Visuals For The Language Classroom

for Visuqls Clqssroo theLonguoge
Holeem Wlight ondSofio Andrew
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for Visuals theLanguage Classroom

and AndrewWright SafiaHaleem
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Longman Group UK Limited, Lanqmon House. Burnt .\[ill. Harlû. Esser CJI20 2JE, England and.\ssociated Companies throughout the worLd. PubLishedin the United States of Amertca by Longman Inc., ]iew York O Longman Group UK Limited 1991 AIL rights reserued; no part of thts publication may be reproduced, stored. in a retrieral sJstem,or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechonical, photrcopying, recording, or otherLuise,wtthout the prior untten permission of the Publishers. First published 1991 Third impression 199.1 BRITISH LIBRARY CATAIOGUING I S B N 0 - 5 8 20 4 7 8 1 1 LIBR,\RY OF CONGRESS CATAIOGING IN PUBLICATION DATA Wright, Ardrew, 1937Visuals for the language classroom./Andrew Wright and Safia Haleem. p.cm. - (Longman keys to language teaching) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-582-0.1781-1 : 93.50 1. English language - Study and teaching - Foreigr speakers. 2. Engiish language - Study and teaching - Audio-visual instruction. L Haleem. Safia. IL Title. III. Series. PE1r.28.A2W751991 128'.007 1-dc20 Set in 10/12pt Scantext Century Schoolbook Printed in Nlalaysia by TCP IN PUBLICATION DATA
90-42581 CIP
Contents
Preface Introduction and activities Questions Chalkboard and whiteboard r Characteristics and techruques . Presentationandguidedpractice . Dialogue,role playand drama o Guidedwriting: adaptingastory o Webs a Opencommunicarivepractice o Listenirg o Grammatical explanation o Technicaltips Overhead projector . Characteristics and techniques o Single unprepared transparency a Single prepared transparency o Single hansparency with a water-based pen a TWoormore transparencies o Maskingandrevealing o Technicaltips Flannelboard, magnetboard and adhesive plastic a Characteristics and techniques o Presentationandconnolledpractice o Opencommunicativepractice . Listeningcomprehension and orai retelling I Technicaltips Wallpic tures and wallposters . Characteristics and techniques . P r e s e n t a t i oa nn d g u i d e dp r a c t i c e r Dialogues r lbcabulary a Listeningcomprehension o Freecommunicativepractice r Technicaltips
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5 Pictureflashcards . Characteristics and techniques a Presentation a Practice o Open communicative practice . Technicaltips
50 51
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Wordflashcards . Characteristics and techniques . Presentation . Readingpractice o Writingpractice . Listening o Technicaltips
59 59 59 59
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62 61
7 Workcards and worksheets o Characteristics and techn iques . Controlled reading and writing practice . Controlled and guided oral practice . Dialogue, roleplay and simulation o Information-gapactivities o Matchingactivities a Fleeoralpractice o Freewriting o Technicaltips
65 66 66 70 i2 i6 77 80 82 83
8 Authentic printed ,naterials a Characteristics ano techniques a Newspapers o Publicitymateria.l r Technicaltips
84 85 85 86 91
9 The learning environment . Characteristics and techniques o Lifeintheclassroom o The classroom,its furniture and objects o Theschool r Theschoolneighbourhood "1
93 94 94 98 99
10 Productiontips o Designing . Layout o Pictures . Groupingand readingduection o Lines r Bigandsmall . Colour a Tone . Lettering I Drawing o Coilage . Cutting,stickingand protecting o Displaying
Fr rrfhpr rpadi n o
100 r00 100 102 103

10.1 101 105 106 107 108 109 117 118 119
Preface
f1flHE Longman Keys to Language Teachingserresisintended especially for I the ordinary classroom teacher.The books in this seriesoffer sound, practical, down-to-earth advice on useful techniques and approaches in the modern ELT classroom.Most of the activities suggestedin these books can be adapted and used for almost any class,by any teacher. One of the most important aspectsof language teaching is the role of visual material: the importance of using visual media Lomake one'steaching more effective, communicative and interesting is well-known. However,maly teachers- even experienced teachers - do not exploit the potential ofvisual materials to the full. In addition, deciding which techniques to use,for which languageteaching purposes, is often problematical. ln this book, An&ew Wright and Safia Haleem survey the characteristics of the visual media commonly available to the classroom teacher - from the simple workcard to the chalkboard to the overhead projector (ifwe are lucky enoughio have one). They show how, by appreciating the qualities of the different media, we can develop fresh and dynamic approaches in our classroomsappropriate for our teaching aLms. Like the other books in the KEYS series, hsuals rn the Language Classroomis highly practical. It is full ofinteresting ideas on how to teach different aspects oflanguage using visuals - and how to prepare them without fuss. Whatever we are concernedwith - skills, or languagecontent such as functions, grarnmar or vocabulary - fresh and practical approaches using visuals wili be found in thesepages. The book is alsoprofuselyillustrated - mainly by the authors themselves.The writers show us, by example, how we too can be as proficient as they are, notjust in using, but also in making, our own visual aids. All the pictures in this book - and many others like them - can be produced with a minimum of time, money or skill! NevilleGrant
Introduction Tohelpyouwiththisbook
Visuals
In this book we have included a.llthose visual media which are commonly found in the classroomor are readily available to schoolsand colleges.You will seeby the illustrations in the book that we believe that the teacher and the studentscan make (simple drawings)or find (cutting out of magazrnes, erc.t most of the visuals needed. The only exception to this ready accessibility might be the overheadprojector. What we hope is that the chapter devoted to the overheadprojector will help teacherswho do not have one to make a good casefor having one.
The basis of this book

This book is lrst ofall about the character ofvisual materials aad how the teacher can exploit this character in languageteaching. Appreciating the character of the media we use or which surround us ( seeThe leatning envftonment,Chapter 9) helps us to be more inventive, dynamic and efficient. So often the media of the classroomare used in a limited and dull manner - it is a Iittle bit like speakingwith a very limited number of wordswithout intonation.It is such a pity and it is so unnecessary!
Artistic talent
It is obviously true that some people have a natural gift for being inventive and resourceful when usingvisual materials.However, most of the techniques and examplesgivenin this book havebeenchosen because they requireverlrlittle skill, time or money.Every teachercan do theml And, by the way,we have tended to chooseexamples which are straightforward and in many caseswelltried rather than emphasise the dramatic and eccenDic.
Categoriesof activity
The activities are arranged under broad headings, such as: Presentation(introducing languagenew to the student); Controiled practice (you determine the patterns the students usebut not necessarily what is conveyed l; Guided practice (you determine the general topic and give some guidance on patterns to use); sentence Flee communicative practice (the students make use of all the languageat their command to expresstheir ideas). Obviously the degreeofcontrol will vary in each ofthese stages.Often, too, the four larguage skills - listening, speaking, reading and writing - will be approached in an integrated manner, so that work in one skill area will help work in another.
Mechanical versus meaningful language use

Manipulating languagewith little senseof meaningis of little value to the student. Most ofthe examples have been chosen to show that languagecan be usedfor communicative purposes even at the controlled practice stage.The underlying theme of this book is that, almost automatically, meaningand communication will be built into the English lessonsby usingvisual materials.
Clas swork, gloupwork and pairwork

Lively languageuse for all students in the classdepends on groupwork and pairwork. The bigger the classthe more important this becomes.Many of the activities in this book assume that the class is divided into groups and pairs. Tips on the organisation ofgroupwork are not givenhereas it is well covered in other books in the KeJ:sseriessuch as Effective ClassilIanagementby Mary Underwood and Techniquesfor ClassroomInteraction by Donn By'rne.
Questions and activities
There are many practical examplesof how eachof the media can be usedin eachchapter ofthis book. Furthermore,the sfructure ofeach chapter is similar. For thesereasons, questions suggested and activitiesaregrouped belowrather than at the end ofeach chapter;most ofthe questions and activitieslisted belowcan be applied to any ofthe chaptersofthis book.The readeris invited to considerthem while,or after,readingeachofthe chapters. 1 How would you decidervhetheror not an activity describedin this book is suitablefor you to usewith oneofyour classes? Jot down about five criteria. Ifyou are working through the book with other teachers,compare your five points with theirs.Seeifyou can agreeon a ranking ofimportance. 2 Compareyourlistofcriteriaforassessingthesuitabilityofanactivitywith ours.There car be no fina1'righr'or'wrong'list. Seeifyou find any ofours useful.Ifyou do, add them to your own list. Our Iist: . Preparationtime: if it takesa longtime to prepare,fbr what you get out of it, then don't do it. . Organisation in the classroom: ifit is very difficult to organise in the classroom, then don't do it. . Interest:if it is likely to be uninteresting to the studentsor if you feelyou would be very uncomfortabledoingit, then don't. . AuthenticitJ*: if the activity makesthe studentsusethe language unnaturally.then don't do it. . A lot of language use:if the activitv passes all the abovepoints but thereis not much Ianguage used,then don't do it. 3 Take an exampleof an activity givenin the book, think of oneparticular classofyours ard apply your list ofcriteria to the activity. Ifthe activity 'passes'the c r i t e r i aq u i t ew e l la s kv o u r s e l i f f y o u w i l l a c t u a l l yd o i t . I f t h e answeris 'No', then fry to establlsh what other criteria are preventingyou from doingso.Ifyou can locateand examinetheseother criteria your understandingofyourselfrelatedto the useofvisuals may becomeclearer. 4 Referringto your criteria evolvedin point I above,take any chapterand divide the examplesinto thosewhich are the most suitablefor oneofvour
classesand those which are lesssuitable. Compare your lists with the lists of another teacher (preferably one with similar classes). 5 The examples in each chapter have been chosen to reflect the special qualities of the medium. These special qualities are summarised at the 'Characteristics and techniques'. Select a beginning ofeach chapter under, few examples ofactivihes from the chapter which you think best reflect the characteristics of the medium. Compare your selectionwith the selection of another teacher. 6 Select severalexamples from one chapter and write variafions for them, perhaps for a different ageand proficiency level. You can still retain the generalidea. ? Take someof the special characteristics of one of the media and lry to invent somenew activities. Ifyou are working through the book with other teachers,after five minutes show your ideas to your neighbour. Work together on yours and your neighbour's ideas for ten minutes. Then the two of you join another pair (making four of you) and compile a list of ideas which you can then present to the classas a whole. Note: Most people'sminds go blank when they are asked to think of a new idea. Here aresometips: a It is rare to come acrosssomething which is absolutely new, so don't expect too much of yourselll . Be positive about any idea however trivial it might seemat frst. Get into a positive frame of mind. Note down any idea that comesto mind, however impractical it might seem. o Keep on imagining, using the special characteristics. Try them out in your mind's eye. o Be positive about your neighbour's ideas. Concentrate on the seedsof an idea and ofa possibility rather than looking for what is wrongwith an idea' 8 An extension of point 7 aboveis to actually'play'with the medium' In the act ofhandling a medium and exploring its character you might spot a new use for it. Chalk is dustv. In many ways this is a disadvantage' Can you think of any way, howeverminor, in which you might be able to make positive use Nofe: ofthis dustiness? Nlerely reading this book is not enough: you need to try out the ideas in each chapter-experimentwiththem,assuggestedinactivitiesTand8.Thisbook tries to help by offering lots of examples, and, we hope, by serving as a sourceof inspiration for new or adapted ideas. However, until you dosome ofthe things theywill not really becomeyour own: suggested,
Chatkboard and whiteboard
They are usually black or green, Chalkboardsarefound in most classrooms. cheapto install, easyand cheapto useand very adaptable.Somechalkboards are magnetised a.llowingpictures, word cards, etc. to adhere to the surface if magrets are placed on top of them. Whiteboards are increasingly common though more expensivethan chalkboards. Special pens must be used.Whiteboards are easier to keep clean than chalkboards;a greatervariety of colourscan be usedand imagescan be projected onto the surf'acefrom a projector. The surface is often magnetised and evenifit is not magnetisedit is easierto stick pictures and cardsto the whiteboard surface with sticky tape or adhesive plastic than it is to attach them to a chalkboard.
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Characteristics and techniques

1 2 3 4 5 The wholeclasscan seeit. Texts and pictures can' grow' in front of the class. added to or substitutedquickly. Texts and picturescan be erased, Parts of the boardcan be obscured. Text or pictureson paper or card can be propped againstthe board,stuck to it or hung overit.
6 A white cloth or a sheet of paper can be stuck to the chalkboard or hung over it to act as a projection screen. 7 Severalpeople can work on the board at one time. This chapter now takes a number ofaspects ofthe languageIearning syllabus, for example, tense, sentencepatterns, vocabulary, functions and fluency and indicates how the special characteristics and techniques ofchalkboards and whiteboardscan be exploitedto promote !hem.
Presentation and guided practice tense Thepresent continuous

Characteristics and techniques: drawings can be made to'grow' in front ofthe class. The present continuous tense (when it refers to an action which is occurring at the moment of talking) can be illusuated th-roughthe action of drawing on the board in front ofthe students. You use the present continuous to describe what you are doing as you actually do it rather than when you have done it.
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Step one: (dtawing a line)I'm drawing a line. TEACHER: (drawing another, line 2)l' m dra'u.tng another line (&awing another, line 3) I' m drawing another line. (drawing ano t her, line 4) I' m & awing another line. (indicating the frst few lines of the stickman)What am I drawing? TEACHER: STUDENTj AMAN? TEACHER: Yes, I'm drawing a man. (&awing the line for the second leg and asking the question while drawing)What am I drawing now? A leg. S-TUDENT: TEACHER: What am I drawingnow? etc. And finally. . . What's he cioing?He's running. TEACHER: s-ru DENTS, He's r unnin g. Step two: Ask two students to be secretariesand to write on the board every verb of action the classcan call out in three minutes. Then ask the secretariesto become artists. Ask each artist to chooseone ofthe verbs and to illustrate it. The artists must keep stopping to ask the ciasswhat their drawing represents.
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\l?rat's si he doing? S/he'srunning,'walking,'swimming,etc
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Step three: In pairs studentsdraw on paper and ask eachother the samequestion. Nofes; 1 This activity can be usedto teachor revisethe presentcontinuoustense, and can usefullylead in to the past c0ntinuoustense,as illustratedbelow. 2 For teachers unsureof their drawingability a number of d_rawings of people in action aregivenon page 111113. The past continuous rense: example I Characteristics and techniques: erasinginformation from the board. Ifthe board has beencovered with drawingsas in the exampleabove,then write a name by eachand erasethem oneby one askinga questioneachtime. Leavejust a little bit ofeach drawingas a reminder.The activity challenges the students'ability to rememberall the different actions. Ta.ACHER:(having erasedone drawing)What was Ron doing? Sr(;DFt\-r, He wasplaying football.
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rL{cHER: (having erasedanother drawing) What was Ann doing? SrUDE\r: Shewasjumping. TEACHER: (having erasedanother drawing) What were Ron, Ann and Tom doing? sruDENr: Ron was playing football. Ann was jumping. Tom was diving. The past continuous tense: exanple 2 Characteristics and techniques: a setting can be drawn on the board and large magaz ine pictures (publicity pictures,etc.) can be stuck on the picture in appropriatepositions. with the class. The build-up ofthe picture should be done through discussion Then Use the presentcontinuousto discussthe actionsas they are seen. 'Whowas the students'memories: here? removethe pictures and challenge What was he doing?'
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The simple past tense: example 1 erasingand substitutinginformation. Characteristics and techniques: Draw (or ask a student to draw) a personon the board. lL{c{ER: This is Stan Ross.He is fat and bald and he is verv rich. He's not very happy! (Iha+ving 1)
Erase everything except Stan's head and boots. (Drawing 2) Ask a student to replacethe erasedparts with new drawing. rD{CHER: Stan usedto be thin and he had a lot ofcurly hair. He was poorbut he was really happy. The student then redrawsStan. (Drawine 3)
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The simple past tense: example 2 Characteristics and techniques: erasingand substituting informatron.
Draw (or ask studentsto draw) a map ofthe district you and the studentsare familiarwith. With the help of the studentswrite on the map what the various shops are and any other information which you think important. TEAcHER, sTLDENT, The shopon the corneris an electrician's. The next shopis a shoe repairer's. etc.
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Discusswith the studentstheir earliestmemoriesof the district and change the map accordingly. Consideraskingthe studentsto ask their parentsand grandparents what the district used to be like. 'TEAcHER STL DE\r: The shopon the corner usedto be a clothesshop and the shop next doorwas a flower shop.The next shopwas a chemist's.
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and techniques:stickingpictures on the board and erasingand Characteristics substitutinginformation. Stick six (or more) magazinepictruesof peopleon the board.Join them with Iines which show how they feel about each other. likes --i aaa-a-)
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as: Ask suchquestions r!-A(HER:Who doesSue like? Who likesBob? DoesJohn Iike Edwina? Do John and Florencelike eachother? Are Harry and Flo friends? Erase and redraw some of the connecting Linesand describe and ask questions about the relationshipsas they usedto be. Who did Sue useto like? TEACHER: etc. ,\bre; who can then be Teachers and their studentscan invent a variety of characters referredto at any point as the needarises.
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Prepositions
Characteristics and techniques: adding information and using coloured chalks. Step one: Draw (or ask students to draw) a map on the board.
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Ifthe map is invented by the classthen there is considerableopportunity for discussion and for the use ofvocabulaty to describe objects and locations. Step two: Say you are go' g to gojogging and then d_raw a route acrossthe map with colouredchalk. Describeyour route.Ifyou place a number at eachpoint you wish to identify,it will help you and the studentsto repeatwhat youhave said. Ask the studentsto write down the route you took. 'You For example,they might write: staried outsideyour house.Then you ran down the road and around the lust bend. At the second bend . . .' Step three: Using the rangeofverbs,prepositions and nounsyou made useof (askingfor othersas required)eachstudent makesa copy of the map or drawsa n.* onu and works out his or her ownjogging route. Individual students describe their routes so that other students can draw the described route on the board with coloured cha.lk.
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Sentence pattern table Characteristics and techniques: information easy for the whole classto seecan be added,picturescan be stuck on. pattern table on the board. (For hints on writing and Draw a sentence 108. designing seepages100) Substitutionscan be cued by wordsadded to the columnsor by holding up pictures,pointingto parts ofa big picture or by stickingsmall picturesinto the column.
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Notes; 1 This kind of practice is more mechanical than meaningful. A creative the studentsto proposeany elementcan be introducedby encouraging words they like providing the sentenceremains gtammatically correct. In seeingthat a suggestionis ridiculous and Iaughing about it the students used. the meaningofthe Ianguage experience inventedby the classand referredto constantlyalsoadds 2 A set of characters In this caseRon could interestand meaningevenin the dullest ofexercises. shopping. be renownedas a crazy spendthrift oncehe goes Questionnabes building up information which all the class and techniques: Characteristics can see. in the grid can be drawn Grids can easilybe drawn on the board and the spaces In the act of in, written in or giventicks, etc. as a result of discussion. practicecan take place.For example, completingthe grid, controlledlanguage in order to carry out the survey and completethe grid below,basicquestions by eachmember of the about Iiking and disliking must be askedand answered class.
TEACHER: Do you like oranges? STUDEIiT: Yes,a lot./No, not very much./No. not at all.
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The formation and completion of this grid has a meaningful purpose. It might be interesting to furd out which is the most popu.lar and the least popular fruit (hobby/TV programme/sport/type of holiday). Grids of information can be drawn on the board which provide simple cues for answersto questions or for subshitutionsin sentencesor for the gap completion ofsentences. Questions and answers Characteristics and techniques: preparing the rext before the lessonand coveringpart ofthe board with a cloth or Iarge piece ofpaper. Write a seriesofquestions on the board before the lessonbegins. Include the answersbut in a separat column. Pin a cloth or piece ofpaper over the answers.The questions can be answeredin writing by each individual and then discussedwith a neighbour. Finally two pairs can work together until eachgroup has an agreedset ofanswers. These answerscan then be offered and discussedby the whole class.Finally the cloth can be removed and the conect answersrevealed, ,oqi; îi;:[ ,o! ,:,4
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Dialogpe, role PlaYand drama

