary #rivilege 4 Goting 4 1arlia entary rules for turn ta&ing 4 other rules The @A #arlia ent has a s#ecial le*icon / so ething you will find in the #olitical syste s of any states. This includes ter s denoting the institutions! #ractices and officials of the #arlia ent / things li&e %ench 7%ack %ench) cross %ench) front %ench8) +lack 'od) speaker) under,secretary) whip (noun and verb). This le*icon is very e*tensive (there are any guides available to e*#lain the eanings of ter s). So e are descri#tive and ore or less self/e*#lanatory! such as( Co ittee of Selection! 2isclai ing a 1eerage and 1ri e 5inister;s Juestions (though here we need to &now that the 0uestions are as&ed of or to! but not by! the 1ri e 5inister! who gives the answers). "thers are o#a0ue / we need to &now ore infor ation in order to understand the eaning! as with( "9:: Committee) nother &lace) Chiltern Hundreds) Hansard and / Spy Strangers . 8ou can find e*#lanations of these and other ter s on various A to S guides! but if you want to &now the eaning of these #articular ter s they are as follows ( Hansard is e*#lained above)(
:>22 Co ittee A co ittee ade u# of all bac&bench Conservative 51s) when the #arty is in o##osition! frontbench 51s a#art fro the leader ay attend. 7hen e bers of the Co ons wish to refer! in debate! to the 'ouse of Lords! or where #eers (in the Lords) wish to refer to the Co ons! they refer to ,another #lace, or ,the other #lace,! rather than na ing the house. An office a##ointed by the Chancellor of the E*che0uer. 51s cannot voluntarily give u# their seats during a 1arlia ent! so if one wants to resign! he or she a##lies for this office (which is nor ally granted) and is i ediately dis0ualified fro being an 51 Anyone who is not a e ber or official of the 1arlia ent is a stranger. An 51 can interru#t #roceedings with the cry( ,$ s#y strangers,. This forces the S#ea&er to #ut a otion that strangers withdraw (fro the #ublic Strangers; Gallery). $f the otion is #assed (very rare) the #roceedings continue in #rivate.

Another 1lace

Chiltern 'undreds

$ S#y Strangers

%elow is a list of further words and #hrases which have a s#ecial eaning in the conte*t of 1arlia ent. 'ow any do you &now3 Chec& the %%C;s! or 1arlia ent;s own! A to S guide to find out what they ean. Go to( news.bbc.co.u&K:KhiKu&T#oliticsKa/-TofT#arlia ent or www.#arlia ent.u&Kwor&s
Ad.ourn ent debates A end ents Annunciators Another #lace Any hours otion Autu n State ent %ac&bencher %elow the gangway %ills %is0ue %lac& 6od %loc&ing otion %udget %udget briefcase %udget lea&s Cabinet Cabinet co ittees Cabinet "ffice Secretariat Cabinet reshuffles Casting vote Censure 5otions Central Lobby Chair an of 7ays and 5eans Chair en;s 1anel Chancellor of the 2uchy of Lancaster Chancellor of the e*che0uer Chief whi# (govern ent) Church co issioners Civil list Clauses Cler& of the 1arlia ents Closure Coalition Co and #a#ers Co ittee office Co ittee stage Constituency Consultation #a#ers Conte #t of 1arlia ent Cross %enches Crossing the =loor 2e#uty s#ea&er 2ilatory otion 2isclai ing a #eerage 2ivisions 2raft bills Early 2ay 5otion E*#ulsion =ather of the 'ouse =ilibustering =irst 6eading =oreign Secretary =ree vote =rontbench Grave disorder Green card Green 1a#er Guillotine #rocedure Green card Green 1a#er Guillotine #rocedure 'ansard 'ybrid %ills $ S#y Strangers Bournal of the Co ons Bournal "ffice Leader of the 'ouse Lobby Syste Lobbying Lord Chancellor Lord 1rivy Seal Lords Co issioners Lords S#iritual Lords Te #oral 5ace / Co ons 5ace / Lords 5aiden S#eech 5inisters 5otions +o/Confidence 5otions +odding Through "aths " buds an "rder %oo& "rder 1a#er "rders in Council "rders of the 2ay "verseas "ffice 1airing 1arlia entary 1rivate Secretaries (11Ss) 1arlia entary 1rivilege 1arlia entary Juestions 1oints "f "rder 1ortcullis 1ri e 5inister;s Juestions 1rinted 1a#er "ffice 1rivate %ill "ffice 1rivate %ills 1rivate 5e ber;s %ills 1rivate +otice Juestion 1rivilege 1rivileges Co ittee 1rivy Council 1rivy Councillors 1rorogation 1ublic Accounts Co ittee 1ublic %ill "ffice Jueens S#eech Juoru 6eading Cler& 6eadings of %ills 6ecesses and 6ecalls re#ort stage 6oyal Assent Second 6eading Select Co ittees

'ansard 'ybrid $ S#y Bournal of the Bournal Leader of the Lobby Lobbying 2raft Early 2ay E*#ulsion =ather of the =ilibustering =irst =oreign =ree =rontbench Grave disorder )orms o$ address in arliament

%ills Strangers Co ons "ffice 'ouse Syste bills 5otion 'ouse 6eading Secretary vote

Ser.eant Shadow S#ea&er S#illover Standing Standing Starred Statutory Table Ten 5inute Third @n#arlia entary @sual Gote 7hite 7oolsac& 7rits

at

Ar s Cabinet Co ittees "rders Juestions $nstru ents "ffice %ill reading language channels %undle 1a#er

6ule

=or s of address ay confuse the outsider. Si #le for s include my honoura%le Friend) the honoura%le Gentleman;#ady or the honoura%le (em%er for Finchley . These denote an 51 si #ly / other e bers are su##osed to &now who re#resents each constituency (electoral area). A friend is usually of the sa e #arlia entary #arty as the #erson who uses this e#ithet. $f the 51 is a 1rivy Councillor (usually a for er inister)! then he or she is the right honoura%le #ady or Gentleman. $f the 51 is a barrister (as any are) he or she ay be a learned #ady or Gentleman. The S#ea&er and 2e#uty S#ea&er chair debates. 6e ar&s should be #ri arily addressed to the ! using the for ula (adam;(r< Speaker or (adam;(r< 0eputy Speaker<<<=or e*a #le! here is a co ent fro Hansard for 2: Banuary 299C! in which 5i&e ";%rien (1arlia entary @nder/Secretary of State for =oreign and Co onwealth Affairs) refers to Ann Clwyd( ,$ #ay tribute to the wor& of y hon. =riend the 5e ber for Cynon Galley,. ($n Hansard ,hon., is the standard abbreviation for ,honourable,.) 2irectly addressing another #erson with the second #erson #ronoun (,8ou,) is disallowed and ay earn a rebu&e fro the S#ea&er! as in this e*change(
5r. 1rescott( +ow we see the #icture. The hon. 5e ber for +orth 7iltshire (5r. Gray) said! ,7e;re against congestion charging., 5r. Gray( $ a . 5r. 1rescott( 8ou ight be / #erha#s that is new new Conservatis / but you should have a chat to your ate on the =ront %ench. 5r. 2e#uty S#ea&er( "rder. $ a sorry to sto# the Secretary of State;s s#eech! but $ would be grateful if he would use the correct #arlia entary language.

$n this case the S#ea&er signals his disa##roval and calls 5r. 1rescott to attention with the call( ,"rder,. This is technically a co and! even though on occasions a rowdy 'ouse ignores it initially. $nterestingly! he says nothing about the , ate on the =ront %ench, / so 5r. 1rescott ight have esca#ed rebu&e! had he said! ,the honourable e ber for +orth 7iltshire should have a chat with his ate on the =ront %ench! the DrightE honourable e ber for L,. 5r. 1rescott;s error is to use second #erson ,you,! and s#ea& directly to 5r. Gray. 'owever! in choosing a ong #ossible alternative for s in a given conte*t! s#ea&ers ay illustrate #rag atic rules or #rinci#les / #erha#s using a #olite for ula to cover hostility or aggression! while in a naturally friendly e*change a less e*#licitly courteous for ay be acce#table. Also! even when a s#ea&er refers to his or her ,honourable friend,! he or she is technically addressing the S#ea&er! while the ,honourable friend, is in the third #erson.

Parliamentary rivilege

$n the 'ouse of Co ons s#ea&ers ay assert things which elsewhere would allow others to sue the for libel / this is 1arlia entary 1rivilege. "n the other hand swearing (of al ost any degree) and calling other s#ea&ers liars are for ally disallowed. The S#ea&er as&s any 5e ber who breaches these rules to withdraw the re ar&. $f he or she #ersists! the S#ea&er ay ban the offender fro the 'ouse for a given #eriod. The Co ons has other rules defining ,conte #ts,! such as giving false evidence to a Select Co ittee! threatening 51s about how they vote! and offering bribes.
*oting

To vote! e bers go through a lobby. $f they su##ort a otion! they go through the ye (,yes,) lo%%y) to o##ose it! they enter the 2o lo%%y. To give the result! the S#ea&er states the nu ber of votes for ye and 2o! and says that either the yes or the 2oes have it.
%ac& to to# %ules $or turn taking

$n a debate! the S#ea&er of the 'ouse calls 51s to ta&e a turn. The holder of the turn ay allow another s#ea&er to interru#t his or her s#ea&ing. The new would/be s#ea&er ay as&! ,7ill you give way3, The 51 who is s#ea&ing ay agree to this! using the for ( ,$ will give way,. Eti0uette dictates that the new s#ea&er should a&e a brief contribution before allowing the first s#ea&er bac&. This is a highly for ali-ed version of turn ta&ing. "f course! on any occasions! the #erson who has the floor will refuse to allow the interru#tion! for reasons of ti e or #olicy. "ther rules 51s ay not read aloud written s#eeches during debate! though they ay use notes. They are not allowed to read news#a#ers! aga-ines and letters. They ay not a&e use of visual aids! such as diagra s and a#s. +he sound bite Short slogans! li&e those in advertise ents! often ar& the s#eech of #oliticians answering 0uestions fro .ournalists (or their o##onents). These are re#eated in such a way as to #ersuade the listener of their truth or reason. =or e*a #le! in defending #olicies which a##arently increased une #loy ent in the @A but raised the value of the currency! 5rs. Thatcher coined the #hrase( ,There is no alternative,. There obviously were alternative suggested #olicies but denying their e*istence ade the see i #ractical. 7hether or not they were really i #ractical is not the linguist;s concern( we are interested in the linguistic eans by which 5rs. Thatcher .ustified her dis issal of the . A very si #le but effective sound bite is the na e 2ew #a%our. ,+ew, is well &nown as an effective 0ualifier in advertising! and the @A Labour 1arty in the :>>9s was &een to distance itself fro the (su##osedly unelectable) Labour 1arty of the :>?9s. Constant re#etition of the na e ade it stic&. The Conservative 1arty! then in govern ent! attac&ed +ew Labour in the :>>H election ca #aign with the slogan ,+ew Labour! +ew 2anger,. Arguably! this reinforced the idea that Labour had changed and hel#ed the #arty win the election.

