Scandanavia and Blacks

Supernatural Others and Ethnic Others: A Millenium of World View Author(s): John Lindow Source: Scandinavian Studies, Vol.
67, No. 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 8-31 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40919728 . Accessed: 13/08/2013 02:45
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Others Supernatural and EthnicOthers: A Millenium ofWorldView

at Berkeley University ofCalifornia,
attributed to the poem Ynglingatal, probably Norwegian thedeaths of af skald ninth-century jlfr Hvn,catalogues in who ruled known as the thelineofkings Uppsala Ynglingar, be linked to archaeowith someassurance butmay during prehistory The poem promises evidence. thirty logicaland otherhistorical are other sources delivers but however, twenty-seven; only generations in those found monarchs three abletoprovide Ynglingatal. preceding sometimes in ITnglingatal die in unusual The earliest ways, kings Thefirst ofthese thesupernatural. (if kings, Fjlnir, enjoyed involving or from influence thatis theword) a deathwithout supernatural Snorri Sturluson's to "other" accompanying prose according beings; his back tohisquarters tofind wasunable inYnglinga way Fjlnir saga, ofdrinking remainder ofa night himself ofthephysical after relieving on Hisimmediate anddrowned. ina vatofbeer into andfell successors, of the were victims the other son, hand, Fjlnir's Sveigir, supernatural. victim of bcrgtagning, recorded thefirst wasapparently beingtaken is asfollows.1 stanza into the mountain beings, tjlfr's by supernatural
1 For thisand the the editionof skaldic I citefrom stanzafromYnglingataly following in Jnsson (1912-15). Readersmayalso wishto consultthe remarks poetry by Finnur is used,and butno lessvalidnumbering Akerlund system (1939: 80-3), wherea different a pithy and sometimes receives are shorter) whereeach stanza(kerlund's unwittingly thus:1: "Fjolnir I discuss hereand belowaresummarized thestanzas humorous summary; i mjdkaret" omkomhos Fro{>e"(Fjolnerdiedvisiting nmligen Fri); "han drunknade narrade salvktare ofmead); 2: "dvrgarnas he died in thebarrel (in fact, Sveig^er"(the in i stenen" tricked of the dwarfs dvrgen Sveigir)"d denne lopp efter hall-guardian the dwarf into the rock); "och berget(eller stenen) rushedafter (when the aforesaid slukadehonom" (and the mountain[or rock] swallowedhim up); 3: "Men en hxa honom" Vanlandi's Vanlandes dd" (buta witch stadkom death)"ochhonplgade arranged vid Skuta"(and he burnednearSkuta).Also him),"och han brann (and she tormented edition inBjarni arethereadings saga( 1941: 26-30). oiYnglinga, Aoalbjarnarson's important
Lindow John
Supernatural Others
En dagskjarr Drnis nija salvgrur vlti, Svcfi ps stein ennstrgei Dusla konr eptdvergi hljp, oksair bjartr peim Skmmis JQtunbyggr vi JQ frifein.
Jnsson 1912-15,vol. 1: 7) (Finnur of the kinsmen of Durnir tricked (And the day-shy hall-guardian when the kinsman of Dusli into the rock Sveigir, great-minded leapt after andthebright thedwarf, ofSokmimir's brood hall, giant-built, theprince.2) [therock], gapedopenfor Thisis a niceverse. It juxtaposes and dark, dwarf and giant, and it light thehard rock which swallowed anthropomorphizes apparently upSveigir. to Snorri, had gone to searchout Goheimr, the According Sveigir ancient seatof his divineforbears, to see whether he could findOdin. ineastern Somewhere Swedenhe hasstopped ata farm calledat Steinig so namedbecauseofa hugerocklocatedthere. and hismen,not Sveigir learned from thebeery deathofFjglnir, arethemselves having anything and whentheysee a dwarf at the footof therock, intoxicated, sitting rushcloser.The dwarf callson Sveigir to enter therockand,ifhe they to meetwithOdin. Sveigir wishes, leaps intotherock,whichimmeclosesup after him,and he neveremerges. diately Sometimes Snorri seemsto be guessing aboutwhatfjolfr's verses close to the mark.In anycase, the mean,but herehe mustbe pretty versealone offers, ifone acceptsthetraditional datingof thepoem to themiddleoftheViking as as the lateninth Age,perhaps early century,3
2 as throughout unlessotherwise indicated. My translation, ns wicnmostoiaer rsiorse ana tnere navebeen tnose poetry, datingis a tierce proDiem, who arguefora laterdate. Klausvon See, forexample,thinks Ynglingatalmayimitate viceversa, as theusualviewhasit) and therefore mustbe from after 980 Hleyfjatal(not of Claus Kragto set thepoem in a (von See 1988: 77-78). More radicalis the attempt whichis, however, high medievalcontext(Krag 1991), an attempt open to criticism (e.g., Andersson1992). About all that can be said is that there is no absolutely to strip thepoem ofitstraditional date. compelling argument
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Scandinavian Studies
of theword for"dwarf' (in anyGerthe oldestdateableattestations . The dwarfs' manic language)andofOld Norse-Icelandic/ptaTmfgiant] is alreadypresent,as is the giants' prowess as the fearof daylight in other ofthesebeings builders oflargestructures; words,thepicture andwithcognatetraditions. As traditions is consistent withmuchlater ofdwarfs, and their thefirst moreor lessdateablepresentation giants, in thehistory someimportance this versedeserves to humans, hostility of Scandinavian folkbelief. It tellsabout The nextstanzaof Ynglingatalisequallyimportant. Sveigoir'sson Vanlandi,whose motherwas Vana fromVanaheimr version oftheroleoftheVanirin (herewe seemto havean alternative Thisunfortunate monthelearned and/orthemythology). prehistory - of a - or moreliterally underthe feet archmethis end at thehands in Scandinavian texts. thefirst attested nightmare,
En vit Vilja brour vittavttr Vantando, kom, ps trollkund Idi sky oftroa Hs frimhildr Ijna baga, oks brann beiSktu mengltur, es mara kvali.