Dialogue writing and actin g Characteristics and techniques: erasing and substituting information' Write a dialogueon the board.
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help, createdan In the examplebelow,studentshave,with the teacher's grven by the teacher' The dialogue fust the on based iiaiogue ult...,utiu. is broadly the same but the way in which the two information exchlanged people are speaking-toeach other is very different. In the first dialoguethe two p"opl. ^r. o.t fu-iliar terms. In the second dialogue the people are on more the iorrnal te.-s. In order to bring out fully this change in the formality of shouldbe actedout' the two dialogues relationship,
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Dialogue with a single voice! to drawonthe pictures areeasy simple large andtechniques: Characteristics pages 108-116') abilitysee oflheirdrawing (Forteachers unsure board. andto actoutthepartof a dialogue to present wants theteacher often Quite two(ormore)people.Itishelpfulbothtotheteacherandtotheclassifthere
are two Iarge facessketched on the board. The teacher can then point to the facesas he or shespeakstheir linesor evenstand in front of them.
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Drama are quick to do and to adapt. and techniques:largesketches Characteristics A scenecan be sketchedon the board by the teacheror by the studentsin a ferv minutes.The action of discussingwhatshouldbe drawn and the drawingitself ofthe contextofthe drama which is to be acted out. In help to developa sense inventedby the class might be the examplebelow,fwo of the characters waiting at a bus stop.The students,working in pairs, must imaginea dramatic episode and dialogueand act it out in front ofthe board'theatre'.
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16
Guided writing: adapting a story

Characteristics and techniques: erasingand substitutinginformation. Write the beginning ofa short story on the board.
tn ueck Pon ue^f f'o ree hicAhfri<nd last SttcLporE. i^ his car a(a,bout.t?()e,^ Hese(of /f was ^ cold h.tnferi <oenrAq and h< o'clxk. /ooLea {ordard rb a- ntcz Nara ol,Aie.. Nhen he lot fo tAe hoqre he sau lAat tAe t)rAd.od.r {.,ere d.ark. The door ,'J,-! apa6 . He r^te,+e in aad /ouad...
Discuss it with the students. Ask the students for suggestionsfor how the story might be changedwithout adding significantly more words. One or several words can be added, erasedor substituted. The example below showsthe fust few lines ofthe story in its secondversion, altered by the students.
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Webs
Characteristics and techniques: developing diagrams which everyonecan see through classdiscussion. The useofwebsin language teachinghas floweredin recentyears.(Theyare sometimesknown as mind maps or word trees.) Only a few examples can be givenin this book but the potentiaJ ofwebs should not be underestimated. Websencourage studentsto seeand to expressa variety ofrelationships.The process of making the web is more important than the finishedweb.The act of making a web helpsstudentsto appreciatethe meaningof the words involved and to rememberthem; for this reasonthe teachershould normally not dominate nor determine exactly how the web is made. Teacherscan demonstrate the useofthe web on the blackboard and then encourage students to developtheir own webs in their books. There are two broad divisionsofwebs:objectiveand subjective.In objective
websthe groupingand relationshipofthe words can bejustified by reference to common experience. In subjectivewebsthe groupingand relationshipofthe words is justified primarily by the individual referring to his or her personal expenences. VocabuLary webs Characteristics and techniques: sticking a picture on the board, adding and erasinginformation. Stick a picture on the board (or ask a student to draw a pictwe). Ask other students to come to the board and write down any words they assocrate with the picture. Add words yourselfifyou wish to enlargethe vocabulary ofthe classIn the frst example,the teacherhas developed a web with the class which arranges all the words they know under a generalheading. In the second example, a student has written down his or her own associationswith the starting word.
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This activity can also be done by individual students, in their vocaburary books, for example. Story planningweb It is a common experience for teachers that the studentsfind it difficult to talk about their experiences or to invent stories. And this is not surprisingrIn the examplebelowthe teacherhas askedthe studentsto developtheir oivnweb of experiences basedon their last horiday. The exampieshowsan individual student'sweb. The form ofthe web has encouraged the student to rela-x so that eachbit of information triggers off another bit of information. The next step is lbr the student to checkwhether or not he or shehas the language to talk about these experiences.Key phrases can be written against each ,bubble' One has been written in as an example. The student must use a dictionary, grammar book and/or the teacherto becomeequippedto talk about someofthe points in the
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web. The frnal step is for the student to talk about or to write about his or her 'story'.
Open communicative practice

Pictwes for speculation
Characteristics and techniques: building up a picture on the board through discussion with the class. An ambiguous picture can be a stimulus for speculation and subsequently for dialoguework, for discussion ofgeneral themes, and for the rather specialised discussionofhow the picture can be made less ambiguous. Each ofthese areas offocus and languageis described below. Draw an ambiguous picture on the board. It should be possible to interpret the picture in a variety ofways. It is important that you yourselfshould not have a fixed view ofwhat the picture 'really' represents. The secretofinventing an ambiguous picture is to draw as Iittle information as possible. Speculation Step one: Ask the students to describe what they see.!'ery quickly the classwill realise that somethingsare interpretedin a similar way (two people,a chair and a table) and other things are interpreteddifferently (outsideor inside/homeor school/people relatedor not). Step two: Encourage the'opinion gap'betweenthe students.Do not Iet them think that you havea luredidea or that your interpretation is the correctone.When the opiniongapshavebecomeapparent ask the studentsto note down what thev
19 think the picture represenrs. (Accuracyis not as important as fluency at this srage. ) Step three: Ask the studentsto work with their neighbourcomparinginterpretatrons. At this point studentscan changetheir opinions. Step four: Invite classdiscussion again.Encourage argument.For example: STUDENTA: It can't be outsidebecause tablesand chairsare not outside. STUDTNT B: Chairsand tablescan be outside- for example,rn a cate. Nlaking the picture less ambiguous This activity contextualises the useof ,shouid',,could',,would,.The example belowclearlyilluslratesthat a simpledrawrngactivity on the boa.-d can be used to give demanding languagework for proficient ipeakers ofthe language. chooseoneofihe interpretationsbeingput forward and ask the students what you should haveincluded in the drawrngto mare it clear. Here is an exampleof a conversation which might take place: T E A c H E R :I f I h a d w a n t e d t o s h o w a c l a s s r o o m w h a t s h o u l d l h a v e d r a w n ? STUDENTA: You shouldhavedrawn a lot ofdesks. TEA,cHER: That's a goodidea.But it would havebeendifficult because there isn't much space.So what shouldI havedone? sruDE]''TA. \bu could havedrawn part of another desk. TLACHER:Yes,I could havedonethat. But would it havebeenclearly a class? sruDENr B, No, it could havebeena cafriwith lots of tables. TEACHER:So,what should I havedrawn? STLTDENTC: You shouldhavewritten somemaths on the blackboard. TEACHER:Yes,that's agood idea.Iflhadwritten somemaths on the rectangle at rhe top it would haveIookedlike a blackboard.So the room would havelookedlike a classroom. IfI had wanted to show that the teacheris a woman what should I haveclrawn? SrUDE\rD: lbu shouldhavedrawn longhair and a skirt. 'rE{cHER: }'es,goodidea! (\bu draw in the extra information oncevou havenegoriared it with the students. ) PersonaJ experiences and discussion ofa general theme Take a theme which has developed in the discussion and ask studentsto contributetheir personalexperiences and opinions.For example,the picture may havebeeninterpretedand developed as representing a quarrel. Studentscan-talkabout: disagreements and quarrelsthey havehad; their attitude to differences ofopinron; the differentwaysthat peoplein differenr circumsrances express their difi'erences ofopinion (or noi).
20
Dialogue on what may Having agreedon what is happeningin the picture, speculate havehappenedjust beforethe incident in the picture and what might happen which take placebefore,during and next.Ask the studenrsto invent diaiogues atler the time in the picture. Follow-up activities Any ofthe aboveactivitiescan be continuedint0 pair and groupworkon paper. Picture sequence stort a seriesofdrawings through and techniques:developing Characteristics with the class. discussion Draw (or ask a student to draw) a picture ofa personor an object on the board. The drawing should be towardsthe Ieft hand sideofthe board in caseit proves of drarvings. to be the first in a sequence and welcome the beginningof a story.Encourage Ask the studentsto suggest any suggestions and avoidcorrectinggrammatical mistakesat tlus point. with the class,agteeon oneofthe proposals(or a Through discussion Ask another student to draw either somemore combinationofthe proposals). information to go with the first picture or to begina new picture. Invite ideas ibr how the story might continueincorporatingthe new drawing.Here is an example: 1 Therewas a bigblack box. 2 Itwasunderatree. torain. 3 A c l o u dc a m ea n d i t b e g a n -1 A man sat on the box under the tree.He didn't want t0 get wet. to movel i S u d d e n l yt,h e b o x b e g a n etc.
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21
Listening
Characteristics and techniques: drawingpicturesand writing on the board. Key wordsand sentences, togetherwith picturesand maps can be usedto preparestudentsbeforethey listen to a descriptionor to a story.The students can beginto predict what the text might be about by lookingai the key words and pictures on the board. In this useofwords and pictureson the board, the prepararioncan be done beforethe classentersthe roorn. Here are four basictypes oftext for listenins: Descriptionofa place
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Descriptionofa sceneand ofpeople and objects
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Description ofan incident, a processor a story
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A dialogue point to the personwho is speakingor to In this casethe teacher(or students) the objectreferredto'
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Grammatical exPlanation
adding and highlightinginformation and techniques: Characteristics chalks' coloured Text analYsis T h e f e a t u r e s o l a t e x t c a n b e h i g h l i g h t e d a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t coloured weenpaltsola encirclingand by using rext can be demor.r.^*a Lt ,"aeilining, chalks. with
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Full and reduced sentences erastng' andtechniques: Characteristics full andreduced between therelationship youtoshow helps Thechalkboard
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23 Tense
and techniques: Characteristics adding and highlightinginformation rvith colouredchalk. \bu can usea picture and a series of linesto help studentsto appreciate aspects of the meaningof a tenseform. In this example,a simple drawingof a man running and a houseimply that the man hasjust left the houseand begunhis run. In the seconddrawing he looks exhaustedbut he is still running. This implies that it is later on. The diagrammaticline offersalrotherway of generalisingabout the useof the structure.The advantageofthe chalkboardovera wallchart of the same drawing and diagram is that the studentscan seethe'story' developand see the analytic diagramrelatedto the drawrngsequence.
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Vocabulary grouping peoplecan work togetherat the board Characteristics and techniques: several at the sametime and colouredchalkscan be used. Someteachers believeit is important to help the studentsto developtheir ability to find usefulgeneralisations about the Ianguage for themselves. In the followingexamplethe studentsare beingencouraged to 1 searchfor generalisations 2 evaluatethe usefulness ofthe generalisations they discover.
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Drepone: Ask the students to call out all the words they can remember which are associated with a particular topic (or with a picture they are shown).Ask two or three students to act as secretariesand to write down all the words which are called out. This activity can be done as a competition or challenge.The classcan seehow many words they can compile on the board in a fixed amount of time. Step wo: Ask the students to write down in their books all the words on the board and then to think ofas many different ways ofgrouping them as possible.Tell the students that no grouping can be wrong and that you are interested in them collecting as many as possible. For example: by numbers of Ietters in the word; by grammar; by rarity; by whether they can be eaten or not! After ten minutes, tell the studentsto work with their neighbourand compilea I.istin common. Possibly then ask pairs to work with other pairs Step three: Students call out their ideas for grouping the words and these are discussed according to why they werechosenand then at a secondstagehow usefulsuch groupings might be. In the example given above,singular and plwal forms might be scattered various randomly on the board.The teacherthen asksthe studentsto suggest ways ofgrouping the words according to the evidence on the board. A variety of groupings will be suggested. The teacher encouragesthe students and doesnot The generalisations at this stagebehavenegatively to any ofthe suggestions. are discussed.Before focusing on singular and plural forms, the teacher could then give the students a text in which there are examples ofsingular and plural forms in context.The studentscan then try out their theoriesto seeifthey seemto apply to the text. Finally the studentscan be askedfor their they can find for the formation ofthe observations on what generalisations plural in English.Similar-coloured chalk can be usedto rewrite the endingsof for example,knife/knives, leafl wordsfollowingthe samegeneralisation, leaves. Other waysof usingcolouredchalks include: spelling,sound/spelling relationships, agreements.
Technical tips
I The lighter-coloured chalks,white and yellowshowmore clearlyon the chalkboardthan the darker colours,red and blue. 2 lVrite lettersand draw picture detailsbig enoughto be seenthe length of
25 the classroom.Letters should be about 3 cm in height, clearly formed and confrasfing in coloLrwith the background ifthey are to be read easily from about 10m away.However,it is best to check by asking the students at the back ofthe class. 3 Usually keep lines of text horizontal. You can rule lines on the whiteboard with a permanent marker pen in a slightly darker colour than the surface ofthe board.A grid ofhorizontal and vertical linesjust visibleto you but not obtrusive to the classis most useful for keeping a discipline for your writing and for helping you to draw rapidly. 4 Use the side of the chalk as an alternative to the pointed end. This will give you, without effort, a variety oflines which are useful in underlining, in drawing boxes,and in drawing.
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For tips on design,drawing and lettering (seepages 100-116). Don't stand with your back to the class for too longl Don't obscureyourwritingwithyour body or arm. Clean the board from top to boctom and preferably with a wet cloth to reducethe dust. 9 Repaint the chalkboard when necessary. l0 Utilise the shelf at the bottom of the board for picture or word cards. (If there isn't onethen ask for onel)
26
L1 Add a wire acrossthe top of the chalkboard plus clips for (a) pictures (b) sheetsoftext (c) wordcards makingsentences (d) sheetscoveringpart of the board' for example, hiding questions to answersor for useas a projectionscreen'
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12 Use the board beneath the pictures suspended on the wire to make comments. On a whiteboard it is easierto stick a picture on the surface and then write comments on the whiteboa-rdaround it' (or 13 Sticking pictures on an unmagnetised board is not easy! Blu-Tack you that Make sure dust by chalk is affected plastic adhesive) similar clean the chalkboard well where you want to stick it and knead it well beforeuse. A dab oflatex glue is effective and does not mark the board when dry'
Overhead projector
There are overheadprojectors in many schoolsand collegesbut not always in the hands oflanguage teachers. This is a pity becausethey are one ofthe most useful tools a Ianguageteacher can have. The teacher can use the transparencies again and again and, at the same time, can adapt and create images of many kinds.