In$luential ower ,broadcast- rint- new technologies.

media

7hile any te*t ay be influenced by the a&er;s #reconce#tions and world view! any edia te*ts arise fro an e*#licit intention of #ro oting given values or attitudes! whether sincerely! because the author believes in the ! or cynically! to attract an audience. As students of language! you have no interest in this / your concern is the language features in which these attitudes are e bodied or e*#ressed. $t ay be hel#ful not to thin& of these #reconce#tions as ,bias,! since this i #lies disa##roval. They are! rather! the s#ea&er;s or writer;s outloo&!

assu #tions or editorial stance. 8ou should be aware that certain edia te*ts #roclai and ad it these underlying attitudes / o#inion colu ns or current affairs broadcasts e*#licitly ado#t such a stance. %ut others! such as re#orting! ay as#ire to neutrality! yet dis#lay the author;s value syste s by choices of le*is or current eta#hors. =or e*a #le( 2o we read of refugees) economic migrants or asylum seekers3 Are they %ogus! and are they #assing through o#en (or about/to/be/o#en) floodgates3 ('ow often do you eet floodgates in a literal! rather than eta#horical sense3) Are those who resist the state guerrillas) freedom fighters or terrorists3 2oes a writer introduce ideas of legality to confer (dis)a##roval! so ,legal, into*icants (alcohol! tobacco) are distinguished fro those that are illegal! and so referred to as drugs. +ew edia te*ts ay reveal very different attitudes! but in si ilar ways / they! too! have distinctive le*is and eta#hors. $ndividual e*#ression rather than central editorial control ay #er it greater language diversity. 1erha#s influential #ower is less onolithic! but a##ears in trends and fashions. There is #lenty of s#ace for critics / the 7orld 7ide 7eb abounds with sites that #roclai why = sucks! where L is a #owerful business cor#oration. #exis and semantics in the media Le*ical choices reflect shifts in sub.ective eaning or connotation or conte #orary attitudes! so that they carry a sense of a##roval (a##robation) or disa##roval (#e.oration). They ay also be eu#he istic! a##earing as an acce#table substitute for so e word or #hrase that the writer or s#ea&er thin&s too strong or direct / as when the inadvertent &illing of soldiers by their own allies or co #atriots is ,friendly fire,! and the &illing of civilians is ,collateral da age,. 1olitical correctness (as a linguistic rather than social attitude) re#resents an atte #t to find neutral ter s. 7hile 1C language is often a sub.ect for ridicule! it arises fro a sensitivity to the connotations or i #lications of ore co on for s. $t is worth #aying attention to recurring for s / how often does anyone tal& about addressing the issues (in the loose sense of tal&ing about things or sorting the out). Conte*t is very i #ortant / so e areas of the edia will use traditional and 0uite literary for s to suggest seriousness and dignity! as! say! on Alistair Coo&e;s #etter from merica! broadcast on %%C 6adio I. 1resenters of children;s #rogra es on %%C:! %%C2 and C%%C will use for s closer to those of everyday s#eech a ong young #eo#le / or will they3 1erha#s this is generally true! but they will have their own taboos / so they will not nor ally refer to se*! violence! ga bling and alcohol! or swear and blas#he e.

Pragmatics in the media 7e can a##ly the theories of #rag atics to language use in the edia / but should note so e s#ecial features of how they wor&. A si #le e*a #le ight be a #olitical interview! broadcast on radio or television. 7hat the listener or viewer ight iss is an understanding of how far the s#ea&ers are aware of the wider audience! and how far the 0uestions and answers are! or are not! s#ontaneous! as the interviewee ay have seen the before the interview is recorded. Another co #licating factor is the effect of editing! where an interview is recorded for later broadcast / this can re ove the sense of two or ore #eo#le observing the coo#erative #rinci#le or e*hibiting #oliteness. $n the case of broadcast te*ts generally! one should consider the relationshi# between the author or the #ublisher and the audience. Ta&e news broadcasts! for e*a #le. 7e are fa iliar with the convention of a newsreader;s sitting down at or behind a des&! but not all newsreaders do this. So e newsreaders greet the audience( ,Good evening! here is the news,! while others say ,This

is Dna e of news organi-ationE news, or si #ly( ,The si* o;cloc& news fro
%ac& to to#

the %%C,.

Even things li&e the newsreaders; clothes ay be i #ortant / suits and ties are co on (for en) in the west and in the develo#ing world! but in so e countries newsreaders wear traditional or culturally significant clothes. This is so ething very easy to study( record a series of broadcasts on radio and TG over a day or two / if you have digital TG and radio! you can record bulletins fro a uch wider range. Then study each and note down how they do certain things. =or e*a #le(
+he newsreader,s.

'ow any are there / one! two! ore and of what se*3 7hat do they wear3 2o they sit! stand! ove! stay still and so on3 2o they ac&nowledge each other3 'ow do they introduce re#orts fro other corres#ondents3 'ow do they address the unseen audience3

/onventions o$ resentation

2o we see fil ed footage (on TG news)3 2o we see any gra#hic i ages or ca#tions3 2o we see te*t giving #eo#le;s na es3 These are .ust a few ideas / you should be able to thin& of any ore. "nce you have noted down the infor ation! you ight li&e to arrange it! say in a table. +ow you can consider what! if anything! this tells you about the &inds of interaction going on. To ta&e one e*a #le Channel I;s seven o;cloc& (#. .) news bulletin on Saturday =ebruary ?th! 299C carried a re#ort on the #ay rise awarded to the Lord Chancellor! 2erry $rvine. To show the value of this rise (O22!999)! the broadcaster used on/screen gra#hics showing what this a ount would buy (a teacher;s salary! so any bottles of claret and other things)! while dis#laying an ani ated i age of a fruit/ achine bearing the na e( ,2erry;s Bac&#ot,. Leaving aside the 0uestion of how the viewer ay feel about the news story here! we ay consider how the use of these techni0ues affects that view. The i age of the fruit achine ay be significant to so e #arts of the audience! but ay give offence to others! who disa##rove of ga bling. 7e ay as& whether the broadcaster should use any i ages or ani ations to suggest the idea of an un erited benefit and whether the fruit achine ani ation a&es the story clearer. Should the story be left to s#ea& for itself3 "r is so e &ind of editorial slant inevitable3 7e can a##ly si ilar considerations to other s#o&en edia te*ts / say the way in which a #rogra e host tal&s to a guest on a #hone/in 0ui- or si ilar activity. "n a TG ga e show! for e*a #le! we ay see the host;s su##orting the #artici#ants to avoid their being unduly hu iliated or! worse! not &ee#ing to the #rogra e;s for at and structure. 6ecent broadcasts! of the so/called ,6eality TG, genre! are 0uite different / in any of these! there is no such #rotection or nurturing of the #artici#ants. $nstead they are sub.ect to insult by the hosts or other #artici#ants. 'rammar in the media $t is relatively easy to study gra ar! by loo&ing at very s#ecific features of language data such as verb tenses and #ronoun choices / these can beco e conventional in certain for s or genres! and harden into a &ind of style. So! with broadcast news! we will be fa iliar with the for s in( ,=ifty/three #eo#le died when their bus collided with a train in central China early this orning...,

The clause structure is sub.ect U verb (#ast i #erfect tense) U adverbial. This is an effective odel or structure because the gra atical sub.ect also signals the sub.ect of the story (the victi s of the crash)! then says what ha##ened! then gives infor ation about how and why it ha##ened! or further infor ation about the circu stances of the event. $f we loo& at ,The 1ri e 5inister flew to =rance this afternoon for a eeting with 1resident Chirac..., we can see that this is ore or less the sa e structure. So e &inds of te*t! li&e re#ortage! use for ulas li&e this! because the writers wor& at s#eed and are eant to #ublish the story rather than create literary wor&. 2o #ersuasive edia te*ts have distinctive gra atical for s that reinforce their tendency to #ersuade3 1erha#s. 7hat ight these be3 7ell! $ have .ust used one in the two #revious sentences / ta&ing what ight be declarative sentences and recasting the as 0uestions and answers. Jualifiers can be used! as their na e i #lies to 0ualify the eaning of verbs and nouns / so that our view is affected / which really ta&es us bac& into se antics and stylistics. Structures in media texts Are there distinctive structures for #ersuasive te*ts in the edia3 =irst! we ay want to identify what such #ersuasive edia te*ts ight be. So e are easy to na e! as they are e*#licitly intended to alter our view / as with #arty election or #olitical broadcasts! editorials in news#a#ers and ca #aigns! such as the ca #aign in 299: by the 2ews of the World (a @A Sunday news#a#er) to introduce ,Sarah;s Law, (the e0uivalent of the @S 5egan;s Law! here na ed after urder victi Sarah 1ayne)! such that fa ilies could &now the identities of convicted #aedo#hiles living near the . "ther te*ts ay have less obviously #ersuasive 0ualities / such as a docu entary broadcast that leads the audience to so e &ind of #osition or view. So eti es the te*t will see& to #ersuade through ridicule! using the structure and style of so e other &ind of te*t! but subverting it. 7hat are the structures for these te*ts3 Editorials ay be a few hundred words in length / a headline! a si #le introduction! an elaboration of argu ent with e*a #les! leading to a si #le conclusion. 7hile the le*icon and style ay vary according to the target readershi# of the news#a#er! the structure is ore or less the sa e for different &inds of news#a#er. The #arty election or #olitical broadcast in the @A is li ited in ti e to a few inutes / so the writers have develo#ed structures li&e e*tended advertise ents. The e*tract below co es fro a :>>I #arty #olitical broadcast for the Labour 1arty! which had a running ti e of I inutes I9 seconds(
%ac& to to# LA%"@6 1A6T8 1"L$T$CAL %6"A2CAST! 2:st SE1TE5%E6 :>>I D"#ening shot( Ti e/la#se #hotogra#hy of the sun rising over the 1alace of 7est insterE T"+8 %LA$6( Dvoice/overE $t is an honour to lead this #arty. $ acce#t it with e*cite ent.. Dcut to shots of %lair reviewing #a#ers in the bac& seat of a carE .. but also with hu ility! and with a #rofound sense of the res#onsibility that is #laced u#on e. Dcut to so eone ad.usting the rear/view irror to show %lairE DCut to 6adio Two studioE G"$CE/"GE6( Dstation identifierE 6adio Two / Bi y 8oung B$558 8"@+G( And in the studio with e now! the new Leader of the Labour 1arty! Tony %lair. Good 5orning Tony. T"+8 %LA$6( Good 5orning Bi . DCut to vo* #o#sE G"L 1"1 :( Tony %lair has a sense of vision. G"L 1"1 2( 8ou &now what they say about #oliticians! they never loo& you in the eye. 'e certainly does. G"L 1"1 C( $ feel $ can trust hi . DCut to %lair tal&ing to ca era) ca#tion ,The 6t.'on. Tony %lair 51 Leader of the Labour 1arty,E

This is ore co #le* than a news#a#er editorial. The editorial has a co on the e! but also ay have a reasonably clear argu ent! using e*a #les to illustrate it. $n the broadcast! there is

still the co on the e! but there is not a si #le or clear line of argu ent! rather a series of ele ents that are asse bled loosely. The writer relies on the audience to su##ly the connections! so that we do not have an obvious sense of so eone;s telling us what to thin&. The i age of the sunrise and the recording of Tony %lair;s acce#ting the leadershi# of the #arty both suggest the idea of change / in :>>I the Labour 1arty was trying to #ersuade the %ritish electorate to return Labour to #ower. 7e can see how the writer first shows Tony %lair or has hi s#ea&ing on a voice/over! but does not have hi s#ea&ing straight to ca era until so e way into the broadcast. The #arty #olitical broadcast ust have 0uite a distinctive style! since it lends itself to co ic treat ent. A search on the 7orld 7ide 7eb will turn u# any s#oof broadcasts! including several (onty &ython S&etches. The e*tract below co es fro a broadcast (+ove ber 299:) of the ruling 1eo#le;s Action 1arty of Singa#ore and #ublished on the #arty;s 7eb site at www.#a#.org.sg. $t is far si #ler than the Labour broadcast above(
5y fellow Singa#oreans EC"+"5$C 16"S1ECTS $n two days; ti e! you will be casting your votes. %efore you vote! as& yourself this 0uestion( in this econo ic downturn! who can hel# you find .obs3 +obody can say when our econo y will recover. The @S is fighting a war against terroris / in Afghanistan and in the @S itself. $f the war goes badly! the global recession could drag on. Singa#ore could then ta&e one and a half to two years to recover. This is why $ have called for elections now! as $ want your strong andate for our #rogra e to save and create .obs for you. B"%S T"2A8! B"%S T"5"66"7 $ a es#ecially concerned for older Singa#oreans. They have fa ilies to loo& after. They find it harder to find and fit into new .obs. This is true of ost older wor&ers! factory wor&ers! office wor&ers! #rofessionals too. 'ow do we hel# you3 =irst! let us try to save e*isting .obs. +e*t! let us hel# retrenched wor&ers find new .obs. Thirdly! for the longer ter ! we ust create ore .obs. %ac& to to#

This broadcast is no ore than a s#eech / we do not (on the 7eb docu ent) have an indication of what ight be shown on TG or if it is a radio broadcast only! but it see s to be the te*t of a s#eech by the leader. $n the Labour broadcast! Tony %lair eventually s#ea&s about the econo y and .obs / but here the s#ea&er oves straight to these sub.ects! without any real #reli inaries. There is no suggestion of how to create .obs! but the noun is re#eated any ti es.

