MA100: Mathematical Methods

Calculus Lecture 2

EXERCISES 1 Solutions are now posted on the website. Check your work yourself. Dont hand it in. If you still have diculties after working through the solutions, go to the special one-o class on Friday, 4-5, E171 (New Theatre).

Extra Examples Session (Optional) Thursdays 11-12, Old Theatre. This week:

Matrices

Planes

Conics

PLANES Vector v is normal (or is a normal) to a plane if it is orthogonal to (every vector in the plane). If is a point in the plane, then for any other point x in the plane, v will be orthogonal to x . (And conversely.) So the plane has equation

v , x = 0.

v, x = 0
can be rewritten as

v, x = v, = c.
So we have, v1x + v2y + v3z = c, the Cartesian equation of the plane.

plane through =

Example: What is the Cartesian equation of the 1 3

with normal v =

1 ?

x y + z = 3 0 + (2) = 1.

If

is normal to a plane, so is

or

2 ,

4 6

etc.

Sometimes its helpful to choose a unit vector 2 (length 1). The length of 3 22 + 12 + 32 = 14, so a unit vector in this 2 1 direction is 1 . 14 3
1

is

Distance of plane from origin Suppose v a unit normal and that = cv is on the plane (the closest point of the plane to the origin). Equation of plane is v, x = 0, so

v, x

= =

v, v , cv

= c v, v = c v 2 = c.

So if v is a unit normal to the plane and c is the distance of the plane from 0, then the plane has equation v1x + v2y + v3z = c. A plane v1x + v2y + v3z = 0 is a plane through 0.

Intersection of planes Example: Plane 1 has equation 2x y + z = 6 and plane 2 has equation x + y + 2z = 1. These planes intersect in a line. To nd the equation of the line, use Linear Algebra to solve the equations simultaneously. Find that the line is

7/ 3

4/ 3

t 1 .

1 1

The angle between two planes The angle between two planes is the angle between their normal vectors. (See picture.) Example: The angle between planes 2x y + z = 6 and x + y + 2 z=1 is the angle between the normal 2 1
1 1 .

vectors v1 =

and v2 =

Now,

v1, v2 = v1

v2 cos ,

so

cos = and = /3.

1 , 1

1 v1

v2

1 3 = = , 2 6 6

PARAMETRIC EQUATION OF A PLANE

x = + su + tv

where

is one (any) point in the plane,

u and v are non-parallel direction vectors in the plane, orthogonal to the normal vector,

s, t are arbitrary scalars (real numbers).

Example: Find a parametric equation for the plane 2x y + z = 6.

This has normal vector

plane is =

0 .

and a point on the

Two non-parallel vectors

orthogonal to the normal are u =

1 ,

v=

1 0 2

So the plane is

x=

t 1

1 0 2

CURVES Now we think about curves in R2. First, a line is the set of solutions to a linear equation ax + by = c. (Special cases: x = c is a vertical line and y = c is a horizontal line.)

More complicated equations give rise to more complicated curves as the set of solutions. Examples: y x2 = 0 xy = 1.

x2 + y 2 = 1

Parabolas

100 80 60 40 20

10 8

2 0

4 x 6

10

The parabolas y =

x2

1 2 and y = x . 2

0 2

2 x

The parabola with equation y + 4 = (x 1)2.

Ellipses

x2 y2 + 2 =1 2 a b is the equation of an (axis-alligned) ellipse, centred at the origin.

y 0.5

1 x

0.5

x2 Example: the ellipse + y 2 = 1. 4

100

y50

0.5 50

0.5 x

100

yx = 1 (or y = 1/x). A hyperbola with the axes as asymptotes.

4 y 2

10

0 2 4

5 x

10

x2 4y 2 = 9 is also a hyperbola. Its asymptotes are y = x/2 and y = x/2.

4 y 2

10

0 2 4

5 x

10

Why does x2 4y 2 = 9 have asymptotes y = x/2 and y = x/2? Well, if x and y are both very large, then to ensure that the dierence between x2 and 4y 2 is as small as 9, we need x2 4y 2, so y x/2 or y x/2.

FACT: For any second-degree equation Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0. the graph is either:

a line

a parabola

an ellipse (of which circle is a special case)

a hyperbola

Actually, there are a few (degenerate) cases where this isnt true, but these arent interesting or important.

All of these are conic sections: obtained by cutting a double cone with a plane.