1 The whole classcan seethe projectedimage. 2 The image can be projected without darkening the room. 3 Text and pictures can be modified in front of the class: a adding a transparency or taking one away; o writing on the transparency or wiping lines off; . obscwing or revealing parts of the fransparency by putting something opaque on the screenor removing it, for example, a book. 4 Ttansparencies can be prepared beforehand and used many times. 5 Permanent pens make hansparencies which last for a long time; the marks of water-based pens can be removed with a damp cloth. 6 There are pens with a variety of thicknessesof nib and in a variety of colours. 7 Transparencies can be made by photocopying. As the techniques associatedwith an overhead projector (OHP) are so distinctive, activities will be described under technique headings.
28
Single unprepared transparency

characteristics and techniques: you or the students can write or draw directly on the transparency as you would on the cha.lkboardbut with the advantages of projectedsize,brightnessofcolour and clarity. Thus most ofthe activities desc.ibedunder chalkboard in the previoussectioncould be done on the OHP.
Describing pictures: examPle 1 what is happening' Draw parts ofa picture and ask the studentsto guess TEACHER:Tell me about the Picture. sruDE\TA: It's a man. That's his head. B: He's playing football.That's the ball' sruDE).-r
2 pictures: examPle Describing

Ask the studentsto describeit. Then Draw a picture ofsomething or someone, (teasingly! ) add some other features to the drawing and contradict the student and ask the studentsto tell you againwhat is happening The studentscan take overyour roleoncethey havegot the idea' rE-{cH!rR: (having &awn the first stage of the picture)Tellme about the ptclure. It'SA MAN. STUDENTA: rE-{cHER: What's he doing? He'sstanding. sTUDENTA: TEACHER:(addingaskirtandlonghab)No,itisn'taman!Tellmeaboutthe PIcture.
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TEACHER What's she doing? DE\r B: She'sstanding. STL TLACHER, (changing the legsfo runnrng) No, she isn't! What's she doing? erc.
Sin gle prepared transparency

of the OHP is and technniques:oneof the basic advantages Characteristics you that you can preparea text or a picture and useit instantly and as often as given pictures are and texts using for Ideas wo.k. furiher wish without throughoui this book and many apply to the OHP For tha-treasonwe have of chosei somelessusual exampleswhich exploit the specialcharacteristics theOHP.
Reading to readit! theclass backto frontandchallenge Puta textontheprojector
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Sentenceconstruction to thestudents andchallenge oftextontheprojector ofstrips Put a number place themin a logcalsequence.
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Storytelling
Preparea number ofstrips oftransparencywith a small drawing on eachone, for example,a car,a man, a cat, etc.You and the studentscan then movethese pictures on the screenand iUustrate a story.
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Single transparency with a water-based pen

and techniques:usuallythe transparencyis preparedbefore Characteristics the classwith a permanent pen. During the classthe teacheror the students pen. The additionsin water-based can add information with a water-based ink can be cleanedoff at any time.
30 test Cloze
pencan penanda water-based based A cloze testcanbewrittenin permanent it. effortto complete in ajointclass beused lE uc-s rari^.r).,9 a^d. ,he b,r'j pafoh agai,. . B*t lterr ftally ttt b,+-c or rca.lly Carr, abo*g lkrigr rrio.a- ;porl'aaE i h,i Conecting texts can andstudents Theteacher canbeprojected. mistakes An essay containing pen. a water-based it using correct /o',oto'. it/c,c-pit""l
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Translation and text analysis betweenthe lines. A text can be written in permanent pen with wlde spaces ink. The spaces can then be usedfor a translationwritten in water-based can be usedto mark in stressand intonation. Aiternatively,the spaces
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Listening
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A map or street pLancan be preparedin permanent pen. The teachermight read out the a descriptionof a journey taken across . citv or might describethe locationof various t' places onihemap.Astudentcanbeaskedto .., " drarvin the route or mark in the placeswith I "t't a water-basedpen. Having understoodthe ,a:.;1."'ge ' K activity, all the studentscan then be askedto completea similar plan instructed by the teacheror bv anotherstudent.
31 Guidedwriting
A text can be preparedin water-based pen. During the lesson the classcan discuss and make modifications to theiext in whiJh they might erasewords and substitute others to seeif they can changethe sense'without changing the galnmar.
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Elimination text A text can be preparedin water-based pen. The classattempt to reducethe text to nothing. You allow them to remove one, two, or three adjacent words. They can change the meaning of the text but the grammar musr remam correct.(A techniqueIeamt from Mario Rinvolucri.) 1he yourgred'haid 1he 'lhe t
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Spellingand
Suabble
A Scrabblegrid can be preparedin permanentink. The game can be played with lettersadded in water-based ink which can be creaned otTatthe end of eachgame. In one_simple versionofthe game,the grid ofsquaresis projectedand the class try to fill it with as many words aspossible, eachword oi.erlapping the others.
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TWoor more transParencres

Characteristics and techniques: you can add in-formation or take it away by preparingseveral transparmcies' Translations, annotations, additions and modifications can all be made by placing a second,third, (or more) transparency on the top ofthe hrst one.
Vocabulary
A picture can be projected and a second transparency added with words naming objects and actions.
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Comparing
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A picture can be projected ( 1), removed, and then substituted by another similar picture (i). The students try to remember and spot the differences (3) ' Ifa betweenthe two pictures. Then the two pictures are shown together two d.ifferentcolour ii used for each drawing then the differences between the pictures can be easilYseen
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Two texts can be laid one on top of the other.The studentscan be chailensedto identif-'eachtext and to *rite eachof them down.
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Masking and revealing

Characteristics and techniques:any opaqueobjectcan be laid on the projector and usedto obscure what is beneath.
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Put up a songon the OHP and mask it with somethingopaque.You can show u n eI i n ea r a t i m e a s r h ec l a s s learns it. Predicting a text
\bu usea pieceofpaper or card to obscurethe right hand halfol a text. The studentsmust guess at the missingparts. lnstead ol rhe right hand half, it could be the left or the bottom ofthe text.
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Discussion
You can placea text or a picture on the projectorand hold a pieceofcard (a book or envelope) under the mirror which projects the image. This prevents any part of the image being projected. Move the card rapidly to and fro thus flashing the image on the screen.Ask the students what they saw.Get them to expresstheir views and their differences ofopinion. As them to write down what they saw and to discuss it with their neighbour. Flash the image again and the expression and oncemore prompt discussion ofdifferencesof perception and opinion
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A pieceof card or paper can havea holecut in it. PIacethis on the projectorand then pass a text slowly acrossit. Ifthe hole is very small so that only one or two letterscan be seenthen the studentsare stimulated to guessat the word.As they establish a word so they are stimulated to guessat the next word making conslruction,cohesion and collocation. useofwhat they know about sentence A picture or a picture strip can be shownand made useofin a similar way.
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35 Vocabulary
Objects can be placed on the projector and their silhouettes projected on the screen.The students can be asked to guesswhat they are. ifthere are several objects then you can project them for a few moments and then cover the lens and ask the students to tell you what they saw and remember. You could removeone and then project the imageagainand ask them what vou have done.
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Expressive talking and writing Anything canae laid on the projector! You can lay your head on it and project a profile image of yourself talking! You can put a glassplate ofwater on the projector and arrange grassesaround it and create a pond and a meadowl Try sliding a book, or better, your fingers slowlyunder the lens(careful,it might be hot!). This will createeffectsof sun-rise, sunset and twilight! AII theseeffects can be used to stimulate expressivetalking and writing.
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Drama and story-telling Put the projectorbehind the screen(ifit is a freestandingscreen)and you havea shadowpuppet theatre! The studentscan make shadowpuppetsor use for writing a play, themselves as actors.Groups ofstudents can be responsible making the props,acringit and reilingthe story.
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Technical tips
1 Studentsat the back of the classmust be able to seewhat you havewritten. to be seen Letters should be about 5mm high on the transparency if they a-re about 10m away.Ofcourse,the sizeofthe imageis partly dependenton how far away your projector is from the screen. 2 A few words and short sentencesare best for the OHP Handwriting (as on the chaikboard)should not be too idiosyncraticlHave full body shapesto For and descenders. the lettersand minimise the lengthofthe ascenders more tips on handwriting seepages10?and 108. and this affectsthe costof i) I'ransparencies are made.indilferent thicknesses them. Find which is suitablefor you. 4 \'ellow and orangedo not project as well as red, blue and purple. 5 You might considerusinga sizeof fransparencywhich can be easilystored. for this reasonrather than the Iargersquare We use44 transparencies shape. you can alsomake 6 Apart from writing and drawing on the transparency, Make sure however, from existingmaterial by photocopying. transparencies that the text is big enough.NIosttexts in booksare not big enoughif that many reproducedon the transparencyat the same size.Note, however, photocopying machineswill enlargethe original.This will enableyou to have a biggerletter sizeand satisfactoryreadability.
Ifyour screenis not tilted (and it probably isn't) you may project a picture which is wider at the top than at the boftom. If this bothers you, then stick two strips ofcard down each side ofthe projector glassto correct this effect. You can also use these snips to narrow lhe image if you are usingA.l.
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Check the OHP works before the lesson:make sure the bulb is working, that the OHP is in focus and that the lens is cleaa.
Flannelboard, magnetboard and adliesive plastic
All threemedia enablepictures or texts on paper or card to be displayedto the class. Flannelboard:cutout figtres (picturesor words) arebackedby flannel, rough sandpaperor teazlestrip(e.g.!'elcro) and are placedon a verticalboard coveredwith flannel or blanket-like material' cutout figureshavea small pieceofstrip magnetstuck on the Nlagnetboard: bacf or placedon the front. The surfaceofthe board is zinc or tinplate metal sheet.Tie figuresadheremuch better than on the flannelboard.On the other it is much heavierand hand, the magnetboardis more inconvenientbecause the magnets can be difficult to acquire and to keep' Adhesiveplastic: a plastic is widely availablewhich can be torn into small piecesani moulded with the fingersinto small balls' It can then be usedto stick paper or card onto most smoothsurfaces ln many waysthis is the most useful oithe three media if it is available to the teacher' One well-known versionis calledBIu-Tack.
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39 Characteristics and techniques

All three media: 1 All three media are essentially for use by the teacher and material displayed shouldbe big enoughfor the wholeclassto see. 2 Sentencesand scenescan'grow' or diminish in front of the classas words or pictures are added, moved or taken away. 3 The words and pictutes can be handled by the teacher or students before being placed on the board or surface. 4 On the magnetboard, background settings (for example, a street) can be drawn on Iarge piecesofpaper and placed on the board. Pictures ofobjects and people can be placed on top ofthis background setting. Pictures can be placedon top ofother pictures. 5 With adhesiveplastic no preparation is required and any piece ofpaper or card can be stuck or moved from one position to another. Pictures can be placedon top ofother picturesincluding largepiecesofpaper representing settngs. 6 Essentially all three media allow the teacher and students to simulate in a very simple form and with great flexibility, scenes,situations and stories as well as diagams and short texts. Thus a great variety oflanguage can be contextualised through the use ofthese media. 7 Teachersnervous of drawing on the chalkboard can prepare visuals in advancewith these three media.
Presentation and controlled practice

Characteristics and techniques: showing one or more pictures illustrating objectsor actions. At the most basic level, pictures can be used to introduce the meaning of language new to the studentsor to cue answersto questions or substitutions within sentences. Presenting vocabulary
TEACHaR: This is a cat. It's on the tablel Now it's under the table! etc.
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Vocabulary Practice (magnetboardonly) with The teacherputs a largepieceofpaper on theboard then places food inside the she or He on-it' dta*tt eleph-ani ,fr" ""tfi.. "i"" it in turns to name the food and then to list all the ;i;;;;.-S;;;ntsiake other food the elePhanthas eaten' rEi\cHER: !!trat'sthis? srr.DE\T It s an aPPle. TL{CHERTSo,what has the elephanteaten'/ somesugarand The elephant has eatena pieceofcake, a cabbage, STL.DENT: an aPPle. etc.
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Open communicative
Practice
ofbeing able to give students characteristics and techniques: the flexibility front of the classand stick on the to come then can they piit*". t" ft"ia *hich the board. groups'Each student can be given The studentscan be divided into pairs or it in turns to placetheir pictureson take word and studenm ;;;;;t;;Jror their picture has with the connection what say to able be must fit.v ["*J. if-r. the idea' the picture can be like class Ii the there' placed ;.r;;;".;"rd lelt on the board. pictureswhich haveto be related The activity can be doneby havingonly two illustrating the next part of picture successive tv Ji^g t.,"ry with each ". the story. In this example,the two pictureshavebeenrelated: for three hundred years' SrUDa\r: The ghost has lived in this house
41
Listening comprehension and oral retelling

Characteristics and techniques: building up a situation,moving pictures to illustrate a story. These threemedia Iend themselves to the established audio visual approachof using pictures to illustrate a story or a dialogue. The understanding of the story helpsthe student to understandthe meaningoflanguage new to them. The the story then retell it, act out the studentshaving heard and understood dialogueand changethe picturesasrequired. Owingto shortageofspacein this book,only three scenes ofthe story are illustratedbelow.However,in the classroom the number of intermediary stages is limited only by the number ofpictures the teachercan get hold of. When Ron was a baby he usedto be so niceand so happy.He usedto play with his teddy bear.And everybodyusedto like him . . . etc.
When Ron was twenty he was a student. He was poor but he was happy. He used to live in a little room and in the winter he used to weu his coat ir his room because he hadn't got enoughmoney for a heater. He didn't play with his teddv bea anymore but he used to keep it wth him for luck! etc. (Note: the picture of Ron at r* enty can be stuck on top of the picture of Ron as a bab1.)
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10
Now he is frfty. He has a car and a big house but he is a miserable man. He is always complaining. No one likes him. The first few developments in a story are illustrated here. The picture grows and changes accordingto the stagein the story.
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Technical tips
Magnetboard
@a
1 Magnetboards can be made easily and cheaply. Hardware shops sell the meta.lplate. Check that magnets stick to it. The metal should be about I m by 1.5m depending on how you can copewith the weight. The metal should be mounted on a woodenframe or against a woodenboard. The alternative is to use a metal cupboard ifthere is one convenient. (As mentioned before, some whiteboards are already magnetised.) 2 Magnetic strip can be obtained from refrigerator repairers; it is used as the seal on refrigerator doors. Hardware shops or stationers sometimes sell rnagnetic strips or small, flat magnets. Flannelboard I Flannel or blanket-likematerial should be stretchedon a board. Because the figures do not adhere as well as on a magnetboard it is an advantage to position the board so that it is leaning rather than vertical. 2 The figures must have a rough surface on the back which adheresto the board. Sandpaper or flannel itselfwill work reasonably well. However, a commercial product like flock paper or teazel or Velcro is better. Adhesive plastic The surface should be free from dust. The chalkboard ought to be sponged clean and must be allowed to dry before the adhesivewill stick. An alternative is a rubber glue which peels offwhen dry and doesnot damage the surface or the picture.
43 Notes for all tfueemedia

1 Pictures can be cut from magazines.\'ery often it is more satisfactory to draw them and to colourthem with felt tip pens. 2 Someteachers do not attempt to haveindividua.lpicturesfor all objects. They have a number of s1'mmetrical shapeswhich they introduce at the beginning ofeach acti!'ity as s)'rnbolsofparticular objects. Here are which can be usedto symbolise examplesofthe sort ofbasic shapes different things:
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The advantageofthis approach is not only that it is time saving but that to their imagination. somestudentslike the challenge 3 In all cases it is advisableto mount the pictures on thin card and to cover them with a clear,seif-adhesiveplastic so that they can be used many fimes.
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,/, t Wallpictures and ( / - -.wallposters

a
I
Wallpicturesand wallposters illustrarescenes, peopleor objectsand are large enoughto be seenby all the students. lVallpicturesmay be: t y1o$r1edcollercialiy for language teachingpurposes(seeByrne, D and Hall, D, 1976 lVall Pict;u:es for Language priiiceLongman); 2 producedfor other educationalpurposes, for example,i road safetyposter, or for commercialpurposesunconnected with education,for example,a publicity poster; 3 producedby the teacherand/or students,either drawn or made by collage (seepage 116).
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45

1 Wa.llpictures oftenshowa complicated scene andcontainmanydetails. If thestudents cannot seethenecessary detailoi if tfr.Vi. att .r.t"a UV tfru restofthepicture thenthat isclearly a disadvant"g" On,f.," it is orn"rhand, theverycomplexity of mosr wallpi.r*.s *t icnm""k..'.o_*u.ririries so useful. 2 Thewhole class cansee thepicture. 3 It is readyto useandcanbeused morethan once. 4 It canbeleft ondisplayor takendown.
Presentation and guided practice