In$luential ower - culture

The notion of a canon of classic wor&s of art has not gone away! but is in creative tension with alternative conte #orary visions. 7e cannot readily call these odern since this label has been a##ro#riated for wor&s fro the early 29th century! and #ost/ odern s ac&s of the :>?9s. So e wor&s! hailed in the o ent of #ublication or e*hibition as aster#ieces! are 0uic&ly forgotten. +evertheless! ost develo#ed societies allow s#ace for vigorous #ublic debate about art and culture. And we are co fortable with a distinction between #o#ular! lowbrow or co ercial usic! writing and so on! and serious! classical or highbrow art. Culture! es#ecially #o#ular culture! e*erts a assive influence on how #eo#le thin& and see the world. And this is reflected in a range of language for s. 7hen we need co fort! our friends tell us that they are or will be there for us. @nless we are #edantic we do not as& where there is. Soa# o#eras and advertise ents #resent us with tidy versions of real life scenarios and the language for s we need to understand or endure the ( a le*icon for our troubles and #roble s! hel#ful #hrases and even e*tended discourse structures or #aradig s for co#ing. ,'ave a good cry, we are told! because we ,have to grieve, (a eta#hor of #ressure which ust be released before it does har ! often a##ears).
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,8ou owe it to yourself, or ,because $; worth, it e*#ress #ositively attitudes that see far less attractive when called selfish or narcissistic. The fictional trial of a character for a to#ical cri e (ra#e! wife beating! road rage) ay #rovo&e intelligent reflection leading to greater understanding. %ut it ay be so #lausible and convincing that it re#laces #ro#er #ublic debate.

7hat &inds of #ersuasive te*ts ight there be in the general category of culture3 These would include satire! #ole ical writing! #oetry and theatre.

Instrumental ower - law

7hile so e legal #rocesses are used to enact #ower! others are devised to allow lawyers to #ersuade a .udge or a .ury! within an adversarial syste of #ersuasion. This has its own distinctive language for s! and is uch ore constrained by rules than other &inds of #ersuasion / so uch so that failure to obey the rules can overturn the decisions of a court. 2avid Crystal (Cam%ridge 1ncyclopedia of the 1nglish #anguage ! #. CHI) distinguishes between the language of the legislature (1arlia ent) which institutes a legal te*t (sets down the law in written for ) and the language of the .udiciary (law courts and .udges) which inter#rets and a##lies it.
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+he lexicon o$ law The law also has its own le*icon( this #reserves archaic ter s! #erha#s to #ro ote res#ect for its #rocesses or inti idate. 7hile this continues to be acce#table in cri inal law! in A#ril :>>> civil courts saw a change in their le*icon. A (are$a in4unction (which #revents the sale of assets during litigation) beca e a free3ing in4unction! in camera beca e in pri$ate! a minor or infant beca e a child! a plaintiff beca e a claimant! inter partes beca e with notice! e> parte beca e without notice! while pleading was re#laced by statement of case. These changes were ade on the reco endation of Lord 7oolf! the (aster of the 'olls! whose own title reflects the archaic origin of uch legal le*is.
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The +or an Con0uest established =rench (which included any Latin loanwords) as the language of law and #olitics. Later! Latin was used! and English only re#laced Latin as the language of English law in the :Hth century. =or this reason Latin #hrases abound ( mens rea) a% initio) certiorari) e> parte) as do =rench loanwords (lien) plaintiff) tort). To show the difference between areas where one is under obligation and those where one has so e roo to choose! the law a&es use of odal verbs such as may) must) shall. To establish its general a##licability the law uses #ronouns such as all and whoe$er or generic nouns such as $ehicle or person. To ,si #lify, or , oderni-e, the language of the law see s desirable! but ay be #roble atic. "rdinary #eo#le ay have a better sense of understanding and therefore ore res#ect for laws e*#ressed si #ly and #lainly. %ut so e a##arently obscure ter s ay have been coined #recisely to e*#ress subtle or unusual eanings or distinctions. And if the law uses the co on register! then an u#dated ter ay itself beco e obsolete! as its co on eaning isleads #eo#le about its legal sense. =iona Aerr! who used to #ractise law! gives this e*a #le of what she calls ,the difference between lawyer/s#ea& and nor al language,( The general #ublic use , urdered, interchangeably with ,&illed,! no/one ever says ,he anslaughtered hi ,...Consider also what ost #eo#le ean when they refer to ,#ersonal #ro#erty, as co #ared with y understanding of it as everything which isn;t land (roughly s#ea&ing). 7hen 5rs %loggins does her own will and leaves her #ersonal #ro#erty to the nice lady who loo&ed after her cat whilst she was in hos#ital! she ay intend to leave her collection of tin orna ents and a few s&irts! but is she intending to also be0ueath her savings to said nice

lady or did she intend to leave the to her son! along with the house3 "nly a Budge can decide and by the ti e he has! there won;t be any savings left for the winning litigant to s#end / and the loser could be in debt. +he structures o$ legal language Law is often e*#ressed in lengthy sentences ar&ed by lists of ite s to ensure that nothing is issed out which the law should cover! so we &now later whether or not it a##lies in a certain case. 1arentheses or subordinate clauses a##ear fre0uently to clarify a #receding clause. Alternatively a nu ber ay refer to a footnote! where a #hrase is ore e*tensively or una biguously defined. Legal docu ents are notorious for hy#er/co #le* synta*! with several degrees of subordination of clauses. They also allow! often without clarifying #unctuation! lengthy adverbial #hrases! such as( And any such release settle ent discharge shall as between you and the undersigned be dee ed to have been given or ade u#on the e*#ress condition that it shall beco e and be wholly void and of no effect if the assurance security or #ay ent on the faith of which it was ade or given shall be void... 7hile literary te*ts (such as 2ic&ens; or 'ardy;s novels) suggest that in earlier ti es ordinary readers could #rocess co #le* syntactic structures! and understand their eaning! odern readers or listeners ay find this troubleso e. Shorter and less co #le* synta* is easier to understand! while so e features of #unctuation! ty#ogra#hy and layout can all aid co #rehension. $t is not so uch that lawyers in the #ast did not &now how to a&e the selves understood. They #erha#s never intended to do so. "dvocacy Advocacy! as #ractised by barristers in cri inal courts! can be contrasted with advertising. $n one case! there are no rules! while a##roaches change and are e*#edient / advertisers do whatever wor&s. Advertisers are constrained by so e standards and a code of #ractice. %ut advocates in the law courts are sub.ect to very #recise rules about evidence! &inds of argu ent and turn ta&ing! a ong other things! in a foru (the court) over which a .udge #resides. As regards se0uence! barristers ust outline a case and then #resent it! with the counsel (advocate) for the #rosecution going before the defence counsel. The #rosecution ust #rove its case beyond reasonable doubt) the defence! as barristers and .udges often re ind .uries! does not have to #rove anything / it is enough to discredit the #rosecution or show that the #rosecution has not #roved the case beyond reasonable doubt. Each side ay 0uestion its ,own, witnesses! but the other side ay subse0uently cross/e*a ine (0uestion) the . Each side ust su u# its case! and the .udge ust also su u# the whole #roceedings and advise the .ury about how to arrive at its verdict. $n as&ing a 0uestion of a witness! an advocate is not nor ally allowed to invite the witness to agree with a version of events the advocate has described / that is! by as&ing leading 0uestions. $n so e state court syste s of the @SA the o##osing counsel ay call out ,"b.ection, and the .udge ay direct the .ury to disregard what they have heard. $n the @A! .udges a&e such rulings directly without the #rotest of ,"b.ection,. $n order to a&e the trial fair to the accused! the #rosecution ay not refer to any cri es of which he or she has been convicted in the #ast! though the defendant ay voluntarily disclose this infor ation. (This is changing in English law.) And each side ust disclose to the other! before the trial begins! the evidence it intends to use in the trial. @nli&e everyday argu ent or conversational dis#utes! each side a&es its case largely without interru#tions fro the other side. Each ay ta&e as long as the evidence it #resents allows / it is u# to the .udge to decide if so ething is not relevant and sto# a line of 0uestioning or argu ent. The closest thing to interru#tion is the chance to challenge a witness;s testi ony in cross/

e*a ination. The advocates do not at any #oint interru#t each other. %ut both sides ay! in e*a ining a witness! interru#t the witness where an answer is not forthco ing or see s o#en to challenge. The witness ay be inti idated! but is not obliged to res#ond instantaneously. The .udge ay restrain an advocate who uses an ina##ro#riate anner or as&s 0uestions that see not relevant to a line of 0uestioning. The funda ental #rinci#le of advocacy is so fa iliar that its strangeness is often overloo&ed / that is! that e*#erts in argu ent (advocates) co #ete! under &nown rules! to secure conviction or ac0uittal for another #erson. "n occasions! in both cri inal and civil trials! #eo#le do re#resent the selves / but this is very rare. Thus 2avid $rving (2999) #resented his own (civil) case in suing another historian who had called hi a 'olocaust denier. ('e lost the case! so anyone ay now describe 5r. $rving as a 'olocaust denier! without ris& of libel.)
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A .ury has a difficult tas&! in attending both to the detail of a witness;s evidence or an advocate;s inter#retation! as well as to the whole case #resented by either side. Although the .ury ulti ately decides on atters of fact! the .udge will hel# the by e*#laining atters of law. Thus! a verdict ay de#end not only on what the accused did or did not do! but also on the offence of which he or she is accused. $n England and 7ales! for ost cri inal offences! a verdict of guilty is re#resented as beyond reasonable doubt. The #residing .udge ay hel# the .ury with the eaning of reasonable. $n Scotland! as well as verdicts of guilty or not guilty! a .ury ay bring in a verdict of not #roven. This allows the to indicate their uncertainty / the accused is not convicted! but does not wal& away clear of sus#icion. According to =iona Aerr( ,A guilty verdict eans that the conduct co #lained of ust have atched the conduct covered by the charge and that the conduct ust be #roved beyond reasonable doubt.,
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$n studying the language of the law! you ay thin& #ri arily of those who s#ea& and write it! but be aware also of listeners or readers. $n the case of a .ury! a very unusual &ind of listening (and reading) is re0uired. The .ury is able to a&e re0uests of the .udge! for e*a #le! to loo& again at a record of so e #art of a trial! but its discretion is li ited by what the .udge allows or thin&s a##ro#riate. Burors ay a&e notes! and &ee# these with the for the duration of a trial / these notes stay in court or the .ury retiring roo (a s#ecial roo where .urors eet to consider a verdict! or in so e &inds of brea& during a trial). "nce the .ury reaches a verdict! these notes are destroyed. "ne interesting e*#ression of courtesy is the legal fiction that every .udge &nows all the law. A barrister who wishes to correct a .udge on a #oint where his or her &nowledge is not co #lete ay use a for such as! ,As your lordshi# well re e bers,. =iona Aerr notes that( ,the %arrister ay well be su##lying the Budge;s ignorance but everyone #retends that every Budge has an encyclo#aedic &nowledge which is fran&ly unrealistic. Their Lordshi#s have to deal with every as#ect of Law and there;s no way they &now that uch! so Counsel tells the the argu ents and the law as if they &now it already! even if they don;t., The barrister su##lies the relevant infor ation but effectively offers it to the .udge for endorse ent in a anner that signals deference. This ay be the origin of ,with res#ect,. At so e #oint in the #ast it ay have been necessary for a s#ea&er to e*hibit real deference while correcting a su#erior / since discourtesy would have led to a loss of honour or re#utation! as well! #erha#s! as advance ent that would be in the gift of the #erson to who the ,res#ect, in 0uestion was due. +owadays the function of ,with res#ect, (an i #lied correction by one with better infor ation) re ains! but its literal denotation (showing res#ect to one who deserves it) ay be lost. %eneath the e*#licit or official rules that govern the way barristers #resent a case! are so e co on tactics (so e of which you ay have observed in fictional re#resentations as well as any real trials that you have attended). =iona Aerr observes(

