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Contrasting visual frames of our times: A framing analysis of English- and Arabic-language press coverage of war and terrorism
Shahira Fahmy International Communication Gazette 2010 72: 695 DOI: 10.1177/1748048510380801 The online version of this article can be found at: http://gaz.sagepub.com/content/72/8/695

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Article

Contrasting visual frames of our times: A framing analysis of English- and Arabic-language press coverage of war and terrorism
Shahira Fahmy
The University of Arizona, USA

the International Communication Gazette 72(8) 695717 The Author(s) 2010 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1748048510380801 gaz.sagepub.com

Abstract By operationalizing visual frames in terms of the human-interest vs technical frame and the anti-war vs the pro-war frame, and exploring the use of two sets of framing devices: graphic portrayal and emphasis, this framing analysis of 1387 photographs examined contrasting visual narratives employed by English- and Arabic-language transnational press in covering the 9/11 attack and the Afghan War. For the English-language newspaper, the International Herald Tribune, the frames emphasized the human suffering of 9/11 and de-emphasized the civilian casualties and moral guilt of implementing military force in Afghanistan by focusing more on a pro-war frame that showed the complex military high-tech operations and patriotic pictures. For the Arabic-language newspaper, AlHayat, the frames focused less on the victims and more on the material destruction of 9/11 and humanized the victims of the Afghan War. Furthermore, it focused on an anti-war frame by running visuals of anti-war protests and emphasizing graphic visuals portraying the humanitarian crisis in the Muslim country of Afghanistan. Keywords Afghan War, Al-Hayat, framing, International Herald Tribune, 9/11, photojournalism, transnational press, visual reporting, war coverage

Corresponding author: Shahira Fahmy, College of Social and Behavioral Sciences, School of Journalism, Department of Near Eastern Studies, 845 N. Park Avenue, Marshall Building 325, PO Box 210158B, Tucson, AZ 85721-0158, USA Email: sfahmy@email.arizona.edu

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Since the 2003 Iraq War, discontent around the world with Americas policies has intensified. European views are decidedly critical of US war policies and the Arab anger toward the US remains pervasive. With the globalization of the worlds economic, political and communication systems, news reporting and images provided in US media vs Arab media have received considerable attention. Top US officials (e.g. US defense secretary Donald Rumsfeld) repeatedly accused Al-Jazeera and other Arab-language media outlets of harming the image of the US in the Arab world (see Voice of America, 2005; see also Shapiro, 2005). As the world becomes increasingly interconnected and dependent on efficient means of informing politics, economics and social and everyday life, more attention is needed to the content of news across borders. The transnational Arab media system bounded by the Arabic language and Islam for example, is the product of a commercialized infrastructure, which transmits massive flows of information among Arabs and Muslims, regardless of location. It thus expands beyond the confines of the nation-state to promote collective political understanding of events, rather than the traditional Arab state-centric interpretation of news (see Lynch, 2006). The framing analysis in this article investigates the contrasting visual narratives in English- and Arabic-language transnational press in covering the 9/11 attack and the Afghan War by exploring two sets of visual frames: the human-interest vs technical frame and the anti-war fame vs pro-war frame, and two sets of framing devices: graphic portrayal and emphasis. Comparing visual coverage in two newspapers of different cultural and political perspectives regarding two violent events helps to reveal the critical choices that journalists subjectively make that would otherwise remain submerged.1 Entman (1991) explains that comparison reveals that choices are not inevitable but rather are central to the way the news frame helps establish the interpretation of news events. Neuman and colleagues (1992: 120) suggest that the media give the story a spin . . . taking into account their organizational and modality constraints, professional judgments, and certain judgments about the audience. With this perspective, this work examines photographs in the US-owned Englishlanguage newspaper, the International Herald Tribune (IHT)2 and the Saudi-owned Arabic-language newspaper Al-Hayat from 12 September 2001, through 15 November 2001. The IHT and Al-Hayat are well-respected elite newspapers that are both transnational in scope, with an approximate circulation of 200,000 each. Both are based in Western Europe and represent two foreign news organizations catering to both Englishand Arabic-language audiences. While both newspapers pride themselves on providing western notions of journalistic objectivity and balanced coverage of events and issues, it is important to note that different cultural and political perspectives inevitably filter into the news-making process and inflect news values and organizational routines. Both newspapers are subjected to different cultural perspectives that should give rise to important differences in how they covered the two events under study. In other words, the ethos of journalistic objectivity and the atypical claims to internationalist and cross-cultural positions suggests that these two newspapers feature a similar style of reporting; one in which opinion seeps into coverage by virtue of various factors, such as journalists approach to cover each story with an
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angle or a perspective. In Making News, Tuchman (1978), for example, explains that a perspective is inevitable and is a result of routinized, legitimized and institutionalized structures that favor certain ways of reporting the news. Thus, because of the tendency for frame reductionism (see Scheufele, 2004) and by showing which images were consistently selected in these two newspapers, this article suggests which dimensions of the terrorist attack and the Afghan War coverage carried the visual information that comprised the narratives. In this way, this article aims to illuminate in some detail the nature of visual framing in transnational media. From a theoretical perspective, this research, therefore, expands the study of framing theory by examining visual frames and the framing devices used in an information war and the transnational coverage of terrorism and conflict. How different English- and Arabic-language media visually portray violent events remains a neglected area of scientific inquiry and the proposed research represents a substantive effort to remedy this deficiency. A review of past studies indicates that little of the work examining the framing of news events has focused on visual images. In an era of information warfare and image management, the results of this study, thus, add to the current literature on framing by exploring differences and similarities of visual reporting in a cross-cultural and transnational context. Furthermore, this research helps us speculate upon the interaction between visuals of violent events and the thinking of English- and Arabic-speaking news professionals and audiences, and how media coverage continues to reinforce the current trends toward an increasingly polarized global public opinion.