Jnsson 1912-15,vol. 1: 7) (Finnur ofmagic thecreature ofVili[Odin], thebrother arranged (Buttovisit wasto tread when thetroll-related for [witch] Vanlandi, night-Hildr andthat ofthebandofmen; underfoot theenemy necklace-destroyer ofSkta.) onthebank burned the whom strangled, nightmare [king], the Snorri Sturluson In Ynglingasaga,, quotestheverseas evidencefor is name "Finland" the visited Vanlandi geographical story. following here (Sorensen1977: 159-65) used mythically althoughprobably of "Finland"is withSnxr the Old, who as a resident there and stayed married Snaer's Vanlandi There or Saami. a Finn daughter, presumably to keep to Uppsala and failed he returned Drifa.The following spring she After ten within three to come backto Drifa a promise years, years. Norse-Icelandic with shamanic a woman for powers (Old arranged Vanlandibackto Finlandor killhim.Whenshortly to charm seidkona)
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to Finland, hisreVanlandi found himself to return thereafter eager him from thetrip, buthewasridden tainers dissuaded bya nightmare; hishead, sheattacked hislegs, andwhen when themen they protected she attacked his head and killed him. He was then his legs, protected river cremated the banks of the Skta. by in this verse to offer first Likeitspredecessor, attestations, appears troll zn marti as well as the this caseofthewords troll/ [nightmare], first ofa nightmare's ofthevictim, for which the riding description and are used. Here verbstroa [tread] kvelja[strangle] again,the in have shown traditions the verse longevity represented amazing 1993: esp.89-91,297-8). (Raudvere I citethese verses notonly because oftheir chronological primacy ofmy conviction ofthecontinuity ofScandinavian folk andinsupport of but also to demonstrate that from the notions belief, first, very and social boundaries been associated with the have ethnicity supernatural. Both andVanlandi trouble from home, Sveigir gotinto away aswe might the"other" forces were atlarge. where, suspect, Sveigir hadbeento Turkey andScythia before inthe thedwarf encountering tracks fell in in uncharted ofeastern and Vanlandi love Sweden, fatally in which its strict sense here means "Finland," geographical presumably andisinany caselocated north of thelandoftheSaamis conceptually The farm at Steint hadhuman but inhabitants, Uppsala. presumably far it alsohadsupernatural from conones,andthey being Uppsala, - itself trolled thefeature of thelandscape witha strong obviously - for which thefarm wasknown.4 The "Finsupernatural component land"ofthis narrative for there thebeings early goesa stepfurther, themselves areendowed with ofmagic. dangerous supernatural powers The nightmare who attacked Vanlandi mayhavebeenthesorceress oritmay havebeencalled employed bythe"Finns," up bythesorcercasethe"Finns" aretheoutsiders andthedangerous ess,butineither ones. In fact, the "Finns," withmagical imbued are stock powers, ofOld Norse-Icelandic literature. thebestknown are figures Perhaps theonesdispatched from to Iceland magically Norway byIngimundr orsteinsson theOld,tolookfor hisFreyr idolandingeneral check the of the in the tale is known and land; lay kings'saga,family saga, LandnAmabk. Thelegaloathknown as theTryggaml one consigns
4Although dwarfs left folk belief at a very a few apparently early period, placenames indicate their in thepreliterary clearly presence period(de Boor 1924: 544, 552; Halvorsen 1958:378).
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ofan exilewherever: Christians visit a settlement to thelife who breaks - and churchesand pagans hold sacrifices, beyondpine and firtree law The older Borgarthing beyondwherethe "Finn" standson ski.5 areundertaken forthe to the"Finns"or to Finnmark thattrips implies purpose of prophecyor even necromancy("iEldre Borgarthings1846-95, vol. 1: 350-1) andflatly prohibits christenret,"inKeyseretal. in Keyseret al. beliefin "Finns" ("EldrcEidsivathings-christenret," 1846-95, vol. 1: 389-90,403). send their victims on routesof The two stanzaswe have discussed theViking travel well-known Age: toAsiaMinorandbacktosome during to andto thenorth ofeastern SwedeninthecaseofSveigir; remote part wereexploited fortradeand in Vanlandi'scase. Both routes Finnmark met and perhapsalso forplunder,and on each of themthe traders and cultural idendifferent with of interacted race, ethnicity, very people in the who that the two We surmise perished early Yngling kings tity. may with less have met different described fates, might ways just supernatural south(as did FJQlnir had they traveled overt intervention, supernatural would have met persons where or the tipsy non-swimmer) west, they customs far own and like their Germanic following languages speaking is well established fact of interaction as it the Be that may, moreliketheirs. abilities to for theViking supernatural Age,andpeopletendedto ascribe thecompassrose(on whichsee To complete thosewho weredifferent. western and southern Lindow 1994), letme mention further examples. of NorthAmericatook place When the Greenlandic explorations the encountered theGreenlanders toward theend ofthetenth century, in medieval name who bear the skrdingar indigenouspopulation, texts.Whethertheseparticular Scandinavian skrdingarwere North butthepointisthat Indians orInuitpeopleshasbeendebated, American later refracted as totheGreenland Norsemen, writings, through Icelandic describes themas follows: rauda were Eirikssaga very foreign. they
hgi; peir vru Peir vru svanir mcnnokilliligirokhofluHith,r and Matthias kinnum. okbreiir (eds. Einarl. Sveinsson mjgk eygir Prarson1935: 227)
containa great mostofwhich,however, all thevariants, nearly of the distanceto which the outcastshall be driven.For an manyotherexpressions see Dennis et al. (1980: 184-5). The ofone ofthe morecomplete, Englishtranslation in the sagasis takenup byVogt (1938). versions problemofvariant 5The formula occursin
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hair on their were darkandugly andhadlittle (They complected hadlarge andbroad heads; eyes faces.) they toEiriks theGreenlanders Within a few months, according sagarauda, and frightened the skr&lingar, who later havetraded with, cheated, In theattack, theskrdingar launch a bluebag overthe attack them. them anditsomehow into Norsemen, believing xhztskrlinjjar frightens all sides.Thiswas morethana mere areattacking from subterfuge; theattackers andhismenconclude after thebattle that from Karlsefni I allbuttheoriginal direction were [visions, delusions]. sjnhverfngar is a andwouldadd that themagic wouldagree bag oftheskrdingar like which anopposartifice rather Odin'sspear, paralyzes supernatural with fear when thrown over them. Onceagain, different then, ingarmy is endowed with thesupernatural. ethnicity The sameoccurred later withtheEthiopians, Moors,and other Scandinavians encountered to races them, among foreign Europeans, theMediterranean Sea. Asinthecontinental literathesouth beyond werecalledsimply "blackmen,"butthecolorsemantics ture, they men" : Icelandic OldSwedish make usthink of"blue blamabr, blamap&r. is almost intended to mark an Use ofblarrather than svartr certainly forsvartr wasusedofNordic ethnic difference, peoplewith swarthy the most Harald such famous as,tocite complexions, perhaps example, him Fairhair's sonHlfdan, nicknamed "the Black" todistinguish from hishistorically twin Hlfdan theWhite. Nubrother, undistinguished merous borethis innsparti, borethe nickname, persons justas others nickname "theRed" as a result ofruddy It is certainly complexions. worth that the to the cited above, noting skrdingar, according passage menn werespartir world [menof darkcomplexion]; standards, by these northern whether Indian orEskimo, must be reckoned peoples, relatively pale. inany inoneormore Theblmenn, lived ofthe Black case, Blalnd[ were that of the of Lands] part ordinary geographical knowledge medieval learned here the focus is for the Scandinavians; again, ethnic, BlackSea is calledSvartahaf, not Blatthaf or something similar. As insaints' lives characters andother blmennwcrc literature, European intheappropriate mentioned andifthey were translations, described, wastheir what mattered black skin. for Karlamagnus saga, example, refers atonepoint toa blfnar" somerkolblr sinn lkama ... erengi hlutr varhvtr utantenn okaugu"[whois black as coalon hisbody
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. . . ofwhomno partofthebodywaswhitebuttheteethand eyes];(ed. of Bartholomew saga postola Unger 1860: 54).6 One of the versions "blackerthanpitch"which(I believethisis the a blmar mentions out from a pagan idol. correct pronounin thiscase) has been driven The description goes on.