There;s the day/to/day code of insults with which you are #robably fa iliar! such as ,with res#ect, (i.e. you;re wrong)! ,with great res#ect, (i.e. you are co #letely wrong) and! ulti ately ,with the greatest res#ect, (i.e. you are an utter fool)... +obody says ,$ #ut it to you, but they do a lot of being...sy #athetic! a##earing to agree with the witnesses and leading the by the nose to agreeing certain #ro#ositions before turning the around so that logically they ought to also agree with a #ro#osition which affects the current case (or ,instant, case as lawyers would #ut it)) deliberately #rovo&ing a witness so that he loses his te #er (case effectively over! #articularly with regard to violence charges but useful anyway! as the witness will give an unstable i #ression and also say things he would otherwise avoid saying)... The #erfect 0uestion is the one which da ns either way. The 0uestions to avoid are any to which you don;t already &now the answer. 7itnesses are coached but only by the 2efence. The 1rosecution %arrister won;t even eet the witnesses! including the victi ! until the day and then doesn;t deal with the directly e*ce#t in Court. $t;s all #art of being i #artial. The State wants .ustice for the accused! guilty or innocent! the 2efence is #aid to winR

Instrumental ower - education

There are #ower structures in education! fro nurseries to universities! but these are often concealed fro those who are sub.ect to the . Schools often #roduce codes or su aries or lists of rules! but these ay have only a local or relative force! since the school itself is sub.ect to laws that #rotect the interests of different grou#s. 7e can #erha#s hel#fully distinguish educational institutions (other than officer training colleges for the #olice and ar ed forces) fro the ar ed services! which have e*#licit #ublished regulations! a clear hierarchy of co and! and tribunals to resolve the few dis#uted cases that defy this syste . $n recent ti es so e @A schools and universities ay have re0uired #arents or students to give assent to a code of rules or ,ho e/school agree ent,! but there is no universal odel for these! and few #arents or students would acce#t that attending a school has the sa e force in i #osing rules! as .oining the ar y or #olice service. Educational establish ents have so e #owers of last resort! such as te #orary or #er anent e*clusion but otherwise have very uch to derive their #ower fro the consent of those who are governed.
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Traditionally! schools have e*erted #ower on their students! but we can also see how #ower lies with the #u#ils in any situations / at the least because ost of what teachers and #arents e*#ect to ha##en can do so only with so e assent fro the students. /lassroom management 7hat ha##ens if one adult (usually one! though in classroo s today there ay be several adults #resent) s#ends an hour / or several hours in a #ri ary classroo / in the co #any of between twenty and thirty young #eo#le3 E*#erience suggests that there is a assive variety of results. $n one case! the adult i #oses his or her will by various eans on the students! who co #ly with the adult;s lead or! if they defy it! find the selves e*cluded or sub.ect to so e &ind of sanction. $n another case! the children react to the adult in subversive and confrontational ways (so eti es ore actively than the sa e children would be if left unattended in a classroo ). $n yet another case! the adult and children achieve a &ind of e0uilibriu ! where each ta&es turns! gives way or ta&es the lead! and all wor& #roductively towards an agreed set of goals! or give outward assent to the a.ority who wish to do so. There will be other situations! and aybe the sa e grou# will at different ti es a##ro*i ate ore to one #osition than another / so a class that eets a new teacher for the first ti e ay do things to ,test, his or her character) while over ti e! a class ay co e to li&e and res#ect a teacher! so that he or she can! on occasion! a##eal to a #erceived obligation. Students can be very effective in nurturing and su##orting an adult! where they .udge that this is a##ro#riate.
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5any of the causes of these relationshi#s are found in the #ersonalities of the teachers and the learners / but they also lie clearly in the nature of the language interactions that occur between adult and #u#il. And we can study these ob.ectively. =or e*a #le! we can investigate the fre0uency with which a re0uest ta&es a given for / direct i #erative (do L) or 0uestion (would you do L3)! whether the #erson a&ing the re0uest uses a na e or other for of address! whether there is a ,#lease, and ,than& you, and so on. 7e could also easure ob.ectively whether use of direct co ands is ore or less efficient (in the ti e it ta&es) than use of re0uests. 7e ight wish to relate these things to the age! ability! #rior social e*#erience and so on! of the learners.
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Another thing we ight li&e to observe! and #ossibly 0uantify! is the ability of a student! by s#ea&ing in certain ways! to #rovo&e a given res#onse fro the teacher. That is! how far each (student or teacher) is ready to ado#t ritualised or #redictable and #ractised rVles in an interchange( the student #resses a #articular button! and the teacher reacts in the e*#ected way. "f course! such ritual e*changes need not be confrontational or hostile. They ay be #layful in tone! but serious in an underlying dialogue. "r they ay be very friendly interchanges! in which all #arties are reinforcing an e*isting social relationshi# / the teacher tells a wea& .o&e! the #u#ils tell hi how unfunny he is! then as& about his sic& cat or whether the new baby is still &ee#ing hi awa&e.
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Study of classroo discourse ay differ fro conversational analysis! in that one #erson is trying to establish a ra##ort with a co #lete grou# at so e #oints! with sub/grou#s at other #oints! and individuals at other ti es. $n any one lesson it is al ost i #ossible to achieve this! but over a series of lessons it is #ossible / though without any ob.ective ethod! even the best/ intentioned teacher ay not give a fair allocation of ti e to all. Are there devices that! addressed to a grou#! can a&e individuals feel that the co ent is for the in #articular3 Al ost any of the ethods of analysis of s#o&en utterances that co e under the general heading of #rag atics ay be fruitful when used to study language e*changes in the classroo .
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Instrumental ower - business and management

There are useful general a##roaches that we can ta&e in analysing and e*#laining language interchanges in various social conte*ts! but so e features are relevant to one social conte*t ore than another. 1rivate enter#rise (in uch of the English/s#ea&ing world) is regulated by so e laws that! for e*a #le! describe and defend the hu an rights and welfare of e #loyees! but it is not organi-ed into a universal syste ! so that language use can e erge rather as a fashion / and #ower ay co e #artly fro using the current or the ost novel s#ecial for s. S ecial lexis in business Li&e any social conte*t! business and anage ent have their own distinctive le*is. This includes both useful and necessary na es for things that are #eculiar to the way business wor&s! as well as ,bu--words,. These are neologis s and #hrases that disguise ore fa iliar things or give the a te #orary sense of novelty or ysti0ue. $n ti e they ay beco e seen as clichMs or otherwise ridiculous. Let;s loo& at so e real e*a #les. Guru! which denotes a religious teacher fa ed for great wisdo ! has beco e co #ounded into other for s such as /nternet,guru) management,guru) %usiness,guru and so on. "ne such anage ent guru is Charles 'andy! who has invented a s#ecial set of na es for anage ent structures! derived fro the gods and goddesses of classical Greece. 'e describes four cultures( the ?eus Culture! the thena Culture! the pollo Culture and the 0ionysian Culture. ($t is not clear why he uses the noun for as attributive ad.ective for three of these! but uses an established ad.ectival for in ,2ionysian,.)

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So what do the na es

ean3

Seus Culture( an organi-ation do inated by the #ersonality and #ower of one #erson! often the founder or owner! after the ruler of the gods. A#ollo Culture( an organi-ation do inated by rules and #rocedures! after A#ollo the God of har ony and order. Athena Culture( the #ro.ect organi-ation that do inates consultancies! advertising agencies and! increasingly! all innovative businesses! after Athena! the warrior goddess. 2ionysian Culture( an organi-ation in which the individual has the freedo to develo# his or her own ideas in the way they want / an artists; studio! #erha#s! or a university. They are hard to anage! these 2ionysian #laces! but increasingly necessary if you want to e #loy really creative #eo#le.
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$n an interview with the %%C! Charles 'andy continues( ,7hat interested e! however! was not the downsi-ing or the re/engineering itself! as others began to call it! but the conse0uences for our individual wor&ing lives. "rgani-ations! it see ed to e! would increasingly dis#ense with our services in our id/lives as they concentrated on fewer and younger #eo#le in their cores! with only a few wise heads to &ee# the show on trac&., 8ou can find the interview at www.bbc.co.u&KworldserviceKlearningenglishKwor&Khandy $n this short e*tract we see the business/s#ecific ter s( ,downsi-ing,! ,re/engineering, and ,&ee# the show on trac&,. 0ownsi3ing is now 0uite well established as a verb that eans reducing the nu ber of e #loyees! and #erha#s other features of the organi-ation (#hysical #re ises! costs and so on). $t is self/e*#lanatory but has rather odd or#hology! being a co #ound of adverb! and noun (si-e) converted to verb. 'e,engineering is a eta#hor whereby the reorgani-ation of #eo#le is li&ened to a change in a echani-ed #rocess / it is therefore rather i #ersonal. @eep the show on track is not confined to business! but used in any &inds of hu an activity / it is a eta#hor derived fro travelling stage shows. 5ore co only #eo#le say they try to &ee# the show on the road. Charles 'andy;s use of ,trac&, ay co e fro i*ing the #hrase with the ending of ,bac& on trac&,.
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%usiness ter s ay be ore or less well assi ilated into the co on le*icon. 8ou can test this by loo&ing for the in different dictionaries and seeing whether or not they a##ear as an entry! as with %lue chip (a co on stoc& that has consistently #aid dividends over a long #eriod of ti e)) %undling (the grou#ing of several #roducts andKor services into one #ac&age. $t benefits buyers by condensing several #urchases into one. Co #anies benefit by reducing the ability of consu ers to co #are individual #roduct #rices with those of co #eting co #anies.) The ter is very co on in relation to co #uter software! bundled with a achine for consu ers to buy) cherry picking (#urchasing #roducts individually fro a variety of co #anies rather than as a bundle fro one co #any) At a series of #resentations fro bidders to su##ly #roducts to the 8or&shire and 'u berside 6egional %roadband 1ro.ect ("ctober 2999)! each #resenter in turn referred to his or her #roduct as ,best of breed, and ost described a utually advantageous arrange ent as a ,win/win situation,. The for er eta#hor is ta&en fro the Crufts annual dog show! but none of the