The theoretical concept of framing

Scholars from differing theoretical and methodological perspectives suggest that media content plays a particularly important role in constructing, shaping and reinforcing perceptions of news events. However, because of this very interdisciplinary nature of the communication field, Reese (2007) explains that while theoretical diversity has been beneficial in developing and understanding the framing process, framing still lacks a common shared theoretical model and suffers operational problems (see also Scheufele, 1999). Reese (2007) explains that for many scholars framing has represented more of a research program than a unified paradigm. Indeed, a review of the literature confirmed an overall vague conceptualization of framing. In an effort to clearly define the process, Reese (2001: 11) offered the following definition: Frames are organizing principles that are socially shared and persistent over time, that work symbolically to meaningfully structure the social world. With this definition he captured the dynamic process of negotiating meaning that occurs in the process, while highlighting the relationships within discourse that may undergo changes over time. Similar to Reese (2007), Scheufele (2000) explained framing operates on a multi-level structure, suggesting a series of interrelated sub-processes. Scheufele (2000) developed an analytical model that argued for a more careful examination of the three distinctive yet related approaches of agenda setting, priming and framing and further suggested frames need to be examined across levels of analysis (see Scheufele, 1999).
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Framing studies have been mainly guided by a combination of the cognitive, constructivist and critical perspectives (DAngelo, 2002). From the constructive perspective on which this study is based scholars have defined media frames as a central organizing idea or story line that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events . . . the frame suggests what the controversy is about, the essence of the issue (Gamson and Modigliani, 1987: 143). And according to the constructive media effects model, public opinion is shaped when audiences actively operate in the construction of meaning, while relying on personal experience, social networking and interpretations from the mass media (see Neuman et al., 1992). Entman (1993) suggested the use of four framing functions: define a problem; identify a cause; present a moral evaluation; and suggest a remedy. Within the realm of visual and political communication, Entman (1991) compared visual frames in the news coverage of the US downing of an Iranian plane to the Soviet downing of a Korean jet in the 1980s. He found that while the US media emphasized guilt in the Soviet downing by showing visual messages that humanized the victims, the US media de-emphasized the shooting down of the Iranian plane by showing messages that focused less on the victims. While Entman (1991) looked at how two different events were covered by one source that source being the US media (Time, Newsweek, The New York Times, The Washington Post and the CBS Evening News), the current study compares visual coverage of two different sources (IHT and Al-Hayat) on two events that are, on the one hand, roughly comparable in that they both involve violence, but, on the other hand, are very different because one was a calamity on US soil and the other was a war in Afghanistan. Thus, in Entmans study, any variation in coverage patterns was within the sources ideologically driven approach to framing of different events. This studys theoretical underpinnings, however, suggest that the sources are expected to differ in their coverage patterns of framing of both events, owing to socially shared and persistent ideological differences over time in the two sources analyzed. Any variation found in this study would, therefore come from the connection between source and event e.g. an English-language newspaper will cover an attack on US soil differently than would an Arabic-language newspaper.