ch"racteristics and techniques: a wallpicture like the one illustrated above provides a context for language use and a variety ofreference for controlled practice in both speaking and writing. Wallpictures have a traditiona.l role in the presenting ofnew language, both vocabulary and structures, to the students. In the hurrd_dru*r, p,"rur" illustrated above,the teacher can in|roduce many words for people and objects seenin a street. The scenea-s a whole givesa context for this newlanguage and an opportunity to move into controlled practice by the students. The present perfect tense Traditionaily, the wailpicture is associatedwith the present con'nuous rense. However,other tense forms can be introduced and practised, for example, the present perfect: TEACHER: (pointingat the man coming out of theshop)Thsmar ls cofiung out of the shop.He,sgot a bag.He'sboughtsomerhing. What ha.i he bought,do you think? And this woman, she,sdropped something on the pavement. What has shedropped? Having introducedthe presentperfect,the teachermight write a sentence pattern table on the board and ask the students to offer more exampresbased on the picture. For example: STUDENTA: The cat has climbed the tree. sruDENr B: The plane has left the auport. STUDENTC: Thewoman has crossed the road.
46
ilIight Scenes alwaysimply that somethinghas happenedbeforethe time in the picture and that somethingis goingto happen aiierwards.The teachercan exploit this. For example: TTACHER:lVhat might the woman havedonebeforeher bag broke? SrUDE\rA: She mighthave put too many heavy things init. T E A C H E Rl:V h a t m i g h t s h e d o n e x t ? SruDEr-r B: She might wrap the shoppingin her scarf. Trueifalse game when the students Controlledpracticedoesnot alwaysneedto be an occasion Activities can be introducedwhich make the merely articulatethe Ianguage. student think about meaningand want to communicateit. For example,the well-knowntrue/false game can be used.The teacher(or a student) makesa number of statementssomeof rvhichare true and someof which are false.If this is doneoraily then the studentscan correctthe teacherwhen he or she makesa falsestatement.For example: rD\cHER: The cat is beingchasedby the dog. srUDEvrS: Nol The dog is beingchasedby the catl (In the picture, the dogreally is beingchasedby the cat! ) If the truei falsegame is donein writing, then the teachermight write a on the board and ask the studentsto copv the correct number ofsentences onesand to correctand then copy the incorrectones. Oncethis versionofthe activity has been done,eachstudent can write a making sometrue and somefalse.The studentsthen number of sentences ifthev are true. read out eachother'ssentences N[emory game gamewhich can transform a mechanicalexercise Another well-established into real communication is the memory game.The teacherstandswith his or her back to the picture and tries to describeeverythingin it. The students correctthe teacherwheneverhe or she makes a mistake,a sourceofgreat satisfactionto the students.Oncethe studentshaveunderstoodthe gamethey with oneofthem (or possibly can try it out in pairs or gloups for themselves two ) trying to descrihethe picture from memorl . Hide and seek Prepositions can be practisedwith the gameof'hide and seek'.One student in the picture.The imaginesthat he or she is a mouseand is hiding somewhere other studentstrv to find out wherethe mouseis hidine.
11
Are you in the old man's pocket? b-ruDENT.\: NE o:. STUDENTuoLS fue 1ou behind the tree in the park? sTLDE\TB. No. STLDE\TUOL;SE:
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OIderstudentsmight prefer to imaginethat they havehidden somethingin the plcture. Guidedwriting You can givethe sludents a text with somewords or sentences missing.The to thepicture. t h e t e K tb y r e f e r r i n g students complere
Dialogues
and techniques:the quantity and variety of information Characteristics provides4context fbr relatedto a theme in both wallpictureson page,4.4 dialogueand role pLay. The dialogues can be controlledas in the lust examplebelowor open as rn the secondexample. Controlled dialogue
Write a model dialogue on the boardwhich oneor two pairs ofstudents act out !!tren you feelthat all the studentsunderstandthe in front of the class. dialogue, ask them to work with a neighbourand to devisea new dialogue substitutingother words for thosewhich are underlined,basedon the picture. Your dialoguemight be like thrs: STLALL BO\':lVhere are we going now, Mummv? M0THER: We aregoingto the baker's. Studentsmight changethe dialogueto: cAr',Where are we goingnow,Fred? ooc, lVe are goingto the park. Open dialogue In this example,studentshavestudied the wallpicture of animals on page'1'{ rvhich they can then act out f0r the and haveinventedand written a dialogue classor direct anotherpair to act for them. The studentshaveusedthe picturesof animalson the posteras a reference rather than as a setting fur their dialogue.
48
ANrliAl RTcHTS\f orul, You shouldn't kill birds. HU\"TER: Whynot? A\.'tr,rAL RTcHTS\!oyAN: Because it is wrong. HU\rER: Butthebidseatthecorn. A\rM{L RTGHTS\.!'ouAN, These bhds don't eat com, thev eat insects
Vocabulary
Characteristics and techniques: the picture can be displayed quickly and its complexity can provide a rich sourceofvocabulary practice. The students cal out in, say,five minutes a.llthe words they remember which can be related to the picture. More advanced students can be restricted to certain kinds ofword, for example, adjectives. One or two student'secretaries' write down all the words given by the classon the board. As the students call out the words you should male a rapid note ofthem. (Alternatively be ready to coverthe board with paper or a cloth.) When all the words have been wriften down, give the students a moment to look at them and then erasethem. Each student then hies to remember all the words and to write them down. After five minutes ask the students to work with their neighbour ald to compile a joint list. After another five minutes ask pairs ofstudents to work together in groups offour to compile their final composite list. Tell the students to put their words into alphabetical order. See which group remembers the most words.
Listening comprehensron
Characteristics and techniques: the variety and complexity of information in the wallpicture mean that students must listen or read very carefully in order to identify what is being referred to. The teacher describes: 1 a person'sappearance in the picture 2 aperson'sthoughts 3 anobject 4 whattheteacherthinksabout anything in the picture. The students try to say who or what is being described The description can be easy both conceptually and linguistically or be very demanding in both senses.Here is a description intended for beginners: 'I TEACHER: He is thinking. must goslowly.It's dangerous.' STUDENTA: The man on the motorbike. TL{cHER: Yes.
19
A more demandingexample. rFncHER: lVhat a wonderful quiet placeto retreatto in the lunch break. S r L D E \ r B :T h e p a r k .
TEACHERI YES.
Free communicative practice

characteristicsand techniques:the variety and complexitvofinformation offersconsiderable choiceofwhat to talk about. Speculation With the wallpicturemade of magazine picturesof animals (page.1.l), the studentscould be askedto irientify the animals,to say wherethev Iiveand to talk about their characteristics. The studentscan then be askedto discuss broaderissuessuchas, 'the relarionshipbetweentheseanimals and people,, 'animal rights', 'animals in history',and their own personalassociations with these anima.ls.
Story-telling
In the picture ofthe streetscene(page,1.l) there is a greatvariety of information which could providea basisfor story-telling.Studentsmight be askedto imaginewhat one of the peopleis thinkingor feelingand towrite a short story about him or her.The story could includereference to several placesor other peoplein the picture.
Technical tips
I The studentsat the back of the classmust be able to seeand recoexise the detailsthat you want them to see. The only wav to ensurethis haJpensis to test it. As a general rule detailsmust be about 2 cm in height to be seenthe lengthof the classroom. Nevertheless, testingis rheonl-v way ofbeing sure. 2 Teachersand students can make wallpictures by drawing rhem andTor by stickingpicturesfrom magazines, etc. on to the paper.Aithough the result is, bv definition,amateurishthe studenrsare verv likely to appreciateit as much or more than a commerciallyproducedpictu_re. 3 The drawing style usedmust be almostdiagrammaticwith clear.simole outlinesand simplecolour-filledshapesrather than a sketchy, impressionistic stylewhich is difficult to ,read,. .1 The easiest way Io storewallpicturesis to fold them neatly,untess vou have access ro a map rack or shelf 5 For more suggesrions for drawing,mounting and displayingwallpicturessee pages108to 118.
l-r
f-L-:-l Picture flash cards
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Picture flash cards are pictures mounted or drarvnon cardsapproximately i5 cm by 20 cm. They are normally usedby the teacherin oral work for cueing to questions or in more open communicativework for stimulating responses conversation, story-telling,etc.The normal picture card has a picture on one both sidescan be usedand the card can be folded or cut in sideonly. However, variouswayswith particular teachingpurposesin mind.
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for the teacherto preparewhich I Picture cardsare easyand inexpensive teachingpoints or to subject meansthat setsof cardsrelatedto language matter can be built up overa period of time. so they offer 2 The cardsare easyto storeand to carry to the classroom flexibilitl/ to the teacherin the conduct of the lesson. considerable 3 The cardscan be shownto the whole classor to a singlestudent which allows the information on them. the teacherto controlwho receives 4 Becausethey are held and can be presentedat speedor in a leisurely manner,the teachercan control the pace,variety and interestofthe lesson. 5 The teachercan showone or fwo cardsat any one time by hand. However, the cardscan alsobe propped on a shelf, for example,at the bottom ofthe
5t chalkboard. Thecards cana.lso bepinned ona board, or stuckto a magnetboard or to anysmoorh su.Lce*irlia;;;;i'ilastic. Thestudent canbeasked rostandat thefrontoitfr. .fu.. *Jio',,ji.urA.. f n thiswava great number ofcards canbedisplayed. 6 Thecards canbeused in groupwork by thestudents.
Presentation
Characteristics and techniques:thereis greatflexibility in beingable to shorv oneor several picture cardsat key moments.
Teaching meaning with oneptct ure Sometimesit is possibie to showa singlepicture illustrating - new word and oa expectit to be understood. For example,a bicycle,
These cardscanbeshown to the"cr".. reinforcing ""Jii.. theothers.
sure that the students kn_ow what youare rel'erring ro.f,o, _"t.l"frili it i p..."n, p..r.., contrnuous: "*urnpf ", climti.*.'?i-r."l,,* He'sbeen swimmLng. She's been
Teaching meanin g using several pict ures Usually it is advisableto showseveral picturesto
be
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For
52
Contrasting meanings
items at the same Sometimesit is helpful to introducecontrastingIanguage time. The fwo pictures can be placed on either sideofthe card. In the act of turning the card over the contrast is demonstrated. The examples given below are: canlcan't, likes/doesn'tIike, too big/too small:
HNWE
uomparng meantngs
Card can alsobe folded.In the examplebelow,the differencebetween'hill' and 'mountain' is demonsrrated. Each onemay be seenby itself or in comparison with the other.
MH
Presenting meanings of new words in a story within a longertext, to innoduce the new language it is essential Sometimes which is already known to the student leadsto perhapsa story.The language an understandingofthe story and this understandingofthe story indicatesthe meaning of the new language. Picture cards can be used to illustrate the story in turn, the new language, and by making the story more readily understood, it might be understoodby the student. It is important to say'might be'because is often difficult to ascertainjust how peoplehaverespondedto and interpretedthe information they havereceived.
Folding card story A miniature story is createdsimply by folding the paper.By folding the paper into three panels, three sragesin the story can be illustrated and this, in turn. illustrates rhree tenseforms. He's goingto sit on the car. He's sitting on the cat. He has sat on the cat.
Nofe:
Ifyou show one example of this three fold story, you could ask the students to produce one of their own for homework. Although it would only involve them in dealing with one example of these three tense forms, it would neverthelessbe very intensive and memorable. They would also be able to show their work to their fellow students ard more practice would occur.
Practice
Characteristics and techniques: a great variety of pictures can be shown at a moment's notice to the students one after the other or the cards can be placed on a shelf. The pictures carrprovide reference for the students as they answer or ask questions, make substitutionsor completesentences. rE{cHlrR: (holding up a picture of some apples) I've been to the shops.What did I buy? SrUDE\r: You boughtsomeapples.
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Alternativell', don't show the picture to the students, so that they must guess practiceis the samebut the interestis what you havebought.The language greater and the languageis used more meaningfully. Pictwes and sentence pattems model table on the board to guide The teachermight wish to write a sentence the studentsand then usepicture flash cards to cue variations Usually this kind ofwork requiresthe student to think very little about the meaningofwhat to plan the activity so that the however, he or sheis saying.It is possible, In the example student must givemore th0ught to meaningbeforespeaking. the student has a choiceofwhat to say basedon his or her general below, The teacherwrites the model on the board. knowledge. TEACHER: (showing a picture of a horse and pointing to a student)What Edwina? about horses, SrUDE\r: Horsescan jump but they can't fly
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E xp re ssing pers on a I p r eIb r en c es The examplesaboveprovidea certain amount of practicein the manipulation and they do demand someattention to the meaning' However, of the language is usedfor real such practiceis, by its nature, remote fiom the way language purposes. Alter all the teacherknowsvery well that horsescanjump but not potntscan flyl Sowhy should the student say this? Simple practiceof language oiten be achievedwith a closerapproximationto the useoflanguagein order to communicatean idea.In the examplebelow,the student is practisingthe use which his or her own preferences of'would' but, at the sametime, expressing the teachercould not havepredicted.In this sensethe student is telling the is thus teachersomethinghe or shedid not know.A simple practiceexercise beingusedfor real communicativepuposes.
Tlvo basicsentences could be written on the board: I would prefer the orange. I don't like either of them.
TEACHER: (showingtwo pictures offruit) \tlhich would you prefer, or perhaps you don't like either of them? sruDE\r: i would prefer the apple. TEACHERT Fine Nofe: Becausethe student is being asked to give a genuine response,it is only natural thatyou shouldrespondto what he or shesaysin someway,evenifit is only to smile and to say,'fine','good','right', etc. Mini role plays cued by pictues In the aboveexample the students are being asked to expresstheir preferences.Pictures provide one way of stimulating and giving referenceto 'mini' such but real conversations. An alternativeis to havemini role olavsin which the studentspretend to be a character. What the srudentssay is cuedby the picture and might be in responseto what is said to them. The teacher or anotherstudent might providethe other role. TEACHER: What are you doing this evening,Rogerl (asking the question and then showing a pictue of a basketball match) sluDENr: I'm goingto a basketbalimatch. TEACHER:That's greatlrHow interestinglr'Rather you than mel etc.
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56
The slow picture reveal The card can be put in an envelope and then withdrawn a centimetre at a time. As the students see more of the picture ask them to try to identify what they can see and to predict what might appear next in the picture. This gives guided practice in the use of descriptive language.
Open communicative practice Characteristics and techniques: the cards can be juxtaposed rapidly. Imagining connections how the students any two picture cards together and ask them to imagine a connection between them.
dinner.
T!"#$T:
This man is driving home very quickly because he is hungry and wants his
57
Story connections The example above can be extended into a story with each part of the story cued by the next picture %chosen at random&. The pictures can be propped up on a shelf. Alternatively' they can be kept in the teacher(s hand' in order. #ach student who adds a sentence to the story must retell the story so far' cued by the pictures. )ere is an example:
The man was driving home very quickly because he was hungry and wanted his dinner. )e thought about his difficult job and he wished he could live on a desert island. )e remembered his old friend *ill the +nife. )e remembered that *ill loved ice cream. uddenly he saw a dog in the road. An alternative to the above example is to show the pictures to the students and to ask them to write for four minutes about each one. ,nsist that the writing links together as one story. At the end of the four minutes the students should take it in turns to read out their story to their neighbours. Ask one or two students to read out their story to the class as a whole.
Flashing a picture
-lash a picture card at the class at great speed and ask the students what they saw. ome will say they saw nothing' others will' ama.ingly' have seen something. #ncourage differences of opinion and do not confirm or deny any ideas. -lash the picture again and ask the students to tell each other what they think they saw. Continue flashing' encouraging differences and debate. -inally show the picture.
58
Technical tips
and 1 The picturesmust be clearenoughto be seenthe Iengthof the classroom may sometimes be too complicated at somespeed.Magazinephotographs and full ofirrelevant detail. Oneway ofreducingthe distractingdetaii is to cut away the backgroundleavingthe main shape.
The lines should be quite Line drawingsshould be simple and not sketchy. ofthe objectas possible. thick, the shapeshould be as suggestive
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3 Colourshould be usedto make the shapestand out clearly and to contribute to recognition; for example, orangefor an orange,yellow for a lemon. Sometimescolourcan be usedto draw attention to a small shapein the picture, for example,a smail present;the rest ofthe picture can be drawn Just usingcolours with black linesand the presentcan be brightly coloured. purposesis probably a mistake in language teaching. for decorative 4 Card is expensive. Sometimescheap'offcuts'canbe obtainedfree from a local printer. Otherwise use food packets or cut up cardboard boxes.
Word flash cards
Word flash cardsare usually about 8 cm in height and are as longas for the text. They are principally,though not is necessary usedin the teachingofreading and writing. exclusively,

1 Word flash cards are easy and inexpensive for the teacher to prepare. 2 The cards are easy to store and to carry to the classroom. 3 They are easyfor the teacherand the studentsto handle and to useat the appropriatemoment. They can be held, propped,or stuck to the board. 4 Anumber of cardscan be displayedat thesame time: by askingseveral studentsto hold them, by stickingthem to the board,by clipping them to a by propping them on a shelf,by usinga wire (seetechnicaltips page 118), sentence maker. (Seetechnicaltips page64.)
Presentation
and techniques:the cardscan be preparedby the teacherandr Characteristics with or studentsand may be handled and then stuck on different surfaces plastic, s t i c k yt a p e .p i n s ,e r c . adhesive
60
La b elli n g clas sr oom obj ec t s way of usingword cardsis for the teacherto stick them on A well-established objects in the classroom: the door, the cupboard, a window, a desk, etc. The intention is to famifiarise the student with the written form ofthe word. At the reading practice stage,a game could be played based on true/false in which the teacher movesthe cards around before the students come into the The studentsmust spot which words are in the wrong placeand classroom. move them to the correct olace.
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Readingpractice
Characteristics and techniques: strips ofcard or paper are easy and cheap to obtain and texts can readily be written on them with markers. Di al ogu e s en t enc e cards Cards can be made of the sentenceswhich have become familiar to the can be shownas the studentsin a short dialogueor in a story.These sentences dialogueis beingspokenand then stuck on the board or held by students.This stageofrecognitionreadingis modestin what it offers. However,it is a well-tried technique and is particularly helpful to those studentswho are not only learningto read a foreignlanguage but onewith a different script.
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Commandcards Another well-established use of word cards is 'commands,. Commands are written on the cards, the teacher showsa card to a student and the student carriesout the command. The usualcommandsare: 'open the door',etc. However,more amusing commands could be added to the collection. For example:
sr-ng a song stand on one leg for one minute
Writingpractice
Characteristics and techniques:the ease and speedofselectingand displaying words and in any combination. Class sentences Word cards allow the teacher and classto build sentencesand to experiment with the addition, the substitutionand the subtractionofwords within a sentence.The physical manipulation ofthe words can contribute enormously to an understanding of sentenceconstruction by some students. (A variety of ways oflearning should be offered to the classto match the variety ofwavs in which individua.l students need to learn.) In the lust example,successive studentstake a card, read it out to the class and then with the heip ofthe classdecidewherethey should stand in the sentence.
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62
In the secondexample,the teacherasks the studentsto arrangethe cardson is stuck on the board and Here, one sentence the board to make a sentence. anotheris proppedon the shelf at the bottom of the board.
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In the third example,the teachergivesa group of studentsa set ofword cards and asksthem to stand in alphabeticalorder.
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Listening
and techniques:the cards are easyand quick to make.They Characteristics can be displayedat the most appropriatemoment without technicaldilliculty Spot the word The teacherreadsor tells a story and the individuai studentshold up their cardsas they hear their rvordspoken.This is training in intensivelistening. The studentsare learninghow to c0ncentrateon oneword or phraseand to ignorethe rest. the teacherto reinlbrcea theme in the subject b-vThe wordsmight be selected beingused.For example,the studentsmay have matter or in the Ianguage the variouswaysin rvhich narration can be word cardsrepresenting
od connected: suddenly/then/next/ a few moments later"meanwhile/just at that moment,/justbefore.Each student can be askedto note down how many times his or her word phraseis used.The frequencyofuse and the role ofthe words can then be discussedafter the ston'.
a talk Summarising which keypoints inatalkare summarise Cards most helpful instructuring the
talk. They are usefulin drawing attention to key points, in givingvariety and interestin the talk, in acting as remindersof what the talk was about onceit is for discussion. overand in providinga reference The teacher(or students)might find this useofword cardshelpful in reminding them of the order ofpoints they haveplanned to make. And it also helpsthe listenersto understandthegeneralargumentofthe talk and not to get lost. The cards can be held up, pinned to soft board, stuck to the board with plastic,or propped alongthe blackboardshelf. adhesive An exampieof a set of key points for a taik might be:
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The sametechniquecan alsobe usedrn story-telling.Each key creatureor ohject can be namedon a card.
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64
Technical tips
1 Although card is stiffer and more durable than paper,paper snips are quite adequate. 'offcuts'. 2 Printers throw away enormous quantities of These are the suips of paper cut offthe endsofprinted sheets. 3 An altemative to producing individual cards is to have a number of standard plastic.A water-based lengthcardswhich are coveredin a self-adhesive overheadprojector pen can then be used to write words which can be wiped offlater oncethe activity is over. .1 To establisha minimum height for the letters,try one out! That is the best way. However,the generalguidance is that Ietters should be about 6 cm high to be seen 10 m away. 5 Words composed solely of CAPITAL LET"f ERS are more difficult to read words partly by than thosein upper and IowercaseIetters.We recognise their overallshape.Words made of capital lettersall look the sameshape, i.e. rectangular. 6 Ways of displaying word cards have been referred to above.A classdisplay sentence maker can be made as follows:
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A largesheetot paper is folded as shownaboveand then stapledonto card or hardboard.
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Workcardsand worksheets
Workcards(about 15cm X 20 cm) and worksheets are lbr individual student use or for use by stud:,ll:_workrnC"rnsmall groups. Tf.,., p..Ua"l"-";;*_.; usefulbasefor the development ofall four skils without the teacher,s immediate involvement.GoodcoursebooksproviJe a tot ot this kind of material. However,many teachers make their own materialsfor studentsno matter how good their course book This [pe of visual materia.l can be treated with a very wide range of techniques, only someofwhich can be exemplifiedhere. For any individua.l and groupwork activities to be successfultwo things are necessary: 1 thestudentsshouldunderstandwhattheyhavetodo 2 the languagedemands on the student ,t-,ouf a U" *itiin-their capabilities. Standard exercise types
Nofe:
The following are all well_known types ofexercise and are usually not too difficult and time-consuming for ihe teacher prefare to in the form ofcards or sheets: A text intended for f,ranslation A text and comprehenston questrons A t e x ro r a p i c ru r ea n d m u l t i p l ec h o i c e questions A text or a picture and true/falsestatements Sentences and,,orpictureswhich must be matched A picture to be described Gappedtexts to be completed Jumbled texts lwords or sentences to be arrangedin the correctorder) "etc. . Word gamesincluding crosswords, anagrams.
tl6