#resenters gave any hint of &nowing this #rovenance! of relating their #resentations to it! or even that ,breed, is a biological ter ! which they were a##lying to co #uter networ&s! hardware and software #roducts. 5ore recently! at a conference (=ebruary 299C! East 6iding of 8or&shire)! $ heard al ost every s#ea&er refer to i #ortant things as ,&ey,. A fre0uent collocation was ,&ey drivers, / where ,drivers, are influences or causes (,&ey drivers of change, and so on). Later $ heard reference to ,&ey #layers, which i*es eta#hors fro usic (or loc&s) and s#ort( ,The early involve ent of &ey #layers has enriched the curriculu ,. S#ea&ers several ti es entioned ,routeways, in a eta#horical sense( ,All the routeways that they DlearnersE want, and ,o#en u# the routeways,. Another i age to suggest the idea of causing things to ha##en is ,trigger,! so we heard of so ething that would ,be a trigger for #artners collectively,. ,2eliver, is a verb that has beco e fashionable to e*#ress the idea of a&ing so ething ha##en or si #ly doing so ething / so one s#ea&er referred to those who are ,actively engaged with delivering the conce#t,.
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Since the late :>>9s ,issues, has beco e an all/#ur#ose noun for abstract things! in conte*ts where earlier we ight have seen , atters,. $t is fre0uently .oined by the verb ,address, so that #eo#le ,address the issues, / which usually eans to tal&! thin& or do so ething about so e other things. +ow ,issues, has co e also to denote things that concern one or call for s#ecial attention! in the si #le #hrase ,have issues,! as in ,$ have, or ,she has issues around that,. Less co on but no less interesting are ,event hori-on, and ,hedgehog conce#t,. ,As we sit on the brin& of this ;event hori-on; for e0uity ar&ets! you should as& whether this ;blac& hole; we are entering will deliver us to a new di ension where bulls run freely! or will it tear the ar&et! destroying what we;ve built u#3, 2on 7ellenreiter! ;5ar&ets at brin& of event hori-on;! =utures! "ctober! 2999
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The ter co es fro astro#hysics! but entered #o#ular use after the #ublication of 1rofessor Ste#hen 'aw&ing;s +rief History of Time. $n the e*a #le above 2on 7ellenreiter continues the astro#hysical the e with ,blac& hole, and ,new di ension,! then i*es it with the traditional ,bull, i age (as contrasted with a bear ar&et) and finally a third idea of tearing so ething u#. ,'edgehog conce#t, a##ears to be derived fro $saiah %erlin;s essay The Hedgehog and the Fo> (:><C). %erlin writes( ,There is a line a ong the frag ents of the Gree& #oet Archilochus which says( ;The fo* &nows any things! but the hedgehog &nows one big thing;., The hedgehog conce#t is one that! if done e*tre ely well and to the e*clusion of al ost everything else! can hel# a #erson;s career or a co #any;s business achieve its full #otential. 'ere;s an e*a #le( ,7algreens; hedgehog conce#t is to run the best! ost convenient drug stores with high #rofit #er custo er visit!, Borndt continued. ,7e &now who we are and what we are all about / running drug stores. 7e wor& li&e cra-y to e*ecute it in our stores., 6ob Eder! ;"ut/fo*ing the hedgehog;s rivals;! 0rug Store 2ews! 5arch 2<! 2992
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0u&&words The notion of ,bu--words, arises fro a wish to subvert or ridicule the #retentiousness and inelegance of uch s#ecial le*is in business and anage ent( ...drones and #eons are slyly oc&ing the new cor#orate culture / and their cliche/s#outing bosses. "ne of their wea#ons is an underground ga e called bu--word bingo! which wor&s li&e a surre#titious for of regular bingo. %u--words / ;incent!; ;#roactive! ;i #actfulness!; for e*a #le / are #reselected and #laced on a bingo/li&e card in rando bo*es. 1layers sit in eetings and conferences and silently chec& off bu--words as their bosses s#out the ) the first to fill in a

co #lete line wins. %ut! in deference to the setting! the winner ty#ically coughs instead of shouting out ;bingo.; %u--word %ingo! The Wall Street .ournal! Bune ?! :>>?
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%u--words are #articularly o#a0ue when co bined into #hrases or longer structures / as in these e*a #les fro a satirical 7eb site. These use a basic structure and a range of eta#hors( ,filter it though the ca##uccino achine and see if it co es out frothy,) ,run it u# the flag #ole and see who salutes it,) ,throw a cru b in the cage and see if the budgie bites,) ,let;s #ut that in the lift and see which floor it sto#s at,.

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$t is hard to i agine anyone;s using these #hrases without a sense of their #layfulness / and it is #ossible for #eo#le to invent new versions! following this basic for ula( ,do L and see ifKwhoKwhatKwhich, etc. 'ere are so e ore words and #hrases( assets/based assess ent or a##roach best #ractices odel de ocratising of infor ation grass roots initiated if you;d li&e to cli b into your helico#ters so we can loo& at that fro inclusiveness infrastructure leave it u# to the an on the coalface anage ent bandwidth easurable outco es ulti/sector need based or deficit assess ent or a##roach non/du#licativeKreduces du#lication one sto# sho#s outsourcing 0uality of life reflects cultural diversityKculturally sensitive scuba in your thin&/tan& singing fro the sa e hy n/sheet syste s change awareness window of o##ortunity

above

Are these words or #hrases useful3 Can you thin& of si #ler or ore direct alternatives3 7hy ight #eo#le use these bu--words in #reference to ore basic for s3
%ac& to to#

)orms o$ address in business $n the ar ed services and so e other organi-ations there ay be defined rules for addressing so eone by ran&! title or na e. $n business! the #ractice ay vary according to the organi-ation;s culture and the relative status of two s#ea&ers. Two odes of address that ay be distinctive to business and anage ent is the use of descri#tive titles and of initials. $n so e cases the title ay reflect so e &ind of deference by the s#ea&er! or recognition that the holder of the office is so ehow dignified by it. Thus we s#ea& of the 2irector or the Chair an and address the directly as ,2irector, or ,D5r.K5ada E Chair an,.

So e #eo#le li&e to use their initials rather than na e or title! as with 5. Gerbeau! the chief e*ecutive of the 5illenniu 2o e! who li&ed to be &nown as 1/8( ,1ierre/8ves (he is always %%C #rofile! 2ece ber 2999.
%ac& to to#

called

1/8)

Gerbeau

is

re ar&able

an.,

7e can also thin& of the fictitious oil baron B.6. in the TG series 0allas or CB! the co unications officer in The West Wing. The i #lication is that #eo#le in the organi-ation &now who he or she is! so that use of the initials is a for of res#ect or recognition. $f one s#ea&er uses title and last na e (TL+)! and the other first na e (=+) only! we infer difference in status. The social su#erior (the =+ s#ea&er) ay invite the inferior to use =+ in res#onse. $n so e occu#ations holders of #articular offices ay use their .ob title( ,coach, (in the @SA)! ,chair an, and so on. Generic titles to indicate status are not as co on as they were! es#ecially in business! where we ay s#ea& about the ,boss, but are less li&ely to address hi or her directly as ,boss, (,chief, and ,guv, are even less co on). %usiness does not have a series of honorary titles in the way that the courts and #olitical institutions to! or ran&s as in the ar ed services / ,sir, ay still be used! but does not have a very s#ecific reference.
%ac& to to#

(iscourse structures in business

Meetings

The guidance below is su ari-ed fro an article in the Guardian;s 'ise .obs su##le ent and a 7eb site (www.s#ea&first.co.u&)! which gives guidance on effective #resentations( =iddling with your tie is ,distracting and this! along with the stuttered ;u s; and ;ers;! ;you &nows ;and ;$ eans;! will devalue your essage and a&e you see less confident.,. 7hen you;re a&ing a #oint! &ee# to it and don;t digress. $f you;re a newco er in a eeting do not beco e too cosy. 2eal with interru#tions. =or e*a #le! say( ,Let e .ust finish this section! then $;ll co e bac& to that #oint., As& 0uestions ,'ow often have you...3, ,Can you re e ber a ti e when...3, @se bridge words and #hrases ,as well as) conse0uently) in closing..., 6eiterate / re#eat and go over i #ortant #oints. 8ou can #reface this with a rhetorical 0uestion( ,So what have $ covered so far3, 1ausing can be very effective. $t gives the audience a chance to thin& about what is being said. $t also gives the s#ea&er an o##ortunity to breathe and thin& ahead.
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5ichael %ege an! an anthro#ologist and co #uter scientist of the C5 5eeting +etwor&! suggests that eetings should follow different structures! according to their #ur#ose. 'e suggests that eetings can be built around three &inds of conversation( for #ossibility! o##ortunity and for action. Conversations for #ossibility( The grou# ac&nowledges that it has co e together to generate ideas! not to a&e decisions. $ts goal is to a*i i-e creativity. Conversations for o##ortunity( The goal is not to reach a final decision but to narrow down a range of o#tions. 1eo#le gather infor ation! do so e analysis! and ta&e #ositions. Conversations for action( The goal is to decide! to co it( ,7e want to leave this roo with our four develo# ent #riorities for 299I.,
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%ege an suggests that the eeting should have what he calls ,rules of engage ent, / and translate i #licit e*#ectations into e*#licit agree ents! about ti ing! and #rogress.

8ou can even create rules of engage ent about individual behavior. =or e*a #le( %efore anyone a&es a #oint! that #erson has to find erit in the #oint ade by the #revious s#ea&er. "r! the senior #eo#le in the eeting can s#ea& only after the .unior #eo#le have had a chance to e*#ress the selves...$t;s a #retty si #le idea! really. All you are trying to do is to a&e the invisible visible! to a&e the auto atic deliberate. These...rules of engage ent give #eo#le a chance to design how they treat one another in eetings. 5ichael %ege an suggests! too! that though social tal& ay see inefficient or a distraction! it can be fruitful in hel#ing #eo#le rela* or thin& creatively when the eeting #roceeds to serious business. 8ou can find his article at( www.fastco #any.co KonlineK2CKbege an.ht l
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/or orate language According to ,5r. +i&, at www.btinternet.co KW r.ni&Kbusiness! cor#orate language is funda ental to business co unication #rinci#les. These #rinci#les include( Stating things in a way that a&es the hard to argue with. Stating things in a way that a&es you see i #ortant and &nowledgeable. 5a&ing sure what you say can;t co e bac& to haunt you. 6e#eating what your boss said! but trying to disguise it. nventing as any #hrases for ,very good, as #ossible. @sing war ! fluffy words to fool e #loyees into being ha##y and fulfilled.