The visual framing of news events

Visual framing is both contingent upon, and distinct from, framing that occurs in written parts of print news, and in written and spoken parts of broadcast news. In contrasting visual framing to that which occurs in written and spoken news texts, Messaris and Abraham (2001: 220) stated, The special qualities of visuals their iconicity, their indexicality, and especially their syntactic implicitness makes them very effective tools for framing and articulating ideological messages. Their definitive account of visual framing in Framing Public Life suggests that these three distinctive qualities of photographs make visual framing less obtrusive than verbal framing, in such a way that visual framing may convey meanings that would be more controversial or might meet with greater audience resistance if they were conveyed through words (Messaris and Abraham, 2001: 215).
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In the context of visual framing, the presence (or lack) of an image and the content of a news photograph help determine the interpretation of a news event (Entman, 1993). Contrary to common belief, photographs are not neutral (Hulteng, 1985; Tagg, 1988). Even if images are not staged, they still need to be selected in a frame that cannot be wide enough to capture the complex reality (Messaris and Abraham, 2001), suggesting that visual journalists inevitably set the framing process in motion. They may follow guidelines for objective reporting, but they may yet convey a dominant frame of news events to their target audience (Entman, 1993). Past studies, for example, found that visual journalists in times of calamities and wars are expected to bend the rules of objectivity and support their countrys troops and their governments position on issues (see Fahmy, 2005a). Thus, in the case here, it is likely that different cultural and political perspectives filtered into the news-gathering process and inflected news values and organizational routines. One can thus infer two corollaries from this premise: (1) that different cultural and political perspectives should yield predictably different types of visual coverage of events in both newspapers; and (2) that events of international importance, such as war and terrorism, should amplify the differences in visual coverage and make them more observable.

The use of frames and framing devices

Based on Scheufeles (1999) recommendation that framing needs to be examined across levels of analysis, this section describes how four indicators operate at two different levels. At the first level, lie the framing devices. The first and in some ways the most critical framing device involves the overall salience and prominence of the events under study. The literature indicates one of the most powerful framing devices is the frequency with which a topic is mentioned in the news media. Entman (1993), for example, explains that by repeating and reinforcing visual messages that reference some ideas and not others, frames convey constant meanings, rendering ideas more salient and memorable than others. Aside from the images used to depict an event, how prominently an event is displayed also indicates the importance of that event (Entman, 1991; Fahmy, 2007; Fahmy et al., 2007). Garcia (1987) found readers normally look at the largest photograph on a news page, then the second largest and the third largest and so on. Wanta (1988) also found larger photographs rather than smaller photographs can cause accompanying stories to be more salient to the readers. Therefore, the more redundant the visual theme and the more prominent, the clearer the indication we get about the presence of visual frames. Attention has also been paid to the use of graphic device in photographs. Scholars support the notion that graphic visuals capture viewers attention and bring viewers closer to the action, making events more real and shocking (Fahmy and Johnson, 2007b; Fahmy at al., 2006; Pfau et. al, 2006; Potter and Smith, 2000; Zelizer, 2004). For example, a close-up image of a violent act is more graphic than a long shot of that same act; seeing the image of a dead body from far away is not as graphic as seeing a close-up of the dead persons face lying in a pool of blood. Overall, then, the literature indicates
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that the more graphic the photograph, the easier it is to employ visual frames in developing a congruent interpretation of news events. The second level of analysis deals with visual frames. The first visual frame examined is the human-interest vs technical frame. Few studies have looked at coverage of victims of tragic events to examine whether they were humanized, encouraging identification with them, or whether they were made less visible with the information less centered on the humanity they shared with the audience members and thus less likely to evoke sympathy (e.g. Entman, 1991). By and large, the literature suggests that media from different cultural and political perspectives create different images of conflict. For example, while the US media failed to report human agony and death of Iraqis in the first Gulf War (Herman, 1992), the Arab media showed graphic images of suffering to gain public support for the Iraqi people (Ayish, 2001). In depicting the Gulf Wars, Griffin and Lee (1995) found that only 2 percent of total images used to depict the first Gulf War showed images of wounded or killed US soldiers. Instead, news coverage emphasized material damage, such as bridges blowing up, property damage and other forms of non-human destruction (Prince, 1993). Further, the news media over-depicted the use and efficiency of smart bombs (Perlmutter, 1998). It was only after the war that it was revealed that 70 percent of the bombs dropped in the Gulf missed their targets (Frank, 1992; Hachten and Hachten, 1999; Winfield, 1992). More recently, King and Lester (2005) concluded that although journalists in the recent Iraq War were allowed safer and better access through the embed program (see Fahmy and Johnson, 2005, 2007a), the images published in US newspapers were overwhelmingly pro-military, showing very few pictures of civilian casualties from either side (see also Fahmy and Kim, 2008). According to Herman and Chomsky (1988), the framing of suffering occurs in a dichotomy that makes distinctions between the unworthy victims depicted as enemies and the worthy victims who suffer. Consider the difference between emphasizing graphic images of human suffering and death of civilians vs emphasizing pictures of military arsenal and material destruction that could most likely numb the moral revulsion that leads societies to see war as a last resort. The difference offers a powerful demonstration of how the visual dimension of reporting news events could potentially create a human-interest frame vs a technical frame of coverage, specifically in reporting violent events. The second visual frame is the anti-war vs the pro-war frame. This frame also belongs to the selection of visuals of conflict in such a way that images of war could potentially be placed in categories that conventionally either elicit support or opposition for that conflict. Past studies indicate an important part of the framing process is the omission of news (Entman, 1991; Gamson, 1985). Examples of widely publicized omissions include anti-war demonstrations of the first Gulf War. The war had been widely opposed in Japan, Spain and North African cities. However, no adequate recognition of the massive public opposition, huge rallies and governmental resignations were present in US media. The news media failed to provide an adequate sense of the massive worldwide opposition. Instead, they focused on the support by the United Nations and most of the world for the war efforts (see Schiller, 1992).
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Consider the difference between de-emphasizing (or omitting) images representing anti-war demonstrations vs emphasizing graphic images of US patriotism, along with pictures of US aid efforts for the Afghan people. In the emphasis of patriotic and aideffort visuals lies a compelling demonstration of how the visual dimension of reporting the Afghan conflict could potentially create a pro-war frame of coverage, specifically in reporting a war that followed the 9/11 attack one that the majority, at least in the US, believed was morally justified.