I Pictures,drawn by the teacheror by the studentsor taken from magazines, can be combinedrvith texts either handrvrittenor ty.pedor taken from authenticprinted matter. ;l The two sidesof the card can be usedfor presentingdif'ferentinformation. This separation ofthe information is usefulin certain types ofactivity. { A set ofworksheetsenablesthe teacherro set either individual or group tasksrvhichstudentscan perform more or lessindependentlyofthe teacher i The cardsor sheetscontribute to varietv and interestin the classroom.
Controlled reading and writing practice

Characteristics and techniques:individual studenrscan work at their own paceand levelwith their orvnrvorkcardchosenby the teacherand,/or themseivesHandtwiting and copy wrir ing
\!brksheetscan be usedto help studentslearn to write Englishscript. Cards and sheets can be designed by the teacherto guide the student in the formation of individuai lettersand in thejoining of letrers.The students should,first of all, watch the teacheractually forming the letterson the board. (Somestudentshavea natural abilitv to remember the sequence of movements vou make, rememberingin the way thelr might remembera sequence ofdance steps.)The sheetsor cardsthen ofl'erindividual suidance and memory support. rYore: If the student usesthin paper or piacesthe master sheeton a window it is possible to traceoverthe Ietters.
6; o n c et h e s t u d e n t s h a ' e c i e 'e . l,rped a reasrrnabl re i e g r e e ' ia c c u r a c r . a n c lr n t r r r l i n l e t t e rt ' o r m a t i o n andjoining. e n c o u r a gte h e n rt o J r r , c l u c s persrn.l eo r n e w r i t i n g ,l b r e x a m p i er ,vrrttng t h e i rn a m e so r t h e i r f r i e n ( l - r 'arrres. n
Copl'w'riting The students s h o u l dm o v e, . r n to rnore extencleco l pving a s* e u a s r n o r e expioratorv c r e a t r V e , , v r i t i n g . . S t r a r g h t l b rc rv oa prl d .ing i _m s i n d n u n l b i n ga n c l notven' usefu I I I t i s b e t t e rt o g v e a r e a s 0 n fbrcop1.ing . n er e a s o n O fbrr opving 'I'he ls to ha'e a copv tbr oneselfofasongor a yroem. student doe-s not ha'e t. be f a m r [ a r r v i t ha l ] t h e l a n g u a g e o t t h es o n gb u t , o i c o u r s ei,t w . o u l d b es e n s i b l e it. h eo r s h eh a d h e a r di t a n c ll i k e dr t .
True,, Ialse cop1' w'ri ting C o p ]i n g d o e sn o t n e e dt o b e u n t h i n k i n g ' l\ h r i o u s s i m p l e . c h a l l e n g ec sa n requrre t h e s t u d e n tt o t h i n k o f t h em e a n i n g of the tert rvhilst a c t u a i l vo n 1 1 , h a v i n g t o c o p v i r . S i m p l e c h a l l e n g e s i n c l u d e1 : onlvcopvthetrue s e n t e n c e s 2 s o r to u t t h e - s e n t e n c e st o t h e c o r r e c t in orciea r n o r n e nc o p v t h e m l l c o p v o u tt h e s e n r e n c e s w h i c gh otogether . h e s e . c h a l l e n g en T so 't onlv add interestand reasonibr usingthe language, but allrrv the teacherto u s et h e t e c h n i q u e f o r a h i g h e rp r o f i c i e n c l . e r . eo l l ' s t u d e n tI.n t h i s e x a n r p l e the s t u d e n tm u s t o n l v c o p l t h e t r u es e n t e n c e s .
I Dop'f
BELIErE
w1
| /t was beauhfu/ ffi7a 4tasn,t ; a cloud in lhe sky. Z 7rtepilh was easl/ fo fo//ot^t.
3 There aas a briQeolerlk
1 7hesfreamuas near/qen pfq. 5 {ohn wa/ked behi^d all hc h'ne 5 / carried /fre haversact< .
t,iy\l*uP',ll'l
Dax* rrc'.h 6F
63
Pict tLre. text matching described a b o v et,h i s o n ec a n b e d o n ea t i r v a r i e t l ' o f ' Likemanl'oftheactivities to demonstrate l e l e l s .I n t h i s c a s et h e e x a m p l eh a sb e e nc h o s e n a picture text rnarchinsactivitv suitabletbr an advancedIevelstudent.
'&4
l5 TA *.frE1c'+?1ov f^,HlCH
ffi^n"-t',
ttttAcd oifh
444 lo 2;
Tpvl tlvt mqtrhino
flor"'ft'h::nfr,lj^ ;log *:Y:t
?!+:iii';;;" ""
',t no"
on,]-----..-
Qu/.v:;7;:
Oncemore we havechosento illustratethis type of activit)'with an example however, examplescan be suitableibr an advancedleveistudenr.Clearl-u.', devisedfor any proficiencyIevel.
:l;#
[,liii'''""
lno wovt oe fa4
ii:;:v
A fir.te of harvest ond goLTlering Yogether.
Gapped text 'fhe gapsin the text can be chosenqui te arbitrarill', but it is of more use to the selectgapswhich tbcuson a skiil (ior example,the skill ol student if -u-ou guessing at the meaningof an unknorvnrvordfrom its positionin the text) or on ( for example,prepositions, pronouns,tenselbrms). The t'eature a language gap can be tilled onll bl readingthe text or might be lilled b1'rel'erring to a Dicture.
69
T h e t e x l c a n ,o f c o u r s eb . e t a k e nt r o m t h e s r u c l e n r s books, lrom authenrrr material or be rvritten b,, r'ou. --it unusualiy colc the day I -___ ------my wi fe, The winoows as we -----n't off but the visibillty too good. liJhen i --lhat we ---low on -- 3: a FreLrur I OetnOi St-a--iCn, My wi.fe ---she wouid the wrndows. She rhe rront.nesi iiiting up the wipens quite caref uily. Then sne ---r_o i-he oack oi round the car and --I never her again. lJhen she - - - n t f i - ^ 1 . uduK I _______ Sne must ---to Lhe toi. lets. Bul af ter ---some time when she didn't back I - - - out and the attendant i f he had ---go into her the toilets. Then I ----a woman to go in to see if she --there. She ---n't. The attendanl didn't even seem to rememben hen settinq out of the car, I -----the pol ice but they never her.
Junbled texts 'l'he texts might be singiervordcards.Thesecouid be kept rouetherin irn envelope a n d u s e dt b r s e n t e n c e buildinq. \ b u m i g h tc h a l l e n g e r h es r u ( l e n t ro build the longest possibie senrence rvith the rvordsin the en'elope'r to builcias n a n v s e n t e n e ea ssp u s s i f ; i e i n l i l e n t i n t u 0 . ,c o p i . i n g ciou n e a c ho n eb e i b r e . t a r t i n gt o b u i l d a n r r r h e r .
[il.'I@l"b""aMl;mE@
|ffil|HllffillffiI[""rillF""''\
;0
Controlled and guided oral practice

s:o r k c a r d - s : t n c l t l r k s h e t ' tc sa n p r r r l t c i e C h a r a c t e r i s t i ca sn c lt e c h n r q u e s g, uidance i i r rg r 0 t t l l $ r r r k . a n c ir e l e r e n c e rn()tiVation -['here go n t r o l l e c lr iral el c h n i c l t t e ts o r r r r g a n i s i nc e s t a b ] i s h etc a r ev a r i o u s in ec l L r d e : prilctice in grotlps.'l-hes c u e sl b r u s ei n m r n i d i o l o g ' . r e s Pictures guidingrole pi;r1' T e x t sa n d o r p i c t u r e s aclivities Information'gap or rlrclered a n d o r t e x t st o b e l n l t c h e d . g r o r : l l e d Pictures actilitres Game-like (]uestionnaires Picture cued n in i diaktgue s 1'pe of' st \ r 0 t o s i \ e x c h a n g e s ) . ' f h its c a n b e c u e si n m i n i d i a l o g u e I Pictures itl- has enorntouspotentiallbr the teacher. actir. o1' mustbuildup a coliection H o u ' e v e rt,o r i t t o b e e i f i c i e n t h e t e i i c h e r a n d k e e pt h e r nl i l e d b l s u b j e c t . r n a g a z i np ei c t u r e s ( r rt o p r o v i d e c u e st b r c a n b e u s e dt o c t t ea n s $e r st o q u e s t i o n s Pictures thiit thestuden t s k n o r vr v h i r tt h e l F n sentences . i r s to f a l l e n ' . u r e substitutioni s t , ,d o i t . T h i s c n n l ) e t o d o e n d c h e c kt h a t t h c t h a v et h e I e n g u a g e a r es u p p o s e d is n t r o n to l t h e c l a s s r n i n ic l i a l o g u e b ] ' d o i n gs a r n p l e cione i n t h e g r o u pa r o u n da t a b l e t h e r es h o u l db e l o u r t o s i x s t u d e n t s I n m o s tc a s e s stuclv a i o n t h e t a b l ea n d t h e s t u d e n t s i s p l a c e dI a c ec i o rn A p i l eo t p i c t u r e s take a n d t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s b o u tw h a t t h e v h a v et o d o . ' [ ' h e 1 ' t h e n r n i n id i a i o g u e a's clirectec ain d u s i n gt h e n l t l r , i c k i n gu p t h e p i c t u r e s I ) a r ti n t h e d i a l o g u ep t v h a tt h e r m i g h ts a r ' . determine 'i'he d i a l o g u ec sa n l ) ea t a v a r i 0 t \ ' o ll t ' re l s .H e r ea r et w o . ' f l l e I i r s t i s h i g h h es lel.'l'he.ettltr(lt-.tttoreclenrallclingrrstlle c o n t r o i l e ( l p r a c t i c e a t i r e g i n n el r anviciea h eo r s h e i t i s l e l t t o t h e s t t l c l e ntto e x p r e s s u p i s n o t g u i d e db L r t lirllorv lirels i si r l ) p r { ) p r l i r t e . 'l'he l ld v a n r i n ic l i a b g t t e t arrl: a r eg r . r i c i e students
;1
Do yoq hcfurtr
Lrr< rtj",rrd
re^lr.rTil : hobbitr n.4 Plq. lL. prtfe/cr"po.t, {qq dourr
Insl'a.Lo"3.'
lYlrai Dialog-q
A I (pick,^3 D- yo-
up q ptLfur< d so-ronc likq rqiuari.j B? Fatl{*ttyJ 6 : (an.ruerrl^9 Yer,ldo! OPtlo^J,tL /No.la""cl
o,--r^5)
'i:l
')ir
3'
- Jf '5 roncterf*l r lf r ltrrible
./ lf i gre oC I ff! bqlig ./

'F: ft14 , ^. :+ '.<t':
-4.
Elementary level A piie ofpictures ofhobbresand sport-r srr r)frvr'{: (picking up a picture of someonepla;.ing relrull Do vou like tennis? sr-LDE\r R t an ss'er y and choosingfrom the range ol responses i ng t ru t lx'ulJ s r e l ) \ ' e s , r ' e n m u c h . I q u r r e l i k e i t . .I d o n ' t l i k e i t v e r v m u c h . , I h a t ei t l p i c k i n gu p a c a r d a n d t h e n a s k i n ga n o t h e r Thedialoque conrin u e sb , rs ' lu d e n t s s t u d e n ta s i m i l a rq u e s t i o n .
i'<.)
;2
Intermediate level A pile of pictures tiom other countries ,irLDE\r I ,irf DE\r B srt oerrr, B: -<r'r.DE\r (picking up a picture ol Rome )\f truld1ou like to go to Ronle'.' ri ng trut hlull,r'l Yes,I u ould l a nswe Wh1'? and I s ould like BecauseI n ould [ke to visit the ancient burlclings to see\lichelangelo s cerlingin the SistineChapel.
Dialo gue, role play and simulation

teat hing activitiesrn language Dialogueand role plal'are rvell-establlshed prepareb1'the teacherand studentsand provide Thel'are relativell'easy'to practice.Changesto the dialogues can be cued e and usetulIanguage intensir. b v t e x ta n d o r p i c t u r e s . Ifyour classare not familiar rvith dialogueand role plaf it is advisableto begin by rvritingthe model dialogueon the chalkboard.All the examplesgivenbelorv indeed,as rvehaveseen( pages1{ and 15) couldbe written on the chaLkboard; the chalkboardoffersthe teachergreatflexibilitf in adaptingthe examples belowtiom one t)'Peto another' in recent1'earsA few card hal e beendeveloped llanl' designsof role pla-"roughil'gradedaccordingto are illustratedin the examplesbelorv, basict1'pes the diificulties the!'present to the student. Each givesa different level0f controloverwhat is said. .\bre; to the designo1the cardsor \bu shouldgiveas much attention as possible Any'difficultf in using them can demoralisethe studentsand reduce sheets. of the activitl'. In the examplesbelorvsomebasicdesign the usefulness havebeenmade to: decisions b1'the addition of faces: . givecharacterand inrerestto the dialogues . separate the texts from eachother and to keep their order ciear b1'the means: tollorving of rvriting 1 usingdifl'erentst1'les 2 u s i n g e n c l o s i n g s P e eb ca hl l o o n s of line 3 usingtrvothrcknesses J olerlappingthe speechballo,rns directionllorvlines 5 r.rsing 6 ustngtones.
Repetition dialogue In thrst-"-pe ofrolepiay'the students readoutthedialogue asit isgl en