ogorlegrblamaj>rbiki svartari, Eptir pat feckut or scurpopinu oc illilicty oc svartskeit oc hvassnefiar, sisceggiar harlundlegr sva at toca terhonum, ocsitty haritsvart augun semelldrvarii at sia, ocnausunum orsemafvellandaiarni. Or munninum ocflufufneistar sem honum varo oc brennusteins utsva sem venir ocfararsva logi, for ed. Unger 1874: 763 )7 . . . {Postolasqgur^ clungrocpyrnar. went out fromthe idol, blackerthan blamar a terrible (Thereafter and the beard black and beaked,long-bearded pitch,hardtempered and hideous,the hairblackand so long thatit reachedhis toes, the were to be seen in them,and thereflewsparksout of eyes as iffire flames camelike iron.Fromhismouthand nostrils themlikebubbling . . .) and thorns. like bramble and feathers he had and wings sulphur,
is clearly Here a connection beingmadewithdemonsofhell.In the linkedwith are generally blmenn Icelandicfornaldarsojury however, okberserkir blmenn inthealliterative often ofevil, creatures secular pair ok blmenn once also in thealliterative pair [blackmen and berserks], bannsettar [blackmenand banishedheroes]{Sorla saga sterka, hetjur ed. GuniJnsson inFornaldarsfury 1959,vol.3: 381). Whcnblamenn characteris onlyone oftheir their blackness aredescribed, important of the istics,and those thathave been added point in the direction theidol, thesupernatural. fantastic and,likethedemonexpelledfrom
6 Cf. "Ki / Ne n'unt de blanc ne mais que sul les plus suntneirsque nen est arrement denz" [who aremoreblackthaninkand who arewhiteonlyon the teeth];Chansonde 1973, vol. 2: 149-50. This entry 1934-5; thesepassagesarecitedin Fritzner Roland^11. ofthewordblmaronwhich and possibledevelopment an essayon thesemantics offers I buildhere. 7The is close whichmakesthedemon an Egyptian, textinActa Sanctorum, comparable it: "Tune ostendit like or the source to the Icelandic to very something represent enough facieacutocum barbaprolixa;crines eisingentem usque ruligine, nigriorem ^Egyptium, ex ore ejus, et naribus scintillas ad pedes,culos gneossicutferrum emittens; ignitum, erat vinctusa tergo fiammasulphurea:habens alas spineas,sicut strix, egrediebatur 5: 37). [Then (the angel) strictus" catenis Augusti {Acta Sanctorum: manus,ignitis thansoot, witha pointedfacewitha blacker revealedto theman enormousEgyptian, luxuriant eyeslike molteniron,givingoff beard; his hairall the way to his feet,fiery like flame. camea sulpherous out ofhismouthand nostrils wings, Havingthorny sparks; in fiery an owl, his handwas bound byhis back,drawntight shackles.]