Transnational media: The IHT and Al-Hayat newspapers

Because of the transnational medias position at the intersection of various cultural, political and economic environments, they are arguably a crucial forum in which news outlets compete to establish interpretations and analyses to be accorded serious weight. The two transnational newspapers were chosen as the medium of study because their news reaches news consumers worldwide. Virtually unexplored is the way in which the English- and Arabic-language transnational media visually guide the interpretation of violent events related to war and terrorism. The highly respected US-owned IHT is an English-language daily newspaper published in Paris for the English-speaking market. It has traditionally published mainly stories from The New York Times, The Los Angeles Times and The Washington Post (Merrill, 1991). These US articles are re-purposed for large US and European audiences. The audience of the IHT is primarily concentrated in Europe (60 percent) and Asia (35 percent). Nearly two in three readers live outside their country of origin (New Media Age, 2005). The readers could be divided into roughly three equal groups. A third are Americans (tourists and expatriates). A third are expatriates of other countries (e.g. Danish businessman in Switzerland). And a third are foreign nationals, primarily in Europe, the Middle East and Asia.3 The second transnational paper, the Saudi-owned Al-Hayat newspaper, is an Arabic-language daily newspaper published in London for the Arab-speaking market. It addresses itself to the needs of a pan-Arab audience (Schleifer, 1998). The audience of Al-Hayat is concentrated in the Arab world (80 percent). Nearly eight in 10 readers live in Middle Eastern countries. The readers of Al-Hayat are also in Europe (10 percent) and the United States (5 percent).4 It would be, however, improper to generalize to all national and transnational news outlets from these two newspapers. But the strengths of the findings lie in the fact that both newspapers pride themselves on being balanced in their coverage of events and issues, suggesting that a larger database, specifically one based on mainstream national media available in the United States and the Arab world, could show an even stronger manifestation of framing than the results of the visual analysis identified here. The comparison of the two constructed realities of 9/11 and the Afghan War does not require the assumption that the underlying facts of violent events were analogous. Even though this sort of comparison has not been done, based on the literature one can make solid predictions about visual framing of both events in the two newspapers (see Fahmy and Johnson, 2009). Both were complicated events open to varying interpretations. For example, the English-language newspaper would likely cover an attack on American soil
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differently than would an Arab-language newspaper. On the one hand, the IHT, by focusing on images portraying empathy and highlighting the suffering of 9/11 victims, could create and incite public opinion to support the US- led war on terror. On the other hand, Al-Hayat could focus on Afghan suffering, offering the opportunity to denounce the United States for what was perceived to be the injustice imposed by bombing a poor Muslim nation like Afghanistan. In other words, there is nothing inherent that would compel a similar visual coverage of these two events in the two transnational newspapers under study.