1gu'. o|,otag
tJhn{
atz
Jorrg /o F" ??* l?? >th O^

/ts, 3o"a iaea I LtV't nceu oE
J.rrho r.
S ubstitu tion di alogues In thist1'pe thestudenrs whatto sayfromwhatisgiven. choose
What are you dor'Ag thr: aftcrnoonHelcn?
to/see5i-o7owabouf9oir1.g arl ctlery/tt'e isil'rr. narheli 9

nds/eE your house,/ct rnero+WillrhmSfrclr.
QrcaE.r/o.k/ Nl-taE an orgra.n izcr/
7{
Symbol dialogue Someof the rvordsare replacedb1.'abbrevraring and or b1's1.mbois and. or b l a n k s .I t i s i m p o r t a n rr o e n s u r e t h a t r h ec i a s s understand t h e c o n re n r i o n s used.It is essential to explain or evento $ ork out rhe svmbolsrvith the class
hafnro tl-ror: qro ncorl
A 12
['ot o,{oo,.t9o,$t" -/
,/. .Q.l
tr/O:
7
Le(r rne"l qc-
-/
-/.
Key word cue dialogue lVhatthestudents sayisrepresented b1,'a single kevrvord or svmbol
Itou abo*f...>
E\
G
F lowchar t ins tr uc tion dia log u e The studentsare directedwhat to sal'b1'an instruction.This is probabll.the 'fhe most difficult t]'pe ofcue. student must be ablero read and understanda rather abbreviatedand abstractdirectionand producean appropriate utteranceusingclifferentlaneuage anclin a natural u ar',
i;l
The particular designof tlouchart made useot hereis oneof the most useful The paper can be folded as it is clearhorvthe dialogueprogresses, designs his or her own part. dorvnthe middle so that eachstudent can onl)',see
4irk Jln""a
Fl.( he/she': ri.g l-|rr'r f . rn .
;^ oof\r;Yy 5a.9 noE raauoh Arf. rth.i.
{o/
So. it-r a.;ood

e Dhcre
rdea
F"
Bnn ching fl owchart dialo gu e rvhat directionthe This techruquealiowsthe student to choose ro somedegree, dialogue should take.
r*rk y".r frieaa

lJhat he /she'r
i^9 ilr! |.u.
a^ FroPorc achv for a^
talQq iFy .
A6rz<.
Simulation In a simulation,eachstudent takeson ihe roleof a llctional characterin an and they'cannotbe predicted imaginarysituation.Dialoguesare not specit-red b1'theteachertogetherrvith the studentsquite Simulationscan be er,olved The most basicsimulation only requiresa situation and a number of easill'. to be describeci. characters
/o
Ifthere are six charactersthen there must be six srudentsin the group to play are requiredplus onewhich all the out the simulation,i.e. six worksheets studentscan seedescribingthe situation.The studentsread and study the which descriptionon their cardsor sheetsand then take part in the discussion tbllowsas ifthev werethe personon the card. 9itualiov 'l-o*n. A group o{ six yeople arc vistft^3 a'1ruv151Thry hote arrtr'eal in *h< er'nra3 anol ar askeal 'lo make decrs,ons about what 'they woulol \rze 1o o4o .*le nexl ola!.
ice dwi^n' - (,je g"oc old. LiL<s vrs,hns Sev,en+3 arf aê ^ds4utvts. Can'l- Walk Ver3 far.
gallcrres
Den^ts lt^ his tal-,i3
'+1all {v{+e.t. ou,l-. Lr Ls
l ' " .h 1 . .u !'a !1 csu l l r i { < a n t s N o i n t e r e r " 't,^ q1 se 'ete a1ags
got( and
Maggre Sfee/ Ninzfee.q yea.(s ol4. "Lols wa.lk,A3 anc,l swiuuinj. Also rn*eretted tn arf aa6( ry.us(C.
Information-
gap activities
with the emphasisplacedon This t1-pe of activity is now closeiy'identified In fact, ior the purposesofcommunication in the classroom. usingIanguage the) are althoughinformation-gapacti!'itiesinciude someusefuldevices, gamesrather rhan the sort of things peopledo in their normal daill etTectivei-vrvith eachother.Four examplesbasedon the difi'erence berweentwo dealings
t1
setsof information which are easvfor the teacherto deviseare summarised here.Other examplesofinformation-gapactivitiescan be found elsewhere. (Seeother volumesin the Keys series. ) What's the difference? In this version ofarr information-gap actir.ity there should be two lots of informarion stuck on either sideofa pieceofcard. (Alternatively,the information can be on rwo different cards.) The information shourd be similar but not identical.Studentsworking in pairs sit either sideofthe card (oneof them holding it so that rhey can eachseeoneside).There are many possible variations of this idea. In this example, the students have fwo similar pictures. They couid be tw.o magazinephotographs of sirnilar scenesor similar Iors of people.The students' job is tojot down as many differences as they car find between rhe two setsof information in five mintues.The student not holding the picture must do the writingl
n,ocut,t iii*,
",* ofrb"r7Lt'o*t
,'^,./.a1'.at 'ioe ti
Matching activities
There area Iargenumber ofversionsofthis useful and productivet),peof activity. Here are a few of them: Pelmanism A goup ofstudents work togethersitting around a table.They aregivenan evennumber ofcards (rv'enty is sufficient).The cardsare paired; for example. theremay be a picture offruit on onecard and on the other card will be its name. The studentsstudy.ailthe catds,mix them rogetherand then rurn
r8
are allou'ed to see them lace dorrn on the table in neat ron s. The student's then take it in \\'hereeachpicture t or rrord carcii is beinglaid. The student's them to be a pair. If the student t urns to point to rhe back of nvo cardsclain.ring t h e : 1 .F o re x a m p i e : i s r i g h t ,t h e n h e o r s h ek e e p s - i r ' fr ) r - \ r ' A T h i s i - . a p r c t u r e o a f p i n e a p p l el t u n t i n g i t o v e r . . . a n d i t i s ! ) a n d \-es! t h r si s t h eu o r d . ' p i n e a p p l e( t u r n h g i t o r c r . . . a n d i r r s J l Ii the student is not right. both cardsare left in the sameplaceand turned back agaln.
nnIrA,
lrnlE\q
NE
''
,.a' ;i'
lE&?t',,
Search for your tv in is givena pieceol paper In thrs matching activitr'.eachstudent in the cla-.s q'ith a text and or a picture on it. He or she mu.stsearch{br anotherstudent in the classu'ith the matching paper.The samekind of pairs can be usedas in P e l m a n i s mo : r h e rt 1 ' p e s o f p a i r si n c l u d e : Questions. anss'ers
Flou arc
Yo'^ ?
ll Not rrcry ,.re
79
\\brds
dictionarv definitions
Snâll dome|ha.f'e d rna.rr,+.al cavc|\ ral'r or r'1ic1,
keptr a15 a. peE
Poets extracts from theirpoems
O tf,t oPa.l ancr qg-jra

First half of a sentence second half of a sentcnce
hric
r.)al cold bcca-se he h
bc.".loitr"iE.
-oa lf''n 3 hqurr-
Picture of actions sentences describing actions
Shc's shopprig
Present tense form of a verb past tense form of the same verb
EE
American English u'ord British English u'ord
f"h'"t.I @
Questionnaires
prolide a rich source ol ar:tilitiess hich locuson particr:lar Questionnaires 3: eLti\ itjti {orln.and ale alsoseetl Ianguage leatures, mostobviousllthe question rrhichareinteresting in rhemseiles. that nlakeuserll sonlequestion-' The questionnaire herecontains illustrated elententanIocabularvand structureand Vetcouldleadto an intere'tinq
80
are more personaland would Ieadto further statisticalsurvet'.Other questions discussion.
Who.c
Y,ve
da
Yo4 9o
lo bea'? r\ezc^?
Hou.l m,^"1't 5{e-ep clo you rea'lly
D o y o u . l i h - e -s l e e p r n g ? Do yo* -errer SieeP 6lr^rr'ng h' Do yo*

Do Can
Do
:91:
snore- ?
d(eaw^? rz*eeber
ha.ne. Jcrmq
yo* vo*
yo*
t l o n r Otreo.nrs ?
c(fecrt^r cSql^ a*ol lJarT i
IJ
Do Yo'^ haoe
Nhct
niShi-rna'rer ?
nilln(tna-rz)
da-t \4o(^( dorsr
h.lnof 1j fh. lonJet(
l-r'-,e-yo* ha',"c sGpC-?

|tq.'^q bee^ a'ta{R-'1
open?
ltJt^,af rs fhe lo19esf,t-,*eyo*

[o yoc slee,p ..r'iK fhe t:(^dou,
Are yo* l>righC a"d@

J)o i.o. 1-\rcite t)hen Yon 7eC *P?
Free oral practice

on and techniques:there are a number of standard techniques Characteristics and workcardswhich can be usedin groupworkfor promotlng worksheets extendeddescriptionand story-telling.These discussion, conversation, include: techniques
a1
Speculatingabout a picture Discussing a topic with ret'erence to picturesand,/ortexts Expressing feelingsand rallirngabour personalexperiences basedon a picture or a text S t o r l ' - t e l l i n g b a s eo dn a s e r i e s o l p i c t u r e s a n do r t e x r s
Speculating
The studentslust of all describewhat the-"seein the picture and then speculate about rvhat mighi be happerung. In pracricerhe fw'ostages overlap 'read' peopledo not a.ll because a picture in the samewa1.. In this sense what rs descriptionfor one personmight be speculatron for anorher. The rvorkcardshould havea picture and two setsofquestions.To involveoral work, two students can be asked to work together. Even more oral rvork is involvedifthe followingorgarLisation is adopted,Have rwo pairs ofstudents (A and B; C and D). Each pair should rvork on one workcard. After an agreed amount of time the pairs exchangecards and work on their 'new' card in the same way. After another agreedamount of time make netv pairs of A and C and B and D. Each student expiainsro rhe other student what ideasthey had about eachofthe cards.
Hor.r old is fhis perron?
2. hhaf is he dorirg noo? 3 Di:,a.t is his;ob? 4 lnho& sort ol personolity
d . o e sh e h a , t e ? t What olher ft-,tags c.cn

lOu rwro-gtae abowF
hr^ ?
{ay,1f !.#1,.,
gllod
erte
w{ir:in
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An alternativeto usinga picture oi a personis to usea picture ofa place, perhapsa picture postcardof a torvn.The studentsrvorkin pairs to trl to anall'sethe picture and to deduceas much as they can aboul the place: of town' rvhich countr)''north 0r south,climate, etc. industries,'size Ify'ou havethe lacts about the in this casethe answerneed not be speculative. piace,thesecouid be rvritten on another card. \Vhrch pair ofstudents was able to deducethe more accuratell'?
Freewriting
the teacherto iind and techniques:rt is relatir,'ei1'eas1'for Charactenstics pictwes which can be cut from magazines, etc. and to find or to rvritere-{ts which can be pasredonto cardsfor stimulating writing: descriptionand story-telling. anall'sis, speculaiion,expression, Somet1'pes of material rnciude: Artistic, stimulating pictures which stir the imagination; Ambiguouspictures which can be interpretedin a variety ofways; A series ofpictures or diagramsrvhichdescribea process; for equivalentletters; Samplelettersand suggestions with singlewords,phrases, Textswith gapswhich can be filled in creatively, dialogues or wholeparagraphs.In this type of acdvitv there is no one correct answer.
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83 Technical tips
i Ii 1'ouhavesmoothcard l'ou can rvritedirecriy on it. Ifl'ou are using card cut irom packets,etc. then vou should pasteonto it t1.ped, photocopied or handwritten texts.Ifl'ou make a rot ofrvorkcardsor rvoiksheets then it rs helpful to giveeachone a codewhrch1'ouririre in the sameplaceon the sheet.It is alsohelpful ifall the cardsand sheetsaremade to standardsizes which t'it into file boxes, springiiles,etc. 2 Card is clearil' more attractir.eand durabieif it is cor.ered in transparent clearadhesiveplasricor kept in a clearplastic bag. If,"-oucan reproducesheets easilvvou mar. feel ther.areeasierto produce than cardsand can be replacedmore easily.Cards can be Iost,taken bv studentsand not returned, erc.and then 1.our hard rvorkis lostl 3 Students can sometimes be askedto conceive, design,write and illustrate cardsand sheets w'hichare rhen usedeither rvithin the sameciassor in lorver classes. Ifrhe studentsknow that their rvorkrvill be used,they are more Iikelv to do their best and they rvill seethe sense in 1,our insistingthat the finai versionis correct.The act ofmakingteachingmaterial is oneofthe best waysoflearningi It is thus not a rvaste ofthe students'time to ask them to do this. They might like to signthe workcardsor worksheets with their names. 4 If you can sharethework of producingworksheets with other teachers it would clearlvbe a big help. 5 Y-ou arenot supposedto make multiple copiesof publishedmaterials. However,you can cu! up trvoStudents'Books and mount eachexercise on a pieceof card. If the card is then laminatedyou rvi.ll ha'e a most valuableand flexibleresource pack which will help you to deal with a varietv ofneedsin 1'ourclassat the sametime and for Iittle cost. 6 Instructionson the card or sheermust be as ciearas possible or the students will rvaste time and disruption rvill be caused. Ifnecessarl.givethe instructronsin the morher rongue. The marn rhing is thaithe acti'itv shourd b eu e l l d o n e . 7 Be sure that l'ou kno* roughiv horvlongthe * ork shourdtake. If the rvorkis overin a minute it is probabl-,not rvorthdoingbecause of rhe disproportionate amount of time spentorganising it. On the other hancl m0re than tlfreenmrnutesmal'be too longrvithout s0mesort of interaction rvith 1'ou. 8 Ifthe cardsor sheets are ior the studentsto keep,they can be encouragecr to iilustratethem, colourthem or add graphicsl.mbolsto thern. 9 For suggestions on lavout and letteringseepages 100to lOE.
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Authentic printed materials
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Authentic printed materialsinclude anl thing written and printed in English publicitl', technicalinstructionstbr equipment, magazines, newspapers, holiday' brochures.etc.
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1 \'er-v.olten, l'reemateria.lis available to the teacher. 2 The lact that it is authentic materiarclearrl'not producedtbr schoors means that studenrsare often morivaredb1.it and curious. 3 The complexrtl'of the language is a disadvantage onl1, i1.1.ou expectthe studentsro understande'ery rvord.It is not the difficultv of the text which ,,vhich determines p r o f i c i e n c ' J e ' eo l fsrudents c a n u s et h e t e x t .b u t t h e t a s k 1'ougivethem to do. For exampie,1.ou could givea newspaperanicle to a iirst year group ofstudents and ask them to find how manv worcrs thev can recognise. Thus oneshouid be exproitingthe compiexity of the materiai and shorving studenrsthat the_"can often make somesense evenoi difiicult material if thel'look r'ore'er1'possible clue.The material should not be used for testingcomprehension but for reaching comprehension which means de.,'eloping a positiveand coniident attitude to it and Iearningsomebasic techniques for deaiingwith a lot of ianguage which is dil1iculiro understand. '1 The material can usually be phorocopied and then stuck onto card for reuse. 5 The material is often much more expensively producedthan educationai booksavailableto teachersin manv countries.
Newspapers
Ch.aracteristics and tech'iques: the very fact that the language ofnewspapers is difficuir to read is one of the reasons for usingthem. Studenrsmusr experience the florvofnatir.eianguage useand know horvto do their best wrthit. The topicality ofneivspapers is relevantand so too is the reflectionofthe culture. Here are a few thingsyou can do with most newspapers. With 1'ourbeginners: 1 Ask them to list all the rvordsthel' recognise. D O Z E N So f p e n s i o n c ' h r :: l c b e e nl e i r o u t r n t h e c o l d a s p l a n st o m o r e i n t o l u x u r r rerrrcmrn l r t ' h r r c f J l l c ni h r o L , r h U rt rhc
iJ\l mlnutc W i m p c v H o m c s H o l d r n q sL t d . . o p e n e d , t h c r r r e c c n t l y - c o n r p l e t e dP a r k f i e j d t - o u r t dr\clopm(nt rn tuo m(,nth\Jpu _Drdsburr I ' ) r a p u n l t c\ l e w t n q
2 Ask them to guess rvhat each article is about either broadll, for example, sport 0r nl0re specificai11., lbr example, the London marathon.
S6
hre , l A s k t h e m t o i d e n t i t - t ' t h e d i t l e r e n t s e c t i o n s o f t h e n e s s p a pte : rnainnervs, advertisements, etc spcirt, business, the editorial,generalt'eatures, student.: \ \ ' i t h m u r ea d v a n c e d basedon dilTerentparts ol the newspaperrvhich 1 Preparesomequestions clonot entail the studentsreadingeverl'thingin detail but onll in searching to ]-0urquestions. l^{dvancedstudentscould be askedto for the ansrvers example: lbr lessadvancedstudents ) F'-rr preparethe questions r Horvmuch doesthe 198i Ford Granada costand horvmanv miles has it done?
'1.8i, while white alloy whels' 8ll ASTRA GTE .......... 84795 full histo.y..-... . ... .. (C) SUZUKI SJ413 JEEP. 13OOcc.Gunmetal gray mdallic. Hard & Sotl tops. Suprb 4-whel ..... ... .... ........ " ' e4995 dtivingtor only. ......-B EXECUTIYE 87 FOAO GRANAOA GL. net model, Gold Metalmi1o5................ ... ... 6995 lic. ABS brskes, 20.OOO 86 VAUXHALL CARLTON GoId molallic' one owne., low mileage, Pristire exsmPl. ........... !4995 89 RENAULT 25 GtS AUTOMATIC. Lsg@n Blue. save c1'5oo on nw " e1 1750 " " " 8lue, alarm, 85 BENAULT 25 GTX, Ltg@n 5995 suntoot. lull ssdie history.............................
il rndon the teievision? e What time is Gone l\-ith rrhe r Who lost their car? w hen her painting rvassold to the o What did Sarah RaphaelsaJ' Iletropolitan \Iuseum of )Iodern fut in Nerv \brk? 2 from a newspapershowingpricesof, for Give the studentsadvertisements forjobs showing cars,TVs, etc. and advertisemenrs exampie,houses, such as: Ask questions salaries. o How much do things costin Britain (or the country of orign of the newspaper)? r Horvdo thesepricesrelateto what peopleearn,judgingby the tbr jobs? advertisements orvncountrt'? a How do thesepricesand incomesrelate to thosein,v-our
GL, 5-door,Navy lllue,20,000miles, 86 VOLVO 3.10 ,. '.,'.. verycleanexampl,. miles,toP of the (D) ROVER 216SE, Bhck, 17,000 ... .. r a n g g e v e r ye x t r a ,s u p e r be x a m p l e . . 86 FIESTA POPLI-AR PLUS 1.1 In maroon, ........ ,antastic ondition. 1 , 1 , 0 0m 0ilesf (E) FIAT UNO 135X, Black' central lNking, .. '. *'indows. electric (C) FI.{T U\O 55 SUPER, in whitg full service ...... history.,,\loyelylittlecan 85 FORD FIEST.\ 1.1 DASH, in black,specialedition ... model,excellentcondition...
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dare: 28 April 1989.
}IEDICAL SECRETARY
iJ995 15795 f3795 f5J95 tlj95 !1195
challenging and interesring Fst rnvolves This responsibility for the provision of a secreerial seryice to i Professor of Cl naecology and his ream Shonhand and ryping skills arc essmugl rs is prevlos medical secreurial exPenence per week, Monday to Friday' Hours of work:37 ,4'71' Salarv: {5,484 rising by amual ircremmts Lo pius proficiency allowances of shonhand md tyPing uP *herc approprirte f 573 of io a m-imum lnfomal enquiries welcome for both positions Pl*se conuct Christine Tomlins on 061-276 6999 Closing
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3 Cut out several headlinesand ask the studentsto cliscuss rvhat the article might be about.This is a good*'av oi delelopingpredictivereacling skills. '1 Cut out -severai headlines and articiesand ask the studentsto murch,h.-. 'i Cutoutseveralphotographsandtheircaptionssepararell'.^{skthestudents to match them. One approachro this rechniqueis to gir.ea photographto a pair of studentsand to ask them to notedown as much as thev can surnrise fion.ra studl of the picrure.The1.shoulcithen w ri re a ;hort ariicle 0r capuon to gorvith it beforebeinqshou.nrhe acrualone used. 6 Cut up an artrcleinto several piecesand a-.kthe studentsto sequence the piecescorrectlr'. This can be donein r ariousn ar s. In une versionthe classls dn'ided into small groupsand eachis gilen one sectionof an article. I'hev studf it and trv to make sense of it. Then rhe teacheraskseachgroup tu iead out their pieceof the article.The groupsmake noreson the othei piecesthev h e a ra n d r r ' r o d e c i d e * h a t o r d e rt h e ' s h o u r db e i n . \ e x r r h e r ei s a c l a s s discussion. The piecescan be read and re-read until er.ervone is in agreement. Finalll.the u.holearticle is readout.
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88
The studentsstudy an article or a letter to the editor and trv to rervriteit in a a different point ofview. way which expresses
Sir, In recent yeus there hr been more md more criricism of dogs md dog omers. Some of this criticism may be reconable. However, there is no reron why dog owners should bc uhmed of having a dog. Dogs, like all pes. provide a rccial seryice: lonely peopie have a compmion lo cue for: pople who would otieryise become unfit, have to take rheir dogs for a walk. A free comtry mems a free coutry for people md their pes o live our their iives a they wmt o, providing, of course, that they do noc interfere wi*r rhe lives of odrer people. Anthony Higgim 12 Beifield Road Mmches[er M20 OBH
Study two articles on the same topic and discuss the different views expressed. Photocopy an article and use typists' correction fluid to remove items from items such as articles, it. You could remove:punctuation, language Photocopythe article with the gapsand giveit conjunctionsor prepositions. to rhe students,askingthem to work out what is missing.Finally let them compare theb effort with the original.
TIELP THE
AGED
urgently needed to help *ith Volunteers jobs at the Help the Aged shop on Paletine nccdcd lo hclp Road, Northenden.They goods, iron clolhes. ser! with son customersand other tasks. The shop manager would bc dclightcd to hru ftom anyone who can spirreal lcast a m o m i n g o r a n e f t e m o o nr u c e k . T h c s h o p sraffed almost entirell by voluntecrs and canno! oDeratewithout such suDporL.
89 10 Ask rhe studenrsro examinethe rvar.that journalists use English.This can be donein pairs ancithen in groupsbelbrethe classpool all their observations, lbr example,intinitil.esusedto express future, useof alliteration,passives, erc.Thel could then make a Iist of usefui expressions and ofclich6swhich vou rvouldprefernot to use.
Publicitymaterial
Publiciry material includes:the ad'ertisementsof major industries,the small 'ads' (advertisingrooms ro rent,jobs, ,,vork, etc.), propaganda(health careand road safety). The language is often succinct;on the other hand, ir is olten so colloquialas to be obscureexceptto the likely customersofthe product. Characteristics and techniques: there are two main aspectsto the useol publicity material, fustil.'a study ofthe nature ot persuasion, ofthe assumptionofvalues,of srereotyping, etc. and secondlythe Ianguage, borh pictorial and verbal,which is used.
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Here are a few thingsy'oucan do with most beglnners: 1 Show the studentsa number 0f ad'"'ertisements and ask them rvhat idea, experience or objectis beingadvertisedand rvhothe publicity is aimed at. How is the advertisertrling to persuadepeople?Beginnerscan be allowed to useiheir mother tonguefbr this anal"r-sis. The learningderivesfrom their anai,v'sis ofthe advertisement and from their preparationto do this kind of anall'sisin the loreignlanguage at a later date. 2 Ask the studentsto lisr all the rvordsand phrasesin the material that thev knorv.
90
are used horvoiten certain kev rvorcls to note do\'r'n 3 A"k the str,rclent{ C}ivethestudeni-ctora.l1l"'{rrwrittenonlheboardlanr:nberofslogansand ask ihem to savri'hat product thel'lre reterringtc 6 9 p p3 d . r ' a n r ' e Eo1 "d t,:cienl.: t o t h i n k c f * h a t s h o u l db e p r o m o t e ciin t h e i r c o L t n r r l L A-ck thestridenis tbr it. The ideasrnight leisrrre. etc.) and producesomeicieas safety', Lirealt,h. direct maii leatlet-s, sl,rglns,badges. includeterl ancipictures tbr posters, tape recordings). ti-.trvo-ilinute cassctte nelvsbr0a.lcasts(cione for a product or erperience 2 Ask the studentst0 stririi an xciveriisentent $ rite a lettei oicomplaint to the and csrltre) SprrrtS restaur&nt. thoiiCal's, thev havebought or aboul their inlagined rnanagerabout the ob.iect expenenceihere.
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the rvaf it is used,the useof the ianguage: Ask the studentsto anall,'se the useof imperativesor more persuasive metaphor,colloquialisms; '1'ou' impersonaiand the useof the rvord advice,suggestions; language, p e r s o n a lW . h a t ' t o n e o f v o i c e ' i su s e d ? be to producean alternativeadvertisementw hich ri'or-rld A,.k the str,rdents more appropriatefor a particular socialgroup thel knorv. sake.an advertisementrvhich to rvrite,tbr amusement's ir ^\sk the stucients rvouldsellas little of the product as possible.
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91 6 Ask the students to u'rite an advertisement pretending that one ofthe other students in the classis a product. They can use the languageofadvertising rvhich they have noted in earlier tasks.
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of holidaybrochures. 7 Givethestudents copies Ask themto choose a holiday togoonwith theirfriend.Theyshouldsaywhai each of themwill enjoy, how muchitwill costandwhentheyhave chosen to gc.They couldbeasked to else in the sameway. choose a holidayfor someone
Technical tips
1 Sourcesof material Inyoru country English language newspapers may be available either from an Engiish-speaking counlry or produced locallyMuch publicity material and many equipment instructions are in English. You rnightbe able to getmatedai in English from frms in your country owned by companies from English-speaking countries. You might be able to get materials from the embassiesof English-speaking countries. In many countries the British Council/USIS and the equivalent institutions from other English-speaking countries have arrangements with teachers to use their libraries. Ifyou have friends in an English-speaking counlry they can send you printed material through the post at a cheap rate. 2 Organisationin the classroom You are unlikely toget enoughcopiesofnewspapers or publicity leaflets, etc. for every student. There are severalwaysofdealingwiih this limitation: (a) You can give a newspaper to a pair or group to work on while other groups work on diiferent tasks altogether. (b) You can cut the nervspaperup and give out parts ofit to different pairs or groups.
t(c) Youcancut out certfi articlesor parts of articlesand pastethoseon a ofthat (for purposes ofresearch). sheet ofpaperandmakea photocopy (d) Youcanseparate the pages anddisplaythese wallsor on on theclassroom tables.Studen'* must then study the paperwhereit is displayedand with a lot of studentscanwork from onesingiecopyof a this arrangement of publicity material displayedin the newspaperorfromseveralexamples sarnewav.
The learnin g environment
By far the richest material availabie to the language teacher iies ir: the learning environment. Only a few ofthe possibiiities sketched outbelow can be illustrated in this book.
scul {aciliher noro{acPurerf cleetrir.g uill lle 6n5tishentld sPak'i:g Engtish9peakug l-oarir l-s
COhaunrLafronf