%ac& to to#

This rather facetious descri#tion includes ideas fa iliar fro #rag atics / such as conversational a*i s and #oliteness or irroring other #eo#le;s s#eech. 7hat ,5r. +i&, does not a&e clear / but #rag atic analysis does / is how one does these things. $n fact! one need not ,try to disguise, a re#etition of what another says! either in content or anner / since this often is very effective in securing other #eo#le;s coo#eration. $t is #ossible to a&e so e e #loyees ore contented at wor&! without any e*tra e*#ense to the organi-ation! by a change of .ob title / ideally one that suggests a ore elevated status! without significant e*tra wor&load.
%ac& to to#

,Stating things in a way that a&es you see i #ortant and &nowledgeable, is ore #roble atic. +ovel le*is can inti idate those who assu e that their ignorance of the s#ecial for s or bu--words is a ar& of wea&ness. %ut it can easily e*cite ridicule a ong those who see it as #retentious! and are ready to cut through the vagueness or to challenge the s#ea&er to use #lain or direct for s / or who #lay bu--word bingo. As a techni0ue for establishing so e te #orary advantage by confusing others! verbal inflation ay wor&. %ut it does not hel# real understanding and collaboration! and i #edes e*changes where #eo#le are trying to agree on a course of action to follow.
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S ecimen exam questions $rom ast a ers $ have not shown the te*ts used in so e of the e*a #le 0uestions / for two reasons( they co e fro sources which are #rotected by co#yright! and teachers ay want to use the 0uestions (fro real #ast #a#ers) for #ractice e*a s in school / so they won;t want e to have shown the here.

1uestion 2

Te*t 2 is a transcri#t of #art of a lesson at a #ri ary school. The teacher is discussing a visit ade by an ani al e*#ert to the class on the #revious day. Show by detailed reference to the transcri#t how both teacher and #u#ils de onstrate #ower in this discourse.
%ac& to to# 1uestion 3

The following te*t is a transcri#t of the first #art of a %%C 6adio I interview by Bohn 'u #hrys on < 5ay 2999. 'e is 0uestioning 5argaret %ec&ett 51 about the local by/election results. Show by detailed reference to the transcri#t how both interviewer and interviewee de onstrate #ower and control in their discourse. +ote( B' X Bohn 'u #hrys) 5% X 5argaret %ec&ett) () indicates a brief #ause) underlining indicates e #hasis in s#eech) italicised words between vertical lines indicate si ultaneous s#eech) DlaughsE in s0uare brac&ets indicates that s#ea&er laughs.
%ac& to to# 1uestion 4

The te*t #rinted on #ages F and H is the first two #ages fro Our Children's 1ducation , The Updated &arent's Charter! issued by the 2e#art ent for Education and sent to every ho e in England. Show by detailed reference to the te*t how it de onstrates #ower and authority in its use of language. $n your answer you should refer to any relevant research and to any fra ewor&s you consider a##ro#riate.
%ac& to to# 1uestion 5

The following te*t is a #age fro a leaflet #ublished by 1lan $nternational @A! #roviding infor ation about how to s#onsor a child. Show by detailed reference to the te*t how it tries to $n your answer you should refer to relevant ideas fro you consider a##ro#riate.
%ac& to to#

a&e the reader feel #owerful. language study and to any fra ewor&s

!xam le texts with inter retation Advertising te*t 4 #olitical rhetoric 4 courtroo
)irst exam le - advertising

dialogue 4 #arlia entary e*changes

Transcri#t of an advertise ent for 'ead and Shoulders sha #oo! broadcast on television in the early :>>9s.
Scene( A flat. An attractive young wo an! with long dar& brown hair! loo&s towards a door which o#ens. A young an enters! s artly dressed. 'e is holding his hands! which are covered in oil! in front of hi . 7"5A+( 6ichardR (She is e*#ressing sur#rise at his arrival / #erha#s he is late / and his a##earance.) 6$C'A62( (E*#laining both at once) The carR 6ichard goes to bathroo to wash oil fro hands. 'e turns the ta# with his elbow and loo&s in the irror! noticing the 'ead and Shoulders sha #oo bottle on the shelf beneath it. 6$C'A62( 'ead and Shoulders3 ('alf turns to address her over his shoulder) %ut you don;t have dandruffR

7"5A+( (Sha&es hair to let it hang down) s iles to the ca era) +o / but $ do have great loo&ing hairR %ac& to to#

This advertise ent has the discourse structure of TG dra atic narrative / it rese bles a scene fro a soa# o#era (a##ro#riate! given the #roduct). The advertise ent ust be brief! so the narrative is co #ressed! and carried by the i ages as uch as the dialogue. 7e can loo& at #rag atics within the narrative (how the characters s#ea& to each other) and between us as the audience and the advertiser. $n the for er case! we see that ,6ichard, suggests sur#rise and ild disa##roval. 'is going into the bathroo without as&ing suggests that he is on friendly ter s with the wo an! though his sur#rise at the bottle of 'ead and Shoulders shows that he does not live with her. ,The car, alone eans nothing! but as a res#onse to ,6ichard,! and cou#led with the oily hands! it suggests so e uns#ecified echanical #roble which 6ichard has #ut right! since he has now arrived. 5oving out of the advert and loo&ing at its relationshi# with the audience! we see that the writer e*#ects us to &now the conventions of naturalistic television dra a! so we &now how to read the scene.
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The writer uses the co on le*icon of everyday s#eech / with the e*ce#tion of the #ro#er noun for the brand na e! 'ead and Shoulders. The last line of dialogue! however! includes the three/ word slogan (,great loo&ing hair,) that runs through the whole ca #aign / which included si ilar stories featuring other characters. This is not a transcri#t of natural s#eech! and thus avoids irrelevant or inco #lete utterances / if these were real #eo#le! then their conversation would be e*e #lary in observing the coo#erative #rinci#le. $t is! of course! scri#ted dra atic dialogue. The gra ar is ar&ed by inor sentences / one of one word and another of two! though with ore i #lied / so ,6ichard, ay suggest ,6ichard! you;re late and your hands are covered in oil, while ,The car, suggests ,$; sorry $; late! the car had a #roble but $;ve fi*ed it now..., The last two lines of dialogue are ore literary / es#ecially the ,but, before ,you don;t have dandruff, where 6ichard is effectively res#onding to the idea that the wo an ight have suffered fro dandruff! since she is using 'ead and Shoulders.
%ac& to to# Second exam le - olitical rhetoric

=ro

1resident Bohn =. Aennedy;s $naugural Address! =riday! Banuary 29! :>F:

5r. Chief Bustice! 1resident Eisenhower! Gice 1resident +i*on! 1resident Tru an! reverend clergy! fellow citi-ens! we observe today not a victory of #arty! but a celebration of freedo / sy boli-ing an end! as well as a beginning / signifying renewal! as well as change. =or $ have sworn before you and Al ighty God the sa e sole n oath our forebears #rescribed nearly a century and three 0uarters ago. The world is very different now. =or an holds in his ortal hands the #ower to abolish all for s of hu an #overty and all for s of hu an life. And yet the sa e revolutionary beliefs for which our forebears fought are still at issue around the globe / the belief that the rights of an co e not fro the generosity of the state! but fro the hand of God. %ac& to to# 7e dare not forget today that we are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the word go forth fro this ti e and #lace! to friend and foe ali&e! that the torch has been #assed to a new generation of A ericans / born in this century! te #ered by war! disci#lined by a hard and bitter #eace! #roud of our ancient heritage / and unwilling to witness or #er it the slow undoing of those hu an rights to which this +ation has always been co itted! and to which we are co itted today at ho e and around the world. Let every nation &now! whether it wishes us well or ill! that we shall #ay any #rice! bear any burden! eet any hardshi#! su##ort any friend! o##ose any foe! in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty. This uch we #ledge / and ore.

%ac& to to# To those old allies whose cultural and s#iritual origins we share! we #ledge the loyalty of faithful friends. @nited! there is little we cannot do in a host of coo#erative ventures. 2ivided! there is little we can do / for we dare not eet a #owerful challenge at odds and s#lit asunder. To those new States who we welco e to the ran&s of the free! we #ledge our word that one for of colonial control shall not have #assed away erely to be re#laced by a far ore iron tyranny. 7e shall not always e*#ect to find the su##orting our view. %ut we shall always ho#e to find the strongly su##orting their own freedo / and to re e ber that! in the #ast! those who foolishly sought #ower by riding the bac& of the tiger ended u# inside. To those #eo#les in the huts and villages across the globe struggling to brea& the bonds of ass isery! we #ledge our best efforts to hel# the hel# the selves! for whatever #eriod is re0uired / not because the Co unists ay be doing it! not because we see& their votes! but because it is right. $f a free society cannot hel# the any who are #oor! it cannot save the few who are rich. %ac& to to# To our sister re#ublics south of our border! we offer a s#ecial #ledge / to convert our good words into good deeds / in a new alliance for #rogress / to assist free en and free govern ents in casting off the chains of #overty. %ut this #eaceful revolution of ho#e cannot beco e the #rey of hostile #owers. Let all our neighbors &now that we shall .oin with the to o##ose aggression or subversion anywhere in the A ericas. And let every other #ower &now that this 'e is#here intends to re ain the aster of its own house. To that world asse bly of sovereign states! the @nited +ations! our last best ho#e in an age where the instru ents of war have far out#aced the instru ents of #eace! we renew our #ledge of su##ort / to #revent it fro beco ing erely a foru for invective / to strengthen its shield of the new and the wea& / and to enlarge the area in which its writ ay run. =inally! to those nations who would a&e the selves our adversary! we offer not a #ledge but a re0uest( that both sides begin anew the 0uest for #eace! before the dar& #owers of destruction unleashed by science engulf all hu anity in #lanned or accidental self/destruction. %ac& to to#

5any fa iliar rhetorical devices ar& this te*t( antithetic and synony ous #arallelis ! lists of three and co #le* #atterning (structures within structures). There are eta#hors! i #erative verbs and #arentheses. The s#eech o#ens with a direct address to so e s#ecial guests and the audience ore generally / both locally #resent and listening to the broadcast / it will end by including all of these together as , y fellow A ericans,. So the 1resident first shows res#ect for the status of the distinguished guests! then cleverly reduces the all to the co on level of citi-ens of the great re#ublic / a&ing the see all e0ual! as they are before God. At once we see uses of antithetic #arallelis . The first antithesis is in a ,not...but, structure. (There are several in this e*tract( can you find the all3) ,...we observe today not a victory of #arty! but a celebration of freedo ..., while the ne*t co es in two #airs (end and beginning) renewal and change) ,...sy boli-ing an end! as well as a beginning / signifying renewal! as well as change.,
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Con.unctive ,for, is used al ost adverbially. The written te*t gives an indication of the #auses in s#eech / and 1resident Aennedy co #letes sentences (twice) before starting others with ,for,! that serves as co ent on what #recedes it( ,=or $ have sworn..., and ,=or an holds in his ortal hands..., 7e see how the 1resident begins a series of sentences with the ob.ect of the ain verb! where the sub.ect is always ,we, (as in the A erican #eo#le) / so each sentence follows the #attern( To = we say or do ) + and C. $n this section we find a list of si* grou#s of #eo#le who the 1resident a#ostro#hises( old allies)

new 7friendly8 states) people in huts and $illages 7the de$eloping world8) sister repu%lics 7in Central and South merica8 and the United 2ations. %ut the si*th grou# differs / these are the #otential ene ies to who the 1resident offers a warning. $t a##ears that he is s#ea&ing to these various grou#s! but this is only a secondary concern (insofar as his s#eech will be re#orted in these #laces). $n reality he is s#ea&ing to the #eo#le of the @SA here / and letting the &now his view of these other #laces in the world.
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The language has a stately allusive 0uality that co es fro echoing the style of the English bible / so we read four ti es i #erative verb clauses beginning ,let, / re inding us of how God said ,Let there be light,! while ,the word, has an echo of the o#ening of Saint Bohn;s Gos#el. (Later in the s#eech! Aennedy uses the gos#el i age of the light of the world.) ,Let the word go forth, and ,let every nation &now, could al ost (though they do not) co e fro the %ible / the le*is is ti eless here! and both ,forth, and ,nation, are words we eet throughout the "ld Testa ent in versions in the Aing Ba es tradition! such as the A erican 'e$ised Standard -ersion of the %ible. As well as the %ible! the 1resident alludes to the 2eclaration of $nde#endence in referring to the ,rights of an, that co e fro ,the hand of God,. (+ote how he s#ea&s of God without hesitation! in vivid "ld Testa ent ter s! as having a hand / whether this is a eta#hor or eant literally.) And he alludes to 6ousseau;s fa ous state ent (that an is born free but everywhere in chains)! and slightly alters its a##lication so that the chains do not co e fro si #le #olitical or legal o##ression! but fro being #oor. 'e #ro ises( ,...to assist free en and free govern ents in casting off the chains of #overty...,
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The 1resident uses si #le verbal e bellish ent in the re#etition of sound (alliteration) in lines li&e( ,writ ay run, and ,dar& #owers of destruction,. =re0uently the lines have a etrical scansion( ,=or an holds in his ortal hands the #ower..., and ,...have far out#aced the instru ents of #eace..., are both true ia bic #enta eters. 7e find other etres in ,...born in this century! te #ered by war..., and ,...to strengthen its shield of the new and the wea&..., The le*is of the s#eech co es fro everyday s#eech / there are no s#ecialist or obscure ter s. And ost are si #le structurally / li&e a good #oet he uses onosyllabic and two/syllable words( ,Let the word go forth..., o#ens a se0uence of twenty onosyllables and a solitary two/syllable word (,ali&e,). 'is i ages are vivid and concrete / ,the hand of God,! riding the tiger! handing on a torch! casting off chains and strengthening a shield.
%ac& to to# +hird exam le - courtroom dialogue