Method
This work investigates the visual news frames employed by transnational press in covering the 9/11 attack and the Afghan War. With this goal, the author collected two sets of photographs from 12 September 2001 through 15 November 2001. The first data set is from the daily English edition, the IHT newspaper. The second data set is from the daily Arabic Al-Hayat newspaper. The start date is the day following the 9/11 attack. The end date is two days after the fall of Kabul the capital of Afghanistan. The data sets allowed for the examination of visual news content of connected events produced in a certain period of time. Overall, a total of 1387 photographs from the two newspapers were analyzed. The unit of analysis was the individual photograph. Each photograph depicting events related to 9/11 and the Afghan War was coded. Borrowing from Griffin and Lees (1995) study, each image was coded in terms of visual content and event context.5 This study carefully distinguished between the two visual frames and the framing devices used to portray 9/11 and the Afghan War. The focus was on the following four indicators.

The emphasis device

Based on past studies, this framing device was measured in terms of both frequency and dominance. For frequency, each photograph was coded for portraying 9/11, the Afghan War, or mixed. For example, a photograph of officials and leaders reacting to 9/11 and planning a retaliation war on Afghanistan was coded as mixed. In terms of dominance, a photograph was coded as either dominant or not dominant. If it was not the largest image on the front page or it appeared inside, it was coded as not dominant.

The graphic device

Graphic portrayal was measured in terms of the following categories: not graphic, slightly graphic, graphic and very graphic.6 To be coded as very graphic or graphic, a photograph had to portray a highly realistic depiction of suffering. Examples of such imagery included the portrayal of the dead and suffering of 9/11 and Afghan War victims. The only exception was photographs of the planes crashing into the twin towers. These images were coded as very graphic because they portrayed a moment in which thousands of civilians were killed. Examples of images coded as slightly graphic
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included long shots of material destruction. Images of airport security and mug shots were coded as not graphic.

The human-interest vs the technical frame

This visual frame examined the ways that the violent events were reported in terms of human-interest vs technical depictions. Photographs that did not fit into the humaninterest frame and the technical frame categories, such as pictures of political and military officials, were coded as missing. For the human-interest category, each 9/11 photograph was coded for: victims, citizens mourning and memorializing 9/11, and pictures of funerals; each Afghan War photograph was coded for: Afghan refugees, evacuation, casualties and death. As a subcategory, each human-interest photograph was further coded for the nationality of the subject/s portrayed. Nationality was coded as: US/ European or Arab/Muslim.7 For the technical frame, each 9/11 photograph was coded for: the collapse of the twin towers, the planes crashing into the buildings, the strike effects on the Pentagon, the Pennsylvania plane crash, mug shots of suspected terrorists and pictures of overall wreckage due to the 9/11 terrorist attack; each Afghan War photograph was coded for: combat, weapons, explosions and overall destruction.

The anti-war vs the pro-war frame

To measure this variable, each photograph was coded for the depiction of the anti-war frame and the pro-war frame. The anti-war frame was coded as: anti-war protests or none. Examples of anti-war imagery included protests against the Afghan War in the United States and abroad. The pro-war frame included two subcategories: patriotism and aid efforts. Each photograph was coded as: patriotic symbols or none; and aid efforts or none. Examples of patriotic symbols imagery included pictures of citizens waving the US flag and examples of aid-effort visuals included images of US aid packages in Afghanistan. Guidelines were used to provide a systematic way in which all photographs were dealt with. The use of the mixed category allowed the researcher to identify a highly detailed analysis of the images that strictly portrayed either the 9/11 attack or the Afghan War. Intercoder reliability was checked for 140 images (10 percent of total). Overall the data reflected an intercoder reliability of 94 percent, based on Holstis formula. Reliability estimates for each variable were calculated by Scotts pi as follows: emphasis (frequency 99 percent; dominance 99 percent); human-interest vs technical frame 97 percent; nationality 97 percent; graphic portrayal 95 percent; anti-war frame 95 percent; prowar frame (patriotism 96 percent and aid efforts 98 percent).