Becausethis is such avaried andrich source ofmaterial only a few pointers can be given here. 1 The learni:ngenvironment is a living society which the students care about in one way or another. They are aiso knorvledgeableabouttheir environment in many respects.They know some things you do not know, for example, about themselves, about iheir families and friends and very probably about parts ofthe neighbourhood, aboutjobs, leisure and so on. Fbr these reasonsthere is much to exploit in the learning environmeni. The question for someteachers and students might be: Why do this in the foreign language?It is a fair questionifaskedl One answer would be, because it is interesting and lets us seeifwe can taik about such things in the foreign language,i.e. it is a personal chailenge.Another responsernightbe: Let's prepare ourselvesfor dealingwith foreignvisitors to our neighbourhood who we couid help. 2 For the most part the resources of the learning environment are readily available, varied and free!
Life in the classroom

Chan ctei stic s an d techniques rry to represent real people in real life situations. 1 Language courseboo]<s The classroom is one part ofthe real, andvery visual, world. In every class there is a wealth ofexperience, ofopinions and ofideas. It is rarely tapped in haditional teaching. Normally a teacher's knowledge and experienceis much greater than a youngstudent's. Nevertheless, each student has his or her own experiences, which are evidenced in hopes,ambitions, an.<ietes,joys and possessions visual in-formation such ;rspersonal appearance,personal possessions, abilities, andbyreference to visual experienceoutside the classroom' The fact that these are different to those ofother students in the class (to a 'information gaps', 'opinion greater or lesserexterrt) means that there are 'gaps' which provide the very gaps', 'experience gaps', and various other reasonwe need for speaking and listening, reading and writing. 2 In every culture there is a different level of willingn essto share personal information. Only you can be the judge of how much the students might be willing to share. Nevertheless,it is usuaily the casethat sturients are willing to share more than is iraditionaily expected of ihem providing what they say is treatedwith respect and is givenvalue. 3 The relationship between the students and between you and the students is different in most cultures. This is an opportunity for you to contextualise
95
leveisofformality and informaiity oflanguage in arvay that the students can understand, for example, greetings:Good morning; . . . . fli! 4 The organisation of the classand the lessonprovides considerable opportunit-v for the teacher to contextualise language. Here are some ways of talking about the visual aspectsof life in the classroom. oh.
I like
your Pam' s
dress. shirt. new hairstyl-e,
It'
s very
nice I
Uaooah
you
don
Iook
very
pfeaseci.
tlhat rs it? what's wrong?
whose is
this
book
found
it
co on
my desk. the f.Loor
Barbara Gordon,
would you
clean the put these
board books
for in
me the cupboard
please
Please I move your desks together. put your chairs in a circle

Tefi me about
your picLure. your favourite filn. Lhe most horribl.e thing
you have ever
seen.
(shouingapiuure)
whac do you think the! are laolng:
saying?
hinki-nq?
The classroom, its furniture andobjects

Characteristics and iechniques: there is a floor, a ceiling a door and there are walls and windows in most classrooms.There are usually desks, chairs, chalkboards, cupboards. There are the possessions cfthe students. Sometimes there are plants. And there could be a collection offood packets, some fruit, a bicycle, and basic equipment for simple scientific experiements For drama there canbe a collection ofold clothes, scarves,hats and an old telephone.These objects can be used in various ways: 1 They can be used for what they are: students can be asked to name objects and describe their qualities, to open and closewindows and so on.
96
2 The origin and manufacture of the objects can be analysed. 3 The objects canbe used as symbols and metaphors: an ancient method of teaching. Onebrick onits ownis of limited use,together theymakeawall. Words related together offer meaning, whereas on their own they are fairly useiess. Bricks musibe joined jusi as thoughts must belinked, etc. The teacher might suggest that the front wall of the classroom represents the present time, the two sidewails represent past time touchingpresent time and the back wall is an identifiable period of time in the past. 4 The objects in the room can be subjected to the fantasy and imagination of thestudents. For example, the ideas below ca:ne from a class offourteen year olds when ihe teacher showed them an ordinary exercise book and said, This is not an exercise book, what is it? The studenis, sometimes combining the exercisebook with mime claimedthe following: sruDENrA: (putting it on hishead)It's ahat'
sruDENr B: (holding the bottom and swinging it) It's a tennis racquet. SruDEr\rc: (hoidingit in front of her eyes)It'satelevision. sruDENr D: (holding it on one long edge as if it were heavy) lt's asuitcase' srUDENrE; (holding it up on all five Iingers of one iand) It's an umbrelia. SrUDElir F: (rolling it and peelingit) It's a banana. sTUDENTG:(rolling ii and witing with it) It's apen. sruDENrn: (rolling it and looking through it)It's atelescopeSruDEr\r r: (ro)Iing it with one end small and placing it in a vase)It's a bunch of flowers. J: (opening it out)lt's an aeroplane. srUDENr sruDENrK: (opening it out and flapping the pages) It's a bird. sruDENr L: (opening it out and blowing his nose on it) It's a handkerchief. Here are a few rnore ideas for each ofthe above types ofobject:
Walls
Obviously walts invite displays ofwallpictures and posters ofstudent collages and writings and of charts explainingpoints of grammar. All of these make a creative language environment. This is difficult ifyou do nothave your own classroom.
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Siudent possessions These can be identified, named and analysed with regard to performance, origin, cost, sentimental vaiue, associatedexperiences.etc. /FtuttD ztltr
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Everydayobjects
Everyday objects can be identified and evaluated, and their cost, availabilitl,, efficiency, and students' personal preferencescan be discussed.Their qualities can be compared. They can be used inrole plav.
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Interesting
objects
We becomefamiliar with everyday objecis and don'tthink about their potential in language teaching. For example, we can getstudents involved in tuning a radio to seehow many stations are broadcasting in English, or trying to identify different languages and what the people might be talking about.
Oldclothes
Old hats, scarvesand coats together with old telephones and other everyday objects can be used in drama, either in controiled role play or in creative drama. For example, give out a range ofhats, perhaps a trilby, a flat hat, a beret, a rainhat, a crash helmet, a baby's hat, a flowery, old-fashioned lady's hat. Ask the students to work out characters, a situation and a dialogue to play for the others.
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Chairs arranged around a table at the front ofthe class become a caf6. Chairs in a line represent a bus.
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Theschool
Characteristics and techniques: the classis usually part ofa schoolwhich itself is a compiex community. The organisation and social life of the school, the people and their roles, and the school buildings and facilities are important in the life ofthe student. Experiences, knowledge and opinions about the school can be the subject ofconversation and discussionin the class.Here are a few examplesofwhatcan be done.
99 Drawingplans Drawingplans ofthe school and naming the parts_This is not an easy task, particularlyifthe students are unused to makingplans. It is rich in its languagepotential. Thework ofpeople in theschool
Director, office staff, caretaking staff, technicians and teachers. What do they have to do?A natural contextfor the present habituall Also ,what haopens if; you breakyour arm, etc. Produce a booklet about the schoolfor foreim visitors. Cover its history, location, facilities, aims, achievements, plans, etc.
The school nei ghbourhood

Characteristics and techniques: most ofthe students will be from the neighbourhood of theschoolorwillbefamiliarwith jt. Oncemore. itis a potentially rich resource for the teacher. Here are some suggestions : . How well do the students know their neighbourhood? Ask thern to hv to remember and to describe everythingtheycan seefrom the front eate ofthe schoolor what they can seeifthey stand on the town hall steps. Help them to prepare a study of the neighbourhood in English: emplol'rnent, leisure, history, geography, climaie, etc. This might be done for the town hall to give away to visitors. Ask them to work out a guide for tourisis, giving a plan, location of faciliiies, times, costs,etc. Ask the students to collect any examples ofthe use ofEnglish in the neighbourhood. If there are any English-spealingvisitors to theneighbourhood invite them to the school.Prepare the classby getting each student to make up a question to put to the visitor. If there are any firms or institutions in the area which deal wiih Enelishspeakingcountries, seewhat experiencetheyhave and ifyou coulJuse it in your lessons. Ifthere is an airport, consider takingl'our students there and studying where the planes are f,raveliing to, and interviewing passengers and airport staffifthat is possible.It is advisable to arrange the visit to the airport before you go!
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Attistic
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Production tips
Designing
Teachersdesign every time theyrvrite or draw on the chalkboard or produce a worksheei. The question is noi rvhetherycu design but whether you do it well or badly Visual design is an aspect ofcornmunicatron. It is no rncrejustifiable to say that visual design is unimportant than it is io say that speaking or wilting are unimportant. anC communicative talent?
Yes, artistic and communicative ialent are necessaryand, thank goodness,we all have this talent! (I admit that some have it more strongly ihan others. ) A lot can be achieved by simply making use of our common senseor common talentTtvo things to concenf,rate on: 1 Clarity of hformation. The studentshouldbe able to seevhat you want hin or her to see. 2 Expression. The style in which the inforrnaiion is presented affects how we respond to the meaning. There is a dign-ified way of speaking, of moving and of designing a page.There are rvaysof speaking, moving and designingpages which can expressa wide variety offeelings: excitement, humour, modernity, con{lict, gloom, mystery, carng and consideration. The suggestionson thefoilowingpages apply to the design ofall the visual materials referred to in this book.
Layout
Layout ofyour informaiion (text and./or pictures) on the chalkboard, on worksheets, on wallpictures and in exhibitions and displays, etc. Designersusuailybase their layouts on grids. Grids give a senseoforganisation to the information. The ve.rticaland horizonial'liningup'of information is the basis ofthe grid. Ifthis is done verv sirictly, the effect is formal. Ifphotographs
101 ofthe$id thena ce aininformalityis ortitlessp6nmoreth6n onecolumn ifthepictures arenotrectangular is introduced Moreinformality inhoduced. at an angle. wouidlike Many teachers orifthe textispiaced but cutoutshapes which is friendiy but nevertheless to prcject an imageof themselves ofgridandwayof using it uan The ghtchoice andoganised. authoritative g dswhjchyoucanuse: basic rcflectthis.Herearesome .s/N6Le ca
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pages applytolhedesiga The suggestions onthefollowing ofworkcards, wallpictures, anddisplays andexhibitions. OHP transparencies
Pictures
beplaced st ctlywithin thegrid-Theymiehtbe Pictures need not always The edge allowed to gooffthepaperaltogether. ofthepaper thencontributes great ofihedesign andgives strength to theverticalityorhoriontality but with a feelingof variety and informality.
103
Picturesneednot alwaysberectangular. The characterof an objectis often bettershown by cutting out its shape andbhis lo theoverall contributes richness ofeffect.
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Grouping Gtouping
and reacling
direction
I Th followingfeatues help to gtoupinformation; they arenot all necessary . . o o . o . heading; a separate at thetop andbottom; space line box; a line at top and bottom or an enclosing it ftom nearbyinformation; aline dmwn vertically to separate a differcnt typefaceor styleoflette ng; toneor colour; a diffeEnt backg?ound lheproyimit) ofacapfion toitsillusnarion.
Reading dircction familiarwith roman scriptwantto readfromleft to dght and Mostpeople oftextandwhen lvhen ihereis morethanonecolumn fromtop to boltom. thenthereader mayLose thedirection aredividedby pictures these colurnns ,'ou want him or her to follow.
:tttltA'lttLet ftu,< k* !6?4x,Faea ur'ltt * aLe*4 hzr o4/za2-// t/) 4-e*or.4 o'e ad"L< S'ziate A1t LE O L/.'Cr
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101
Lines
areeasy or rough. Thesedillerences to Linescanbethick or thin,smooth toboLh eand.onfiibute clarity anderpress.reness. .rchip\ lines. below, theinformationissepamtedby This helps In thethee exampLes thethickness At thesametime, thedifference between ofthelines clarity. io varietyand chnessofeffect. cont butes to doonthechalkboard. Justusethesideolthe rvotei Thick andthin linesareeasy I Forworksheets have twothicknesses of pen. chalkfor thethick lines
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Big and small