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is described svartr ok digr bldmabr as "furuliga One wrestling strr, hann black andstout as atlluvar semnaut; mtligr" big, [Frightfully in everything]; in a bull;he was powerful (Hjalmps saga oklvis, ed. GuniJnsson 1959,vol.4: 227). In Srlasaget Fornaldarsgur, andhismencatch ofa wholebandofblmenn. a prince sterka, sight
storiiok I pessu bili sj peir tlfrnenn stefna mtisr,forkunnar lka orummennskummnnum. Svartir vru par ok illiligir ekkert har h'fi, brynnar henguallt nefnir,augun syndum, en tennrnar semkaltjrn. (Fornaldarsgury ed. Guni sem ketti, ful
vol.3:371) Jnsson 1959, moment seetwelve men toward that them, (At they turning extremely in human black andugly and unlike other They large beings. were to hadnohair on their their brows down heads, appearance, hung their were asina cat, and their teeth were like their noses, eyes yellow cold iron.) inthis Thekey isthat the blmennwcrc notlike other phrase passage human Theterm usedhere for human mennskir menn, beings. beings, isregularly andlogically mmn whoarenot against juxtaposed [people] some ofthis and mennskir[humzn] (seeHaugen1967for implications in other similar words thosewho havehuman distinctions); against form butarenothuman, The following namely supernatural beings. makes itclear that bldmcnnm the were indeed passage fornaldarsgur berserks andcloser to supernatural than to humans. beings
Hrlfr nef ja stupp ok malti: aEk skal pr mt, blmar." Hrlfrbj sik til fltmu alllettilid.San rastpeir ok takast ok var peira atganga b&ib'r ok long. fangbrgum aUsterkliga, Mikillvar aflsmunr meopeim,pvi at bldmarinn mattibera Hrlf er hann vildi. Berserkrinn vildifar Hrlfpd nir. fangi sir, hvert Hann komp jafnan ftumundir sik.Pessiblmarvar mikillsem at risi,en digr sem naut, blr sem hei. KUr hafi hann svd miklar, par vdru lkari gammsklmen mannanglum. (Sturlaugs saga
inFornaldarsgur, ed.Guni vol.3: 126-7) Jnsson 1959, starfsamma, stoodup and said:"I willfight with man" (Hrlfr nefja you,black Hrlfr himself fora wrestling match. [blmar]. prepared quickly Then they cameto grips and started and their wrestling fiercely, wasboth hard andlong.Great wasthedifference instrength struggle between forthe blackmancould carry in his grasp Hrlfr them, wherever hewished. The berserk wanted tothrow Hrlfr down then, buthealways his feet under himself. This black man was as bigas got
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Scandinavian Studies a giant, asstout as a bull, andblack asHel. He hadclaws so large, that were more liketheclaws ofa griffin than a man'snails.) they
Hrlfr has onlyone opponent,a berserkblamadr, or perhapswe In anycase, note particularly should say a blackberserk. the similies thismighty blmar. he hascharacteristics of used to describe wrestling a supernatural naturebeing and of an animal,and his blacknessis interms ofa mythological withdeath.Even presented beingassociated ofblackmenwiththe thechoiceofan animalpointstowarda mixture in Old sincebullsfrequently havesupernatural affinities supernatural, in Eyrbyggja One exampleis Glaesir Icelandictradition. saga, ch. 63; who was descendedfroma cow thatlickedthe ashes of a revenant and fromsome mysterious burnedto stop his haunting dapple-grey is identified as a trollbya blindwomanwithsecond bull,thiscreature roddr. goresand killshis master sightand ultimately of the supernatural to blackshad Now, some of thistransference on which Old alreadyoccurredin the European medievalliterature drew. The passage fromthe Chansonde Roland I Norse-Icelandic to the blacksas a contredite above beginsbyreferring mentioned gent [cursed race] and impliesthat theyare devilsin the serviceof the withtheassignment ofthecolorblack We areallfamiliar Saracenarmy. - one inlater and folk belief to Satanand hisminions populartheology in legendas and ofsuchmotifs thinks iconography equallyofreligious had of a blackdog- and thisassignment Satan in theform obviously occurredby the Middle Ages. African blacks,Moors, and Saracens cataand were lateraccordingly were the enemiesof the crusaders anddemons, as enemies ofChristianity; Scandinavia loguedinmedieval The line betweenthe supernatural too, wereenemiesof Christianity. to different enemiesmust have been difficult and merely ethnically to keep. drawand difficult detail.Alone morelinguistic In thislight, it is worthconsidering and not African blacks werecalledblamenn I am convinced that though ethnic a needfor ofethnicity, becauseofnotions menn spartir specifically as bla-also functioned theOld Norse-Icelandic definition, simply prefix insuchwordsas blfastr[vcry an intensifier strong], bldjp[bottomless The lexicographer [thick, deep forests]. depthin thesea], and blaskqgar showthe twowords that thelatter Fritzner Johan (and others? ) imagined ofthe ofthemurky us to think linkwiththecolorand invited expanses willalsothink Schwarzwald 1973,vol. 1: 151-2) - we ofcourse (Fritzner in blfastr, at theprefix ofthedeep bluesea- butJande Vriesregarded
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for"blue"of questionable as a homonym least, etymology, perhaps this "blow"(de Vries 1962: 41, 46). Perhaps related to English parethnic "other" blamarm Icelandic move from term the ticular helped theprefix isjust"blue,"andit to berserk. Alternatively, really perhaps blmenn. sense from theberserk itsintensifying acquired animal characteristics as blmennwc met above hadsuch Twoofthe andclaws like a griffin; thestout frame ofa bull, like those ofa cat, eyes inshort, ofanimal with theusualhuman features. there wasa mixture ethnic a different another Similarly, prefix joinswiththisconcept mixconsidered: wasa manbeast we havealready zfinngdlkn group in meant is for it is found this ture. anybody's guess, only Whztjjflkn of uncertain and in thepoetichapaxlegomenon term hreinglkn, "troll" 1959). Finngalkn (Bugge1895,Halvorsen meaning, perhaps totranslate "centaur" andtherewasusedintheIcelandic Physiolojjus andastrological which alsofor theconstellation fore signSagittarius, themythical centaur. The salient wassaidto haveincorporated point themixing offorms, for the seems to be simply fornaldarsjjur present suchas Vargeisa, a beingwiththerump, various bizarre mixtures, and maneof a horse, and thewhite and hoofs, largemouth, eyes, a with whom hands of creature, threatening anthropomorphic powerful verses ok lvis^ exchanged (Hjlmpssaga inFornaldarsur^ Hjlmjrr ed. GuniJnsson 1959,vol.4: 198-202,here198), or theogress "whenshe was amonghumans," the mother of calledGrimhildr she oneofrvar-Oddr's when enemies; many gmundr Ey]?jfsbani, animal form belowthehead,with became a finngalkn, sheacquired and an claws enormous tail rvar-Odds ( large saga,in terrifyingly ed. Guni Jnsson 1959,vol.2: 282-3). The notion Fornaldarsgur, to have been sufficiently forlfr of mixture widespread appears author ofthe Third Prarson Grammatical to hvtaskld, Treatise^ the term alknat with as (from [nixie]) finny along nykrat nykr employ a native of (ed. category cacemphaton^ incongruence metaphorical likefinnglkn, thefirst BjrnM. Olsen 1884: 80).8In compounds canonly betheethnic name ofSaamis andFinns, here with component reference to magicand shape The connection with the -changing. "other" isperhaps further the location strengthened by ofthefinnglkn
withthatofhisuncleSnorri who in the Sturluson, compared in a slightly to "Httatal"in his Edda discussedthe nykrat different commentary style 1931 : 217-8; cf.Clunies Jnsson wayand did notuse thetcrmfinnjjlknat (ed. Finnur Ross 1987: 76-7). 8lfr'sremark shouldbe