Findings
Of the 1387 photographs analyzed, the IHT ran 544 photographs and Al-Hayat ran 843 of the events under study. The sample of photographs from Al-Hayat was larger than the sample of photographs from IHT for a good reason. The IHT, on average, ran twothirds the number of photographs of Al-Hayat (35 vs 55 photographs daily).
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Table 1. Frequency and percentages of images depicting 9/11 and the Afghan War in the IHT and Al-Hayat newspapers (N 1095) Newspapers IHT Al-Hayat Total
w2 79.4, p < .001; d.f. 1.

9/11 271 (60.1%) 212 (32.9%) 483 (44.1%)

Afghan War 180 (39.9%) 432 (67.1%) 612 (55.9%)

The photographs were first coded as depicting: the 9/11 attack, the Afghan War, or mixed. Because this study is interested in comparing visual narratives of the two events between the two newspapers, the images coded as mixed in the theme category were excluded. Therefore, 292 photographs were removed from the original data set leaving a total of 1095 photographs to be analyzed. The findings suggest 483 photographs depicted 9/11 and 612 photographs depicted the Afghan War (see Table 1 for frequencies and percentages). The following explores the visual framing employed by English- and Arabic-language transnational press. For this and the remainder of the analysis, the focus is on the two sets of frames and two framing devices. Cross-tabs were administered to test differences between the two sets of photographs for the two newspapers. Further, measures of framing devices were cross-tabulated with the two visual frames analyzed. Results showed two findings are apparent in the overall salience and prominence of the photographs under study. First, after excluding the mixed photographs, comparing the frequency with which an event was portrayed in the two data sets produced significant differences (w2 79.4, p < .001). The IHT published 60.1 percent of its visuals depicting 9/11 and Al-Hayat newspaper published 67.1 percent of its visuals depicting the Afghan War. The two publications, however, did not differ on how prominently they ran those visuals on the front pages. Chi-square tests showed no significant differences in the use of dominant photographs depicting 9/11 and the Afghan War (w2 .1, p > .05; w2 .095, p >.05 respectively).8 These results, then, indicate that although there is no marked difference between the two newspapers in how prominently the visuals were displayed, a manifestation is yet noted in the higher proportion of photographs that referenced one event more than the other, rendering that event more salient and memorable to the target audience. The second framing device focused on the ways the violent events were reported in terms of providing highly realistic depictions of suffering, making the violent events of 9/11 and the Afghan War more real and shocking. Two statistical outcomes document the consistent use of graphic devices in Al-Hayat newspaper for both events. In the visual coverage of 9/11, a chi-square analysis suggested significant differences between the two publications (w2 8.39, p < .05) (see Table 2). The Arabic-language newspaper published more graphic photographs than its English-language counterpart. While Al-Hayat published fewer photographs of the terrorist attack, overall, and no images of victims and funerals related to 9/11, this seeming graphic portrayal is traceable to the numerous depictions of material destruction the newspaper published. Many of these images included visuals of the planes crashing into the twin towers. Such
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Table 2. Frequency and percentages of graphic images depicting 9/11 and the Afghan War in the IHT and Al-Hayat newspapers (N 1059) Categories Very graphic and graphic Slightly graphic Not graphic Total IHT (9/11) 15 (5.5%) 68 (25.1%) 188 (69.4%) 271 (100%) Al-Hayat (9/11) 27 (12.7%) 43 (20.3%) 142 (67%) 212 (100%) IHT (Afghan War) 6 (3.3%) 56 (31.1%) 118 (65.6%) 180 (100%) Al-Hayat (Afghan War) 43 (10.0%) 132 (30.6%) 257 (59.5%) 432 (100%)

w2 for 9/11 8.39, p < .05; d.f. 2 ; w2 for the Afghan War 7.73, p < .05; d.f. 2. Note: For this analysis, so as to maintain reasonable cell sizes, the very graphic and graphic categories were collapsed into one category.