E*tract fro the transcri#t of 2avid $rving;s 'igh Court action against 1enguin %oo&s and 2eborah Li#stadt.
$n 2BC / 1enguin E*tract 56 56 56 $6G$+G( =ro $6G$+G( fro 5y %oo&s 2A8 Lord! the v Ltd :9( other and 7ednesday! inor atter 2Fth concerns G6A8( once / 2eborah Banuary again the Li#stadt 2999. #ress. 8es. the 'igh Court of Bustice $rving

B@ST$CE today;s #ress coverage / #articularly $ a

referring to the Ti es / one gets the i #ression they

are relying %ac& to to#

ore on hand outs than on their #ersonal e*#eriences in the courtroo .

56 B@ST$CE G6A8( $ saw the re#ort. $ did not read it. 7hat about it are you concerned3 56 $6G$+G( 1urely! that there were things in the article which were not in the testi ony yesterday! and $ a not in any way #ointing a finger at the 2efendants on this. $t ay well be there are third #arties who are doing this and #roviding co#ies of the 1rofessor;s re#ort or so ething li&e that to the #ress. This clearly disadvantages e. $ a aware of the fact that your Lordshi# is sitting without a .ury! so this is of less o ent! but if it in any way gradually affects or #ut wrong guidelines on #ublic o#inion and s&ews #ublic o#inion in so e way! then this ay indirectly be seen to be affecting the outco e of this decision. 56 B@ST$CE G6A8( 7ell! $ a afraid that really is a sort of fact of life that you .ust have to #ut u# with. 6eally! what atters here for y #ur#oses is whether $ a going to be influenced by it and! as $ have not read it! $ will not be. %ac& to to# 56 $6G$+G( Gery well! y Lord. Clearly! it would be i #ro#er for any of the #arties in this case to start #utting hand outs to the #ress in the way $ a##reciate the law is on conte #t which would disadvantage the other #arty. 56 B@ST$CE G6A8( $f anything that really does disturb you co es u#! ention it! but at the o ent $ do not thin& there is anything that can usefully be done about what a##eared or! indeed! should be done. So $ thin& we ight as well get on. 56 $6G$+G( Gery well! y Lord. $t will #robably assist your Lordshi# if $ now .ust in one to#ic #aragra#h! so to say! outline what $ intend doing. 56 B@ST$CE G6A8( $ would find that very hel#ful. %ac& to to# 56 $6G$+G( / for the ne*t hour! shall we say3 =irstly! there will be no ore tra#s being s#rung. $ a sure that the 1rofessor will a##reciate advance notification. There are no ore hidden booby/tra#s or ines! but $ a going to be dwelling briefly on cre atoriu +o. $$ still for a while because $ believe the 1rofessor wishes to a&e certain co ents on what $ said yesterday. $ then want to have a loo& at the 0uality of the eyewitness evidence that the 1rofessor was relying u#on! in #articular the witnesses Tauber and %i &o and %road. Then we will ove to Auschwit-! the ain ca #! and have a loo& at the alleged gassing facilities there.

56 B@ST$CE G6A8( 8es. Than& you for that. %ac& to to#

$n this #art of the trial before 5r. Bustice Gray! 2avid $rving attends to two &inds of business( first! to 0uestion the re#orting of the trial in news#a#ers! to as& the .udge to consider the #ossibility that this ay influence the outco e of the #rocess! and second! to outline the #art of his case that he will #resent ne*t. The e*change is ar&ed by for al e*#ressions of courtesy / and! on 2avid $rving;s #art! deference to the .udge! yet these do not really interfere with an efficient ta&ing of turns! and a high degree of relevance in the way the e*changes #roceed. $f we can call this a conversation! then it observes the a*i s of 0uality! 0uantity and relevance very well. (@sually! if an e*change in court does not observe one or ore of these! the .udge will intervene. ,6elevance, is #erha#s ost i #ortant) ,0uality, and ,0uantity, ay de#end ore on the .udge;s discretion and attitude to the s#ea&er.)
%ac& to to#

%eneath this! we can see a struggle for #ower. 2avid $rving invites 5r. Bustice Gray to

a&e

so e allowance for re#orting of the case (which $rving believes to be hostile to hi ) / in effect! he atte #ts to direct the .udge in his conduct of the trial. 5r. Bustice Gray! fir ly but courteously! tells 2avid $rving that his #articular #lea is of no account! but in doing so also reasserts his own direction of the legal #rocess. 'ow does this wor&3 $rving identifies a connection between ischievous and inaccurate re#orting and #ublic hostility to hi self. (This is #lausible( he ay be a 'olocaust denier or a racist! but it is #ossible for the re#orters to e*aggerate or distort the true account of his racis .) =ro this #re ise he oves to the conclusion( ,This clearly disadvantages e,. %ut at once he contradicts this a##arently fir state ent with the recognition that the .udge is trying the case without a .ury! so the only ,#ublic o#inion, that affects the outco e is his (the .udge;s) own. 5r. Bustice Gray;s re#ly is! on the surface! a fir rebuttal of the #ossibility of his being influenced by the re#orting( ,6eally! what atters here for have not read it! $ will not be.,
%ac& to to#

y #ur#oses is whether $ a

going to be influenced by it and! as $

There is a hint of ridicule or sarcas here / as the .udge #oints out what a##ears to be a truis or state ent of the obvious( he cannot be affected by what he has not read. $n saying this! he is saying rather ore / that it is not for 2avid $rving to alert hi (the .udge) to #ossible abuses or conte #ts of the court. $t is #recisely the .udge;s rVle (a ong other things) to decide such atters! with the benefit of his e*#ert &nowledge of the legal #rocess. $n saying ,...that really is a sort of fact of life that you .ust have to #ut u# with..., 5r. Bustice Gray is drawing a distinction between a &ind of rough treat ent that anyone in such a case can e*#ect to suffer fro the #ress and a serious conte #t or indiscretion in the re#orting that ight in so e way interfere with the #rocess of the law. (This has ha##ened notoriously in any high/#rofile .ury trials.) The .udge is effectively telling 2avid $rving to be a bit tougher! and a&ing clear that it is for hi (the .udge) to say when any unfair #lay ay affect the trial. 1erha#s he is aware of his robustness in dealing with 2avid $rving;s e*#ression of worry! as he atte #ts so e itigation / inviting $rving! should anything a##ear that ,really does disturb hi ,! to ention this. This is for ally #olite / but see s insincere! as he has .ust dis issed $rving;s e*isting account of what ,really, disturbs hi . $t allows the .udge to ove onto the real business of the trial.
%ac& to to#

7hen 2avid $rving offers to outline the ne*t #art of his case! 5r. Bustice Gray res#onds very differently fro what has gone before. ,$ would find that very hel#ful, is for ally #olite and ay really be so (it see s sincere). +ow that 2avid $rving is falling into his a##ointed rVle in the trial! then the .udge is ha##y / not least because the whole #rocess oves on! whereas the #rotests about the re#orting have threatened to delay the trial #ro#er. Given the nature of this trial and the e*cited re#orting of which 2avid $rving has earlier co #lained we ay be struc& by the for al #oliteness of the outline! in which $rving e*#resses a concern to treat his o##onent in the case (the defendant! 1rofessor 2eborah Li#stadt) with fairness. There see s! however! to be so e history i #lied in what he says. $n entioning ,no ore tra#s being s#rung,! he evidently a##eals to shared &nowledge at least between hi self and the .udge (but #robably also by the defendant) of so e earlier ,tra#s,. Since he gives the .udge this reassurance! we ay as& why3 7hy de#rive hi self of a #otential stratage 3 "ne #ossible reason is that the .udge has rebu&ed hi #reviously for #resenting evidence without giving the defendant;s counsel notice of this. So now he is really reassuring the .udge that he will follow the #ro#er #rocedures and eti0uette / or as&ing the .udge for an endorse ent of the way he #ro#oses to #resent the ne*t #art of his case. The .udge;s a##roval is not! of course! in any sense an a##roval of 2avid $rving;s case. $t is an a##roval of his co #lying with the e*#ected #rocedure in #resenting his case.
%ac& to to#

$rving oves to a very s#ecific outline of #oints of detail! identifying #articular #eo#le whose testi ony for s #art of the acce#ted record of the 'olocaust. =inally (in this e*tract) he refers to ,alleged gassing facilities, at Auschwit-. Given that #art of his case relies on 0uestioning the

historic accuracy of accounts of genocide at Auschwit-! this see s logical! if shoc&ing to the ears of #eo#le who do not 0uestion the 'olocaust. %ut it ay not hel# influence the .udge;s o#inion in his favour! as it is li&ely to e*cite a strong e otional reaction. That is! here his argu ent is not ,there was a 'olocaust and 1rofessor Li#stadt is wrong in saying $ denied it, but ,$ cannot have denied what never ha##ened, / in effect! he is re#eating the denial in court. 7e refer to an ,alleged, cri e or isde eanour while a defendant is on trial! because we #resu e hi or her to be innocent until #roved otherwise. And if he or she is found not guilty! then! had we referred to the cri e (without any ,alleged,) we would have slandered the innocent sus#ect. %ut the gassing of Bews at Auschwit- is not so ething that we attribute to anyone on trial now. (There were historic trials! and #eo#le were found guilty of war cri es.) So $rving;s use of ,alleged, here is intended to challenge the co on belief that gassing really ha##ened in Auschwit-. $t ay be enough! of course! for 2avid $rving to show erely that it is not absolutely certain that the 'olocaust ha##ened / as this would a&e 1rofessor Li#stadt;s accusation see libellous! as if she has called hi a denier whereas he is really a doubter! only.
%ac& to to#

So the surface courtesy ay conceal the o entous nature of the trial. 1rofessor Li#stadt has called hi a 'olocaust denier because she wants #eo#le to be aware of denial as a techni0ue of historical inter#retation! and! in a real sense! #ass a oral .udge ent or conde n those who do it. 2avid $rving! eanwhile! intends to sub it state ents about history to the sa e &ind of legal scrutiny which a##lies in trials where the witness state ents are ade in court and refer to the conduct of those being tried. $n re#resenting hi self! 2avid $rving does not (a##arently) understand how to conduct his case in all res#ects. 'e has a rather shallow sense of how to do so! by a#ing the for al address he has noticed fro counsel in observing trials / so we note how he calls 5r. Bustice Gray , y lord, rather easily! and twice in successive answers uses the for ula ,very well! y lord,.
%ac& to to# )ourth exam le - arliamentary exchanges