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in chapter119 of Njls saga, someslainbytorkellhkrPorgeirsson eastof Sweden. whereon themysterious Vikingtrails and unusual mixeswould be This discussionof prefixes, suffixes, withoutmentionof the Old Norwegianname Blfinnr, incomplete betweenNorwayand forth theboundary foundin a documentsetting mellem Sweden duringthe laterthirteenth century ("Grsenkseskjel 1846-95, vol. 3: 487-91, esp.491). NorgeogSverige,"inKeyseretal. wasjust whenChristianity The passagein questionis setin iliotempore, and provintheestablishment ofa remote and itrelates parish arriving, cial boundary. Althoughit seemsprobablethatan originlegend lies Saami after in thetextis no morethana peripheral behindit,Blfinnr whom a certain significant probably pond was named.It is, however, in thearea, Christian withtheopponentofthefirst thathe is associated and his connectionwiththe lake suggeststhathe and his race were most ofpossibilities, Be thatas it may,thenameis redolent primeval. and boundariesnot beof theminvolving magic,the supernatural, but betweenraces. tweendistricts wondrous landswith Scandinavians Whenmedieval peopleddistant not onlythe lead of beingsand strangebeasts,theywere following in Europe but also theirown worldview, learnedwriters everywhere which knew that "other" beings lurkedin the woods and streams whenmedievalScandiof thefarm. Similarly, beyondthe boundaries naviansassignedsupernatural powers to other races and imagined some of them to be of mixed animal and human form,theywere - their - andsimultaneously worldview,inthis (re-)creating following The lastdecadeshaveseena newrealizato ethnicity. casewithrespect of social tion of the way in which social groups create definitions to those outvarious"emblemsof contrast" boundaries byassigning side theirown group; here I thinkof the work of such scholarsas Fredrik Barth(1969) and Georgede Vos (1982). The pointis not the theneed to construct butrather ofcontrast oftheseemblems veracity betweeninsideand outside,us to marka contrast themand thereby - perhaps ofanygroupautomatically and them.The existence implies is a forsuch definition of one or moreothers, requires theexistence boundaries ofmarking matter of contrast, (Schwartz1982). Whether or in more collective occursin individual such marking psychology it can be expectedto appearin folklore. cultural expression, can and do also markoff Besides marking groups,such attitudes themainstream themselves The emblems as deviants. individuals change:
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for themost disdained cultural forms from ofyesterday's campus, part, todo so today invites a charge ofracism; theEuropean outside canon; circles it is certainly moreostracizing to be and in university today In Scandinavia, homosexual. togeneralize than however, homophobic remained more orlessthesame from theMiddle theemblems broadly, recent The ethnic are down into times. attributions Ages fairly directly in Saamis the Scandinavian of seenmost clearly peoples'conceptions whoretained unbroken their over andFinns, power magic (Tillhagen of various kinds. could carried out witchcraft 1969).They typical They like the who trod Vanlandi a trait still travel magically, nightmare in with could share tradition They they legend particularly giants. as those themselves intoanimals and functioned change frequently classic man-animal werwolves andman-bears. Their connecmixtures, in thelegends in which is perhaps further shown tionwithanimals Saamis andFinns ridthecountryside ofsuchpests as rats andsnakes. of this "emblem" doubtless were with Although portions empirical, and there were shamanism attheir over core, although surely changes is the time, stabilityapparent. The more rural traditional no longer hadmuch recent to legendry and black still about Inuit but it Africans, assigned say supernatural ofsuchsocial as were athand, andnot totheemblems powers groups Finns: and turn with Saamis and tinkers Gypsies up occasionally just as well. And note further that of the magic powers personifications those who the to were a plague brought plague, according legend womanor a boyand girlfrom someunspecified outside the place - "Finns," district Whenhe wasnotdisguised as a too,occasionally. black Satan often took the form of a and other dog, strange gentleman, served Satanandmoregenerally evilbyfiddling at endless strangers and so forth. Attribution of to is dances, supernatural powers strangers so obvious andsowell known within theolder world view that ithardly needsdetailing here.9 What isstriking aboutthese emblems ofcontrast to other assigned in and to Nordic tradition is how restrangers groups closely they semble attributes ofsupernatural It will be recalled that the beings. very first dateable instances inScandinaofsupernatural ostensibly beings andnightmare ofPjlfr's were located via,thedwarf Ynglingcttal, onthe onehand within the unsettled eastern of Sweden and onthe part
9 See further the smallanthropological literature on thefigure of the stranger, particuinAfrica larly (e.g., Simmel1908, Schulz 1966, Fortes1975, Shackand Skinner 1979).
20
Moregenerally, with Finns or Saamis. other supernatural specifically inmedieval recent control ormore whether recordings, magic, beings, andaredangerous mix animal andhuman their canchange form, shape, the rules. IsVanlandi inuncontrolled situations oroutside if encountered intradition who becomes from a manin a later rural anydifferent Thefollowing for this andpays volved with an"other" transgression? girl inGunnar for other reasons twolegends, Granberg's study juxtaposed to willserve forest Scandinavian thecentral ofthe skofsry nymph, thematter. exemplify
kva'llafter Skogsrahadeftt maktma' en kar. Han geek at skogen karer kvll.Han va finad mager.Men sa engang sa hade en hoper nur den tia bleatt han skulle halla hnm, sammangaddasej skulle han ble Skogsraropa,menhan kominte.D komho n'rmre. iva'g. Da en nne att bet sa han totalt vriden, tugga fragge. tog geck ut a Men straxkomdflera skogsrir 'tter henne. skt fram toghenne
born Petter Anders 1855, Svensson, (Reported by ivgteskogen. drog in 1935: from Vrmland; 245) Eskilster, printed Granberg had gotten powerovera man.He wentto theforest (The skogsr Butthen andhadlostweight. He was tormented after night. night when the to holdon to him ofmenhadgathered a bunch onenight called The skogsr be off. that he should time arrived out,buthe did And he went moreclosely. not come out. Then she approached at themouth. and that he was so foaming biting crazy, completely more Someonewentout and shotat her.But thenimmediately herback intotheforest.) cameoutanddragged skogsrn
somboddei Torna H'llestad. sa en dag Det var en kopparslagare eft dar hadehan trffat hadehanngttgenom drnere, Prstaskogen hade di sen Men nur henne. med en, tr'ffte fruntimmer haftberring rentursinnig han blivit (Reportedby drefter. galen, han dogkort
inGranberg in 1853,from born PalPersson, Skne; Silvkra, printed 1935:245)
Andoneday Hllestad. atTorna wholived wasa coppersmith (There andhehad down theforest hehadgonethrough there, Prstaskogen methim her.Butwhenthey with meta ladyandhadsomecontact andhedieda short andcrazy, outofhismind hehadgonequite later, time thereafter.) and streams, the rivers and forests, By populatingthe mountains andthedayslongago withsupernatural farms eventhelandundertheir to themthe same emblemsof contrast they beingsand by assigning human to the theyencounstrangers groupsand individual assigned