a series ofsmallones. Big titlescombinedwith canbesetagainst Big piciures forrichne"s ofconuast. fine lcneringallmakc
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Colour
It is tempting to male full useof all the colouredfelt tip penswhich are available.But it is a little like a teachertiying to win friendsby smiling all the to thesmileafterabouttwominuiesifitis timelStudents willgivelittlevalue reasonfor smiling. unconnected with a cornmunicative roiebut howthis is achieved can only be Colourcertainly hasan expressive judged by the teacherand students.There are two idenlifiable reasons for usingcolourfor clarity: Descriptive use of colout Colourwouldhelp usio recognise Coiour canhelpustorecognisesomething. the differencebetweenan orange, a tomatoand apotato. Diagammatic we of colow
Colourcanbe usedto draw attention to certain pa s ofa pictlrle, diagramor peopie. text. Perhapsa small presentis i(rportant in a picture showing several If the peopleale drawnin black aad the presentis in colourit will attrsct attention eventhoughit is small.
Tone
Toneis the de$ee of darknessof a coiour.The useof tonecanhelp clarity, recognitionand exp&ssiveness. Clatity Tonaldifferences canmale shapes easilydiscemible,for example,the childrenstand out clearly in the illusftation belowbecause of the different tone ofthebackground. it asa unity in ils owndghl. Toneoveran areaof text helpsusto see Recognition an object.For example,the dark toneof a Tonemay help usto rccognise Bdtish policeman's uniformisverycharactestic.Thetoneofcalsisnotso somuch, chancteristic becauseitcanvary Exprexnn likemusic, maybecontmlled by theamount The toneof a design or picture, or harmonising tones. Sharpcontrastswill tend andrelationship of contrasting
106 to attract attention and bediamatic. Solter toneswill offer haimony and gentleness.
Lettering
The teachercanproducea witten text by writing, by typing or by usinga to moresophisticated equipment. stencil.Most teachersdo not haveaccess Herc area few tips anangedaccordingto the basicneeds:clarity, recognition and expression. Clarity on the viewer'seyesight, onthe sizeof Ability to seewhat is wdtten depends of conhastwith the background,on the distanceol the letteN, on the degree the viewerand oo the illumination. It is alw-ays bestto try out any text at the distanceyou intend usingit. However guidefor distances of 10m. 3 cm is usually areasonable For projection,many peoplebelievethat it is better to havewhite lettedng againsta dark background.Computermanufacturersnowbelievethat black lettering on awhite soeen is the most satisfactory. Becognition Recognitionof the lettersby the lorm of them dependson familiadty with them. The nearerthey aie to a familiar form the morereadily they will be An individual handwritingstyle may presentproblems.It is better recognised. to gofor a w ting style which is rether like printing. Exprexion to develop the skills necessary to producespecial Teache$cannotbe expected puposes. However, in theexamples below a lette$ forava etyof expressive fewtips for acqui ng basicskills willbe mentiored.
10? Tips onw ting to rcadabiiity The twomajorcontributors aretheclaityofthe individual letter forms and the distinctive shapeofgoups of letteis in words.Capitalsdo not givea distinctiveshapeto a word.
co-p,'" -SPhAPE *d shope

Hatrd$rriting For handwriting, a semi-printedlorm of letter is probablythe clearest.
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Alist of tips Keepyour letterurgon a horizontaliine (usuallyrubbedout afterwads). Keepyour lettersopenand clear. together. Keepyour lettersfairly close snokes fairlyshort. Keepthe upperard lower the lines. Keepabouttwoletter'sbody heightbetween vertica.l. Keepthe left-hand edge goiryrightacrossthegd in orderto convey frmness Usealotolruledlines and organisation. Specialiitles It is helpful if you cando a fewspecialtypesof lettering for titles, particularly lor wall displays.The main thing is not to try to do neat and disciplinedlooking letters. Fancystfes areeasyto do,fast, characteriul,eyecatchingand hide incompetencel
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Double penletteri!g Alwa! hold them at oneconsistntangle. Fastentwo pensor pencilstogether.
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Cutoutlettering tedmique A surprisinglysuccessful a.lthough sljghtly moretime-consuming for displars is to cut out ]ettels with a craft knife from colouredpapers.The letteE arethen stuck down.Theselettersshouldbeno morethan sketched is the out. Their patntly varyingcharacter, but with sharpsidesard angles, secretof their athactiveness and apparentprofessionalism.
Drawing Tlacing Method 1 Ifthe paperyouwant to useis thin, then youmay be ableto seethe imageto be copiedthroughit. Ifyou can't, then placeboth the paperwith the imageon it and the paperto betracedon againstthe window,preferablywith strong suilight behind.This is the fastestwayoftuacing. Alternatively,ifyou a.re workingat night, put a table lamp onthe floor and rest the lamp. the picture 6nd the paperon a sheetofglassplacedabove Method2 Usetracingpaper.Ttacethe pictue. Scribblewith a 6oft pencilon the back of the tracing the hacing paper.Put the bacing paperdownonthe arcato receive and &aw ontop ofthe tracing.
Enlaryine
Method I Divide the pictue to becopiedinto squares. Dvide the paperyou aregoitg to transfer it to into squares. Copyfrom onesquareonthe picture to a similariv positioned square onthenewpaper U thesquares onthenewpaDer areMi;e ssbig aslhoseont|e pictue. tlen the enlargement wil betwiceasbie.The sametechniquecanbe usedIo copyor l,oreducea picLure. This tecluriquewas usedby Renaissance painters! Method2 EnJarge the picture by epidiascope, or other project r, throwirg theimageonto lhe paperyou want to usefor the copy.
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Dnwing stickpeofle a orb? lineislonger, Which

Whichangle is wider,a orb?
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you havethe necessary talent to drawI Ifyou said (a) in both cases ' Dra\ringthingssothatpeoplecanrccognisethemisbasicaliyamatterof proportiors and beingableto j udgecomparativelengthsand angles. Here arethe proportionsof the basicstickpelson.
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the For the sakeofspeedand the minimising of dishecting elements stickpersonneedhaveno further features,for example,hands,shoulders, it is usefulto showthe hsnds. hips, neck.Occasionally Herc aresomebadly drawn stickpeople.
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111 The wslking snd rul}aing stickperson It isjust a matter ofgetting the angles right.
Veryslowwalkiry is shownby drawingthe armsand legsvery nearto the vettical. Fastermovementis shownby openingthe armsand legsout. Someteachersdonot rca]isethat their kneesalwaysbendforwardsthe way point mole or iessbackwa.rds. they aregoingand that theit elbows Does your stickperson fall over?
The cenheofgavity of the body,roughlythe abdomen, shouldbe overthe suppo*ing point or betweenthe supportingpoints,lvo of the peoplein the drawingabove will fall over Put in their oiesing legsto savetheln! Noses they showwhich way a stickpersonis looki:rganri Nosesareusefrdbecause thismight beimpo ant ifyouwantto showmorethan merelyan action.
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Hands Usually it is awasteol time to &aw the hands.Draw them whenyou want some special actio!,
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Stickmen, stick women and stickchildren of a skirt and Youcar showstickwomeneasilyifyou acceptthe convention smaller.However, the headis a.lso longhair. Stickchildren are,obviously, canbeshown. biggerin proportion.A few characters
AAqrl
Copysomeof the stickpeopleyou haveseensofar in this book.Practisedoing Boxpeople Thereis usuallynot enoughtime to &sw morethan a fewlineson the you may want to draw 'proper' peopleonworkcards, chalkboard.However, flashcards, wallpicturesor whenmaking figues to usewith your magnetboard or flannelboard.Thesesolidfigues add interest,givecharacterand increase clarity whenseenovera longdistance. And they areno moredifficult to &aw than stickpeople.If a very simple principle is followedwithout change nobodyneedfail I I Draw aboxfor the body,thin if seenfrom the sideand broaderif seenfrom the front. 2 Draw the head.
113 3 Draw four stick limbs exactlyasyou wouldfor a stickpelson. 4 Wlen srep3 issa[isfacrory d_raw thejnside of thelegs andcrmscoplingrhe lhes moreor less outside exactly. 5 Draw circlesfor ihe handsand triangleslbr the feet. Because this is a very powerlulwayof &awing you may betempted to put in all sorlsofbends andflicksto rcpresent clothesand muscles. Anv attemDt to showmorenaruralismwiliexposeyourlimiredabilirytodrarv.Noborlliigoing to saythat the hiangle is a poor&awing of a foot. Soit really is bestto stick to the classicalboxpe$on!
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Symbols
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Symbolscanbevery usefulif they areunderstoodand most of thoseiilushated herearenowintemationally known.
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Faces Any bumpy circlewill do for a face.(Whenyouwant to deate speciai you cai draw a specialshapefor the face.)The eyesand nosedon'L characterc conhibute to the expression soput them in first- It is true that iarye eyes look softerand lessaggressive than smalleyes. It is the eyebrows and the mouth which make the expression. Basically,
114 areraised.Concenhatedthinking is I ,henthey surp seis whenthe eyebrows arenearertogetherand nearerto the eyes.
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How to turn someone's head Headscanbetuned very easily.Draw the nosein well overto oneside.Put the eyes well aooss aawell.The earis important ifyou want to turn someone's head;moveit aooss aswell.
How to look Jrourger! Ifyou want to lookyoungeryoumust moveyour featuEs Hereis the secret. belowthe overa.ll further downyour faceand makethem smallerl In the heads lesspronounced. shapeis the same.Note howthe nosebecomes
115 Characters Ilyou candraw a 'normal' facethen al1 you haveto do to crcatea characteris to drawa facewhichis in some the waynot 'normal'. or shorten Youcanlengthen nose. Youcanplace the nosemuch to higher than usual.0ryoumightLike beginwith a dilferent shapeto the head,perhapsvery squareat the bottom and pointed at the top. llhatever you do,you must commit yor.uselJ. No half measrDes!
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A-i-ale aî nhiantc
Wlich of theseshapes is a London taxi and which is a spots ca.r?
Ifyou arefamiliar with Londontaxis youwili havesaidthat the fust drawingis the taxi and the second the sportscar.Every object,however complexits appearzmce, canbeseenasabasicrectangle. The proportionsofthe rectangle arethe essence of its specialshape. Which shapeis the horseandwhich is the cow? Onceyouhavedecidedon rheobject'sbasicshapeyou canadd thosefeatures youwill want to change which will help to maheit recognisable. Sometimes the outlinesawayftom a rectangie. Howevetfor reasons of speed do this aslittle as possible. then your inexperience Also try not to be toorcalistic because in drawinewill berevealed.
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116 Drawing scenes twothings: diawtheyusuallymean saytheycannot Whenpeople clothesandthe 1 theycannotdrawpeoplenaiualisticallywithallthefoldsof carc, etc inperspective. drawbuildings, etc. 2 Theycannot muscles, The you haveseenhowto dealwith the firct self_doubt. In the earliersections second self-doubt?Don't tly to dlaw pe$pective!The sod of penpective most in Italy. Many wonderful peopletly to draw wasonly inventedin about 1450 pe$pectivebefore1450and in paintingsweredonewithout this Renaissance othercultrres. AII youneedto dois to flatten everytlling. Don't showlines into the distance. disappearing Here is an examplelor you to copy.
Collage
Pictues canbe drawn or A rewardng wayof making picturesis by collage. collected by stude[ts and combinedwithw ting to makean athactive display.
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Cutting, sticking arrdprotecting Cutting

Scissors areuseful,of course. However a crall knife is a wonderfulhelp for teacherc whowant to make their ownvisualmaterials. Whencuttingoutit is advisabletoput apiece of thin cardunderthemagazine page. Ifyou want to cut card with your cmft knife do not try to do it ai onego.Cui with light shokesagainand again. Metal rulers are usefr:lifyou want to cut alonga straight line. Sticking Pasteis cheap.The paperwill w nlle unlessyou let it expandfllst. Whenii hasexpandedthen put it down.As it driesit shrinks andmost of the wrinkies shoulddisappear. adhesives donot makethe paperwinkle. Peholeum-based Someteachersstaplepictues to the backingcard. Protecting plastic. It is wonderfulifyou cantameit! The idea-l is to useclear,self-adhesive up and sticks to the But it seems to haveawilful lile of its own.It reaches to the table and wome,to itself. wrongpart olyour workcaid, to your sleeve, Ttvowaysof dealhg with this living creatu: Ether Lay downthe plasticsticky sideup and &op the workcaid on to it. This is all ight for small things. Or Lay downthe rvorkcardimagesideup. Fold the piastic round like a magazine. Lowerthe middle onto the middle of the image.Put a ruler throughonthe insideand slowlypressthe work out to the outside.Leaveenoughborderto tuck aroundthe back.
The alternativeis to tape a clearplastic sheetaroundthe back olthe visual or plasticenveiopeto keep it in a clear
118
Displaying
Pasteontohardboardor cadboard and hangup. Pin or stapleto softboard.
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Furtherreading
Baoks abourrhemakingand use o[ visua]s BcnvE.,t,E 1982Laok Herc! VisualAids in LanguageTeachingMacmillan BYRNE,D 1980 l/strg t'rerllajn erroard Heinemann Educational HTLL.D A1990VisualImpacl Longnran HorDEN, s (ed) 1973yrsu, Aids for Classrcom Interactibn Modern English Publications/Macmillan roNEs,r RH1982[/srngt] e Overhead Pmjector HeinemannEducationai McALprN,J 1980?fie MagazinePicture Library HeinemannEducational p 198I Plarning and UsingtheBlac.kboard Heinemann ivrucclEsmNE. Educational pand d.vET, sIIAw, r 1980Llsr?g BlackboardDrawing HeinemannEducational werc}J'r,^1984 1000 Pictwes far Teacherc to Copy Collins wRlorrr,A 1989Pictues lor Language Leaming Cambridge Universiry press Publicationsmakhg use ofvisuaJs which teachegcanadapt ByRNE.D 1986 acrrrgora.lt grli (newedition) Lonqman B\ tr\ r. Dand gALL. D19 76 WallPict urc. fot Lang)age practice Longmat HADFTELD,J 1984.E1emen tary ContmunicationGames Nelso]l HEAToN,J B 1966&mposrtrb, TfuoughPictures Longman KERR,ry practr'ce Nelson K1919Picture CueCardsl)arOralLanguage MAIE!A.DUTF.A and cRELLsr.F 1980TheMind\ Eye CambridgeUniversity Press MoRcAN,r and RrNlolucRr,;trl9g3 Once[JponaTime CambridgeUnive$ity rress scorr,lv 1980 Are foutrsfenrag? OxfordUniversitv press \rR.LHr.A 1986 Hor"ro EnjoyPar,rrmgs Cambridge Universir v p-ess

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Visuals For The Language Classroom

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for Visuqls Clqssroo theLonguoge

Holeem Wlight ondSofio Andrew

for Visuals theLanguage Classroom

Wordflashcards . Characteristics and techniques . Presentation . Readingpractice o Writingpractice . Listening o Technicaltips

8 Authentic printed ,naterials a Characteristics ano techniques a Newspapers o Publicitymateria.l r Technicaltips

100 r00 100 102 103

The basis of this book

Mechanical versus meaningful language use

Clas swork, gloupwork and pairwork

Questions and activities

Chatkboard and whiteboard

Characteristics and techniques

Presentation and guided practice tense Thepresent continuous

srl DE\r GLASS:

\l?rat's si he doing? S/he'srunning,'walking,'swimming,etc

dnh\Ae ,soP*)r,ot s*,'4(

doesn'tlike quite likes

lit(.r ec(s 4[ti^Yr buys (eod.t

0tr ch ri l L pt,.t^ ri. I& Al,tl ,r A\,th ri

Io<j-V an,aJ.) hrgAcrf rr-qh,iJ e{.cp.fe oca-, ? )

Dialogpe, role PlaYand drama

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'TKLL a6qO PLhd e

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Guided writing: adapting a story

Open communicative practice

Descriptionofa sceneand ofpeople and objects

Ahich I aFe ' lat<:ro"*o* ?

I tlt i bern rB"'^J I

sP"^r.r.r plr(cr fabts

Tttaant\gr J.J ri,. dr r^g

Characteristics and techniques

Single unprepared transparency

2 pictures: examPle Describing

Sin gle prepared transparency

Reading to readit! theclass backto frontandchallenge Puta textontheprojector

-J; bor'l 01 zzol) 9r+l

o! . ,l ' n Bp?v' +tt ,r f,x,l 4w'

Single transparency with a water-based pen

Nc,rille fq;-.. at' hir n6 hurry. He lte rr^,;. illg7g nri.4.

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lrrer7ryb Nas re^ss(^rt'n9ihe warnl S;"i*!!thotteerf.t &-Ls of tA. p4"ptc

4nat abote 4rl lhe-p.ocp;-ft

guieHq guiefly gui2tl

do,onlAcsfats, doun lhcsfairt.

QBIP tt't P64r4A,tENT 2Et/ \

h)etaata crept crzpc u)et^^ h)ohel

,tic, For other spellinggames ,hangman, see tac, toe,,,noughtsand crosses,and

TWoor more transParencres

q'cl'uer r\ctl frblc

>-r !.rr- je" q n

Masking and revealing

tne j )6*l P'-

vt'td4'^J'D' ",rrl*),3 ar4q&rctFr,'{""*1 'k5

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ltJt^,af rs fhe lo19esf,t-,eyo