This is an e*tract fro 'ansard. $t is a re#ort of "ral Answers to Juestions on =oreign and Co onwealth affairs. The 0uestions are #ut to 5r. Bac& Straw (Secretary of State) and 5r. 5i&e ";%rien (1arlia entary @nder/Secretary)
2: 1alestine 5rs. Louise Ell an (Liver#ool! 6iverside)( Given that the ilitary wing of the 1alestinian Authority! the Al A0sa 5artyrs %rigade! clai s res#onsibility for blowing u# and urdering at least 2C $sraelis in Tel Aviv on < Banuary this year! does y right hon. =riend acce#t that the 1alestinian Authority is at the centre of terrorist activity3 5r. Straw( $ have not seen any evidence to suggest that the #eo#le fro the 1alestinian Authority who $ et were at the centre of terrorist activity / rather the reverse. They e*#ressed si ilar horror and re#ulsion at such unnecessary and gratuitous &illing as anyone else who is a e ber of the civilised world. 'owever! $ certainly acce#t one i #lication of y hon. =riend;s 0uestion( a huge agenda re ains for refor ing the security sector inside in the 1alestinian Authority. 7e cannot have a situation where there are nine se#arate security organisations! so e under effective control by the 1alestinian Authority! but so e no ore than terrorist organisations as0uerading with the authority of the 1alestinian Authority. That has to be changed. %ac& to to# 6ichard "ttaway (Croydon! South)( 2oes the =oreign Secretary agree that dialogue is the best way to co bat terroris 3 %earing that in ind! why did he decline to eet 5r. +etanyahu when he was in London3 5r. Straw( $ had already et 5r. +etanyahu! and $ gave hi a very good lunch. Ban 299C ( Colu n :<9

%angladesh

2. 5s "ona Aing (%ethnal Green and %ow)( 7hat assess ent he has Dsic.E D>:H?:E

ade of the situation in %angladesh.

The 1arlia entary @nder/Secretary of State for =oreign and Co onwealth Affairs (5r. 5i&e ";%rien)( $ can confir what y right hon. =riend said! because $ was at that lunch! too. %ac& to to# 2: Ban 299C ( Colu n :<:

7e are concerned by re#orts of istreat ent of detainees! including deaths in custody! associated with "#eration Clean 'eart. 7e are onitoring closely the detention of .ournalists and o##osition #oliticians! and have urged the %angladesh Govern ent to ensure that the due #rocess of law is followed in all cases. 5s Aing( =ollowing the re#orted hu an rights abuses! ay $ than& the %ritish high co issioner in 2ha&a! 2avid Carter! for the re#resentations that he has ade3 7hat ste#s are the %ritish Govern ent ta&ing to hel# strengthen de ocracy in %angladesh3 7ill the 5inister continue to raise the tragic case of the %ritish resident! Surat 5iah! who was beaten to death3 7ill he write to e on the inde nity %ill3 %ac& to to# 5r. ";%rien( $ will #ass on y hon. =riend;s than&s to the high co issioner. 7e are following closely the circu stances in %angladesh and #articularly the arrests of so e .ournalists and o##osition leaders. 7e welco e the release of 'ussein Chaudry and others. 2e ocracy eans allowing disagree ent and debate! and in %angladesh that eans that the Awa i league as well as the %angladesh +ationalist #arty ust have the right to voice their o#inions. 7e have raised our concerns infor ally with the %angladesh authorities! and will continue to do so. $ will write to y hon. =riend on the issue of the inde nity %ill. Surat 5iah! who was &illed at 2ha&a air#ort! was a %ritish resident but not a %ritish national. 7e have let the %angladesh authorities &now that there is wides#read concern about the case in this country! and we have ade re#resentations in that regard. %ac& to to#

The transcri#t here uses so e conventions! such as ,hon., where the s#ea&er says ,honourable,. All the #artici#ants observe the convention of indirect s#eech a ong the selves! ediated through the S#ea&er / so they always use the third #erson #ronouns or a title( not ,2o you agree that..., but ,2oes the =oreign Secretary agree that..., 7here there is a choice of a #ronoun (heKhi ) or a title! we find the s#ea&ers ostly use the latter. 8ou can chec& this for yourself. 'ow often does anyone say ,heKsheKhi Kher,3 'ow often does anyone use a descri#tive title in referring to another / =oreign Secretary! (right) hon. =riend! 5inister and so on3 7e note that the 0uestioners often o#en their 0uestions with a subordinate clause! e*#ressing so e condition or 0ualification of the 0uestion( ,Given that the ilitary wing of the 1alestinian Authority... clai s res#onsibility ..., and ,=ollowing the re#orted hu an rights abuses..., 7e note! too! how so e of the ,0uestions, are not really re0uests for new infor ation! but an invitation to endorse a state ent that the ,0uestioner, a&es( ,does L acce#t thatKagree that...,
%ac& to to#

5r. "ttaway as&s two 0uestions. %ut the second #resu##oses that 5r. Straw has answered the first by agreeing with the suggested state ent / which 5r. Straw #lainly has not done. So in 5r. "ttway;s ,%earing that in ind,! that refers to the suggested a*i that ,dialogue is the best way to co bat terroris ,. 5r. Straw does not endorse the suggestion! nor does he refute it. $nstead he evades both 0uestions by saying that he did not eet 5r. +etanyahu (on the later occasion) because he had done so already on an earlier occasion. $n doing this! 5r. Straw itigates the suggestion of discourtesy to the $sraeli 5inister (5r. +etanyahu)! by #roducing evidence of earlier courtesy. At the sa e ti e! he avoids giving any recent or continued indication of a##roval of 5r. +etanyahu. $n this res#ect! the ention of the ,very good lunch, beco es relevant. 7e do not need to &now that there was a lunch (of whatever 0uality) to establish whether 5r. Straw did or did not eet hi . %ut the ention of the lunch will a##ear as a tangible #roof that the eeting ha##ened! and that 5r. Straw recalls this circu stantial detail / whereas he cannot! or will not! say anything about the content of the eeting in ter s of who

said what to who . The .unior inister su##orts this account by recalling the lunch. 'e a##ears to be giving evidence to the 'ouse that this is what indeed ha##ened. %ut! once ore! they do not need so eone;s recollection of a eal to #rove it. 5r. ";%rien is not so uch telling the 'ouse about what ha##ened! but signalling solidarity with his boss! the Secretary of State.
%ac& to to#

5rs. Aing initially as&s an o#en 0uestion about the 5inister;s ,assess ent...of the situation in %angladesh,. She does not (as earlier 0uestioners do with 5r. Straw) i ediately invite 5r. ";%rien to agree with so e state ent of hers. $n allowing hi to give an answer that she has not suggested to hi ! she ay be establishing trust in the conversation / he can see that he is not having words #ut into his outh. +e*t 5rs. Aing secures even ore coo#eration! in e*#ressing gratitude to the servant of the crown! the %ritish A bassador. This is in 0uestion for ! but is really a state ent (to the 0uestion! 5ay $ than&...3 no answer of yes or no is #ossible! e*ce#t as a co ic non/se0uitur). 'aving secured! 5r. ";%rien;s coo#eration! 5rs. Aing oves to a series of three 0uestions / of which the first is o#en! but which she effectively reduces to the two s#ecific re0uests that follow. That is! she ay see to as& what (which ay be anything at all) the Govern ent is doing about de ocracy in %angladesh. %ut really she is as&ing whether 5r. ";%rien will do two very s#ecific things( to as& the %angladesh govern ent about the &illing of a %ritish resident! and whether he will write to her on a #articular bill (a #ro#osed #iece of new legislation). 5r. ";%rien answers both 0uestions clearly and fully / observing conversational a*i s of 0uality! 0uantity and relevance. 'e changes the order! as the second 0uestion needs only a yes or no (he says yes / he will write to 5rs. Aing). There is ore to say about Surat 5iah / and 5r. ";%rien a##ears to be well infor ed about the details of 5r. 5iah;s death.
%ac& to to#

This e*tract does not su##ort a co on view of 1arlia entary e*changes. $t does not a##ear to be aggressive or confrontational! and we find 5r. Straw and 5r. ";%rien agreeing with so e things! and not ado#ting a #osition on #arty lines. "n the other hand! there is a huge difference between the very serious and infor ed answer to Louise Ell an and the see ingly facetious res#onse to 6ichard "ttaway. 2oes 5r. Straw do this because he is s#ea&ing to a an! who can ,ta&e, this &ind of hu our3 "r is it a device to evade 5r. "ttaway;s tra# / which is to give 5r. Straw two choices! neither of which he can acce#t( $f he says that he did not want to eet 5r. +etanyahu! he ay offend the $sraeli state. $f he e*#resses a##roval of 5r. +etanyahu! he ay a##ear to su##ort $srael;s #olicy in 1alestine and offend Arab and 5usli o#inion.
%ac& to to#

7hen the sub.ect of the 0uestions changes fro 1alestine to %angladesh! the Secretary of State hands the s#ea&ing turn to his 5inister / but 5r. ";%rien establishes so e continuity with 5r. Straw in that! before answering 5rs. Aing;s 0uestion! he bac&s u# 5r. Straw;s story about the ,good lunch,. The e*changes are ar&ed by fre0uent use of odal verbs , ay, and ,will,. Generally! the s#eech is 0uite e*#ansive / whoever holds a turn is able to s#ea& at so e length without interru#tion. The co ent on the ,good lunch, is therefore rather unty#ical in its brevity. Either 5r. Straw has a gift for witty i #rovisation! or he has antici#ated the 0uestion and #re#ared the answer! whereas elsewhere he and 5r. ";%rien are develo#ing their res#onses as he a&es the / the co #onent #hrases are so eti es elegant! often fa iliar collocations! and they are arranged loosely without elaborate rhetorical #atterns. 7e can see a string of such collocations in ,horror and re#ulsion...unnecessary and gratuitous...effective control...terrorist organi-ations,.
%ac& to to#

5r. ";%rien;s , ade re#resentations in that regard, is an e*a #le of a di#lo atic or bureaucratic register / in ore de otic s#eech this e0uates si #ly to a state ent that the @A govern ent has as&ed the %angladesh govern ent about 5r. 5iah;s death. $n fact! since it follows the state ent ,7e have let the %angladesh authorities &now that there is wides#read concern about the case in this country,! it a##ears to be a re#etition of the initial clause / how uch difference is

there between letting so eone &now a thing and , a&ing re#resentations, about it3 1erha#s there is a slight distinction between infor ing %angladesh that #eo#le in the @A are bothered about 5r. 5iah;s death and their as&ing the %angladesh authorities to ta&e so e action. @lti ately! ,in that regard, is a biguous / since it ay ean either that the @A govern ent has , ade re#resentations, about 5r. 5iah;s death in itself or about the ,wides#read concern, in the @A over the &illing. htt#(KKwww.universalteacher.org.u&KlangK#ower.ht 1df( htt#(KKweb.ua .esKde#arta entosKfiloyletrasKfiloinglesaKCoursesKL=C/ S=LK1ower2octoradoG>/readingswee&2.#df

"rwel;s essay ( htt#(KKiis.ber&eley.eduKsitesKdefaultKfilesK1oliticsTQ2FTEnglishTlanguage.#df