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andcategories other socialgroups I submit that tered, peoplecreated about the usedtothink inthe same terms them andthought about they Let us makeno ethnic we wouldterm other outside groups. groups an empirical aboutthispoint:supernatural mistake beings enjoyed - more - wecanonly real about this andwere existence guess probably or the Kingof or Bushmen to many say,Hottentots peoplethan, ofsuch thesupernatural wouldhavebeen.Similarly, aspects England individuandofsuch andFinns asSaamis ethnic disadvantaged groups demonstrated. were alsoempirically ofwitchcraft accused alsas those "natural" between on which weinsist, thedistinction In other words, wasnotterribly and"supernatural," or"human" and"supernatural," we fixed stable ofScandinavian intherelatively (here system important view. Whatmatworld couldprobably say"European") justas easily between one's own was the primary distinction tered, apparently, for ofthat Thoseon theoutside, outside andeverything group. group be marked andthat difference were whatever reason, different, might orso I would ofcontrast, ofany oftheemblems through application thetwo one oftheexamples Thus,to repeat justcitedabove, argue. - and to thedistrict who carried theplaguewerestrangers children a coilof andappear alsobe shape as,say, initially changers they might and Sehmsdorf 1988: 348). rope(Kvideland of lineofthought is a breakdown ofthis The logical consequence Such a breakbetween ethnic andsupernatural thedistinction beings. half Koht downwasin fact unwittingly, byHalvdan argued, perhaps himself tothequestion ofthe"Finn-problem" ( 1923).10 Addressing theterm Finninolder ofthose denoted with theethnicity Norwegian - Kohtarguedthatthe referent of the term was neither materials in twosenses: nor"Finn"ofany butrather "troll," "Saami," variety, asmaster builder. Forthelatter sense asmaster ofmagic, andtroll troll Scandinavian masterbuilders of he relied, ofcourse, on thesouthern classified as theFinntype thesort (1907-8). byvonSydow ourselves orscepWhether we find byKoht's reasoning persuaded tical aboutit,we must theneedto exercise carein reading recognize inwhich andunderstanding folk ethnic narratives, legends, especially In a review terms occur. ofKvideland andSehmsdorf 1988 af ( ), Bengt makes this with to thegypsies: theapparently Klintberg point respect termtatre, he points AdamHeymowski ethnic out,citing (1969),
10Anna Rooth (1969) adduces materials thataim in thisdirection but never Birgitta makesthepointexplicit.
22
to theethnic "does notrefer (Rom), butto a category groupofGypsies oftheBritish Isles" to thetinkers ofstigmatized itinerants, comparable 1990: 233). (af Klintberg Let me summarize myargument up to thispoint. I have founda in Scandinavian world view, traceableto the earliest basic stability in in theoldertraditional rural written texts and still legendry, present I havethenargued to ethnic others. is assigned whichthesupernatural social groups that the supernatural beings of folkbeliefconstitute of and marked withthesameemblems created participants bytradition suchgroups? itself: create A question contrast. why immediately presents butit ofidentity, This questiongoes to theheartofanyconsideration is so vast that I cannot take it up in any detail here. I findmyself that with the variousfunctionalist satisfied explanations reasonably in LauriHonko's oftfor as exemplified, havebeenputforth, example, and FolkBeliefs" on "Memorates citedarticle ( 1964) and workofthat factors thehistorical But I would ofcourserecognize nature. attaching withChristian involved to such groupsas demonsand others directly forchangein anymodel. In on provision and I would insist doctrine, inwhichI haveembedded structure withthetheoretical line,however, up to now, I would liketo suggestthatwholesalecremyargument suchas supernatural of"other"groups, ationand maintenance beings, a means forthe "inside" social group,i.e., thatgroup comoffered In otherwords,I to defineitself. participants, posed of the tradition have been can hardly believethatthe emblemsassignedto outsiders be in time,and theycan presumably persistence arbitrary, giventheir of their to tellus something turnedbackon thetradition participants what is ascribedto the other may be the own view of themselves; reviewof the obverseof what one would ascribeto oneself.A brief viewofitself. a senseofthesociety's shouldprovide reversed, emblems, versionof such a review, a curtailed I will attempt In what follows, takingup onlythe broadestand most evidentof the emblems.The but I not escape the realm of generalization, reviewwill therefore the fora first believethatsucha broadviewis reasonable pass through similarinotonlyofthestriking on thegrounds andjustifiable material ties from throughout Scandinavia geographically, but also chronologically. but giventhe examplesalready The reviewmightstart anywhere, "Others"canchange with we might mentioned, shape-changing. begin human theirshape; "we" cannot. Alteredshape, or the corollary,
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23
bodies where theyshould not be, alwaysindicatetrouble,such as or an impending with the supernatural, illicitinteraction haunting, death.If wechangeshapeor cause someone else to do so, perhapsby and become "other." our humanrights we forfeit movinghis fetch, That, I believe, is the explanationfor the followinglegend from A girlis on her translated sterbotten, byKvidelandand Sehmsdorf. wayto a dance. shecameto a thedance wasbeing shegotclosetowhere When held, a manroseto the downintothewater, thegirl stared creek. While andtheman She tooktheknife andhanded hera bigknife. surface atsea at himatonce;itwasa manwhowasaway vanished. Sheknew thetime. andmarried thegirl. One dayhe themanreturned A few later, years whether she had saw theknife, it, and askedhis wife recognized howshehad him sheadmitted that tormented night longago.When and hestabbed her todeath. that theknife (Kvideland evening, gotten Sehmsdorf 1988:45) which the girltook on an emblemof contrast, By movinghis fetch, and stripped herof herin-groupand thein-group removedherfrom humanrights. beingsmaybe able to change theirshapes,but they Supernatural otherness. This can take often retain some fundamental aspectoftheir such one is some animal but a characteristic, very typical manyforms, or othernaturebeing. Perhaps,I have as a cow's tail on a skogsrci status ofsomefarm animals. themarginal thismarks Theyare thought, some of somehowpartof the household; theylive about the farm, in thelivelilikehouses;theyareimportant factors themin structures and sharein thegood and bad times;and some even hood ofthefarm to be exploitedand in some bear names.And stilltheyare property theanimal features of for food.It shouldbe notedthat casesslaughtered in the be rural tend to those of household beings legendry supernatural a surmise thatpeople asThis maysupport not wild animals. animals, an to supernatural as of unconscious cribedanimalfeatures beings part if the household animals from to distance themselves;supernatuattempt notpartof ofsuchanimals, and arebydefinition ralbeings havefeatures neither aretheanimals. thegroup, herholtheothermajorcharacteristic oftheskojjsr, Interestingly, in itstotality another kindof liminality. The more low back,suggests southerly conceptionassignsher a back like a kneadingtrough,the
24
in a back like a rottenor hollowed out tree trunk, more northerly eastern Nylandlikethatof the simplewood scoop used to muckout of the treesthatconstitute the major stables.All are processedforms for domestwoprocessed byhumanculture stapleofherenvironment, havebecome difficult to classify The trees ticuse, theotherbynature. constitute matter and therefore wrongly placed,to use theformulation and muckrake, ofMaryDouglas ( 1984); thekneading trough byvirtue look like neededto fashion thesetools,still oftheminimal preparation within thehousehold;and thesecondisneither butthey function trees, systemsuggestedhere livingnor dead. In short,the dassificatory with withthe "other"and is consistent theliminal involves assigning above. theworldviewI sketched briefly marked and set off Human lifewas linearand dividedinto ritually atconfirmation), childhood young departed (entered bybaptism, stages: The supernatural deathand funeral. status, adulthood,married finally caneven tountold these cansubvert ages,andthey stages, byliving beings wouldmanagebothifhe was an old A typical invert changeling linearity. is anything to thelineof manplaying theroleofa humanbaby.Ifthere these aspectsof the supernatural beings reasoningI am following, of and perhapsacceptanceof the irreversibility indicatean awareness timeand thehumanlifecycle.In effect, theyadvocatethe usual path not wishto act their on personswho might and exert age. pressure ofhumansto thisas a willingness we might More generally, express a groupof a willingness be ruledbynature, bycreating they expressed in most ways,who rule over nature. beings,inimicalto themselves centuries haveall for life markers ofthelinear However,theritual cycle of the Christian been the property Church,and the Churchhas not Before the become a focal point for group definition. surprisingly with Saamishamanism to Christianity, conversion mayhavecontrasted it certainly of the Nordicpeoples; afterwards forms the religious did, rural for deal ofopportunity cannothavebeena great butthere peoples non-Christians. in northern Europe to encounter anywhere makeit abunand legendtradition Nordicfolkbelief Nevertheless, of fundamental was a clear that self-definition, part religion dantly are sharedbyallthesupernatural sincetheone thing beingsis thatthey The nkklongsforsalvation not quite right (ML 5050)11, religiously. hisidentity thathe speaksand reveals is so thrilled and thechangeling
11 1958. Christiansen numbers used herearefrom The types
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on thewayto beingbaptized(ML 5085). The huldre people seem to but theircreed is not standard;a few have churchesand ministers, thetheological detailsthatcause variation to present legendspurport but The dead holda midnight Lutheranism from service, (ML 505 5 ).12 to humans(ML 4015). Wherethisattiand inimical it is threatening and thiswas so throughout tude was mostvisible, however, Europe, to these, one might beliefs. wasin thecomplexofwitchcraft According laws and- moreimportant obtainthe kindof powersovernatural that were also fromtime to time over one's neighbors'property, suchas Saamisand Finns,byentering to otherethnic ascribed groups, intoa pactwithSatan.The detailsof thesepactsarewell known(see, all reston a repuWikman1960), and, despitevariation, forexample, of Christianity. diationand reversal in much of the medievalmaterial, Althoughit may be implicit in the Christianity, kings'sagasand attendant pttir, especially perhaps ofgivensects,does not rankamong and especially theappropriateness in the oldestwritten of the emblemsof contrast the mostembracing could be an records. easily made and defended By contrast, argument ofcontrast istheforemost oftheemblems thatChristianity to theeffect collected materials oftherural inthemorerecently peasantry. Whythis kind and indeedone particular thatChristianity, difference? It implies time of too at the ofChristianity, early day(not practiced exactly right role forexample),had come to playan increasing Christmas morning, verifidefinition of themselves. in thetradition Although participants' a simpleanswerto a complex cationcannotbe obtained,and it offers we should look to the question,I am temptedto wonderwhether as a clue to the primacyof of the Reformation effects wrenching in in other the traditional the legendry. Surely supernatural religion musthave called into questionall sortsof previously thismajorshift Ifbishops ofpersons and events. facets oftheclassification unassailable who iwxreligiously correct andwho was not?Ifthe could be executed, into the body of Christ, could any hostwas after all nottransformed Kathleen or occur within of substance Christianity? changes shape in a recentarticle the role of ReformaStokker demonstrated (1989) insomelegends, informulating theimageoftheminister tiontheology to compre shift makes it easier and an unsettling religious generally
12 Given thealmost total oflegends on this onemay reasonably question paucity topic, Christiansen's ofa type. postulation
26
in natureoftheminister and often hendthecomplexity contradictory Nordic folkbelief,even acceptingthat the pre-Reformation priest mustalso have been a liminal figure.13 ofsocialgroupswould be complete ofthemarking No examination This of groupto individual. of therelationship without consideration of solitary it seemsto me, bytheexistence is highlighted, relationship beings,those who live outside of and perhapswithout supernatural as an exampleof We maytake the skqgsrn of families. recognition live in families, despite the beings; theydo not apparently solitary offtheirfellow of some of themto come out and carry willingness to the devotesa short citedabove. Granberg chapter beingas inthetext in Swedish-language areas and cites natureof the skqgsrn solitary to support it (1935: 74-6). Duty compelsme to add recordings many womenin Denmarkand Germany us oftheforest thathe also reminds Such a concepthanindividually. rather who tendto occurin groups, life: is no family thesolitary, forthere also tendstoward tion,however, arealways or grandparents. no spouses,children, Indeed, theskcysrn female,except in the areas where theyare alwaysmale, a situation is also evidently Solitariness lifequiteunthinkable. whichmakesfamily laidatthedoor of,for ofwitchcraft one oftherootsofcharges example, Therewe havea thesocially widowsand widowers, odd, and so forth. This to "other"and,therefore, from supernatural. solitary simpleshift lifeis basic distinction then,the obvious value thatfamily expresses, of life is bad, as wellas theimportance from family good and deviation and other within a clearand unambiguous kinship systems placement socialstructures. life.Theyarewouldnormalfamily attack And in facttheskqgsrn men into to seduce married who not onlyattempt be homewreckers little cakesto themin thewoods in the butwho evenbring infidelity, wives. immodest, givento suchlascivious Theyarewholly guiseoftheir Whatis breasts. and pullingmen to their their skirts as lifting displays One legend sexualaggression. more,theyare quite open about their
131 at whichthiskindof speculation admitthelevelof generalization operates, readily to seemsgreater, thattheroleofChristianity butI cannotforbear addingmyimpression lands of of the Reformation order,in the legendry my eye, or at least of a different Scandinaviaand Germanythan in Catholic Europe. Perhaps work undertakenby us on this willbe able to enlighten withotherEuropeantraditions morefamiliar persons point.
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turnson a postcoitum Swedishdistribution southern witha largely and a human: exchangebetweena skogsm meat. Christian time I've tasted She:That'sthefirst theDevil. time I've screwed He: That'sthefirst variant ofcomplete translation 1935: 244-5; English (Granberg inLindow 1978: 113-4) anddiscussion text extricates withfire, of fire a kindof fighting The man's quick retort, find otherwise inwhichhe would bad situation himfrom theobviously himself. was ofsexualimpulses thatcontrol Thisparticular complexsuggests of thatis, as the form as the "human"wayof doing things, regarded sanctionedby the in-group.Animalsand superbehaviorculturally to do so who failed and humans natural beingsshowno suchrestraint, as in towardthe supernatural, shifted would be, likesolitary witches, ofwhoresand characteristics in theevileyeor otherharmful thebelief in Frykman's ofthewhorein ofloose morals(as setforth others study rural Scandinavia [1977: 25-54]). People sang hymnsin churchand Finally,music and virtuosity. musicabounded. athome,andinstrumental balladsandother folksongs on a musicalinstruincredible As is well known,however, virtuosity The mostgifted ofSatanand somewater was theproperty ment spirits. theseagents.Here from to somebeliefs, obtainedit,according humans itwith theunusualand conflates selects against identity again,cultural thesupernatural (cf.von Sydow 1973). whichobviously could havegone on indefithesurvey, So muchfor it withthetradition, to thosefamiliar Ifitcontains fewsurprises nitely. othersin whatit leavesout. If the emblemsof contrast maysurprise we mustconcludethat ofcultural as symbols indeedfiinction identity, of intellectual discourseof the last century, two of the majorfactors were apparently not much of an issue. I cannotsee classand gender, that the supernatural beings or ethnicothersof Scandinavianrural theirsocial class or a class or folkbeliefhighlighted legend tradition in genderroles.This is not to interest or showedanyparticular system were not at issue. As Bengt Holbek verified say that these matters to fairy tales.How thencould they wereprobably central ( 1987), they The reasoningfollowed be so absentfromthe emblemsof identity? thatcrofters and peasants, and househerewould suggest daylaborers intheir moreincommonthanin contrast. found situations wives, Only
28
form ofthefairy talecould they in thepsychologically moreexpressive their differences. ventilate from Giventheevident different, prejudice against anything prodiand a disinterest in to prodigious musicaltalent, gioussexualappetites to our own postmodern some of thematters thatseem mostpressing I am thatbrains appearto be rewarded. eyes,it mayappearsurprising of the almost total statement led to this beings inability supernatural by tradition. Satan overhumansin narrative sortto triumph ofwhatever if small of he had even a is continuously percentage beingoutwitted; to Hell would be crowded in the road thesoulshe nearly gets legends, ofthebunch.Naturebeingsare,one indeed,and Satanis thecleverest them is any legend must admit,downright stupid,and outwitting sometimes enters intotheplot, In fact, luck hero'sbirthright. although therules', adversaries one outwits byknowing byknowing supernatural as steeland the cross, thepowerover"other"beingsof suchsymbols or other by knowingthatsuch beingscannot crossplowed furrows - likethe man who areasthaterectsymbolic barricades, byknowing above- how to sex in thelegendmentioned dabbled in supernatural in legendofthe words,thestandard pattern getthelastword.In other of and restoration of thethreat theelimination of conflict, resolution ofthevaluesofthe a celebration ofa knowledge thestatus quo, is itself it off from the "other." meansof marking and a further culture of from thissurvey Scandinavia The viewthathas emergedofrural to otherethnicgroups, attributed some of the emblemsof contrast or espemembers of the cultureitself, or threatening disadvantaged and can ofnature, is hardly owners to thesupernatural surprising cially ofothersources.Whathas made thegame be readout ofanynumber thatin viewingthe worththe candle,or so I hope, is the possibility in thisperhaps Scandinavia ofolderrural "other"and thesupernatural of whatthemembers lightwe havehad a chanceto glimpse flickering and found to definethemselves constructed the culturethemselves fora in some cases,perhaps, in tradition, enough to retain important thousandyears.
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omapostlernes . 1874. Postolasqgur:Legendariske Hv,deres kampfor fort&llinger samt deres martyrd0d: kristendommens udbredelse, Efieramie haandskrifter. B. M. Bentzen. Christiania: Vogt, WaltherHeinrich. 1938. "Zu Tryggamlund Griaml: Ihre Formung in der deutschen zur Geschichte Spracheund Heiarvgasaga und Grettla."Beitrge Leiden: Brill. Wrterbuch. Vries,Jande. 1962. Altnordisches etymologisches tilldjvulen."Fataburen, K Rob. V. 1960. "Frskrivning pp. 193-9. Wikman, Skrifter ver Walter.1939. Studier Akerlund, utg.avVetenskaps-societeten Ynglingatal. i Lund 23. Lund: Ohlson.
Literatur 62: 33-42.

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Supernatural Others and Ethnic Others: A Millenium of World View Author(s): John Lindow Source: Scandinavian Studies, Vol.

Others Supernatural and EthnicOthers: A Millenium ofWorldView

inGranberg in 1853,from born PalPersson, Skne; Silvkra, printed 1935:245)

Literatur 62: 33-42.

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