photographs were coded as highly graphic for a good reason. The planes were used as weapons to kill thousands of civilians. In the visual coverage of the Afghan War, a chi-square analysis suggested significant differences between the two publications (w2 7.73, p < .05). Al-Hayat published significantly more images portraying the graphic nature of war than the IHT. Images coded as very graphic and graphic were images of Afghan refugees, casualties and deaths. For example, as Figure 1 shows, the Arabic-language newspaper ran a photograph depicting dead bodies of Taliban fighters in the Afghan capital of Kabul. A few additional points need a mention. First, as shown in Table 2, about 90 percent of photographs in the two newspapers were coded as not graphic or slightly graphic. Second, in covering the 9/11 event, in which approximately 3000 people lost their lives, neither newspaper published the shocking photographs of people trapped in the top floors of the World Trade Center, images of people jumping or falling from towers, or images of the dead and severely injured. Third, the IHT ran no very graphic images of the Afghan War. Specifically, the newspaper ran no images of casualties and death in Afghanistan. The first visual frame focused on the ways the violent events were reported in terms of human-interest vs technical depictions. The photographs in both newspapers were complex, and in certain respects the two newspapers shared few identical photographs of both events.9 But overall, their moral portrayals and their sensitivity about the victims involved in the devastating events were set apart from the visual narratives (Table 3). In depicting 9/11, the two newspapers differed significantly in reporting the terrorist attack (w2 50.53, p < .000). On one hand, the Arabic-language newspaper ran significantly fewer images of human suffering and death of civilians as opposed to more pictures of material destruction, creating a technical frame of coverage (technical frame 82.0 percent vs human-interest frame 18.0 percent). The majority of its 9/11 photographs were of overall wreckage; the plane crashing into the buildings; and mug shots of suspected Arab terrorists. On the other hand, the English-language newspaper humanized the event by publishing the largest percentage of its photographs depicting 9/11 victims and citizens mourning, funerals and mug shots of the deceased victims and focused less on visuals of material loss (technical frame 21.2 percent vs human-interest frame 78.8 percent). Figure 2 shows a photograph that ran in the IHT, depicting emergency workers helping a woman at the World Trade Center. Al-Hayat newspaper published
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Figure 1. A graphic image showing dead bodies of Taliban fighters in the Afghan capital of Kabul. copyright 2001 AFP.

no such image. In fact the portrayal of the attack and material destruction in Al-Hayat newspaper is outstanding when compared to the absence of photographs of funerals and victims of the tragic event.
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Table 3. Frequency and percentages of images depicting 9/11 in the IHT and Al-Hayat newspapers (N 149) Categories Technical frame Human-interest frame Total IHT 21 (21.2%) 78 (78.8%) 99 (100%) Al-Hayat 41 (82.0%) 9 (18.0%) 50 (100%) Total 62 (41.6%) 87 (58.4%) 149 (100%)

w2 50.53, p < .000; d.f. 1. Notes: 9/11 pictures that did not fit in these two categories were coded as missing. The technical frame included images portraying the following: the collapse of the twin towers, the plane crashing into the building, the strike effects on the Pentagon, the Pennsylvania plane crash, mug shots of suspected terrorists and pictures of overall wreckage due to the 9/11 terrorist attack. The human-interest frame included images portraying the following: 9/11 victims, citizens mourning and memorializing 9/11 victims and pictures of funerals.

That said several additional findings regarding these data are notable. First, Al-Hayat did publish a few photographs memorializing the terrorist attack. Second, although the IHT published the image of Palestinians celebrating the news of 9/11 on US targets, it is important to note that the Arabic-language newspaper published none. Third, the images of suspected terrorists were downplayed in the IHT (19.9 percent) making the dominance of mug shots of suspected terrorists in Al-Hayat noteworthy (56.4 percent). In depicting the Afghan War, as shown in Table 4, both newspapers ran a larger percentage of images portraying war preparations, weapons and overall destruction due to the conflict. Overall, however, the two newspapers visually depicted the war differently (w2 4.14, p < .05). The data indicate the IHT showed a more benign and bloodless coverage that significantly differed from its Arabic-language counterpart. Al-Hayat newspaper emphasized the human-interest visuals more than the IHT (43.1 percent vs 31.3 percent respectively). It published, for example, many images depicting casualties and death. As Figure 3 shows, the Arabic-language newspaper ran a photograph depicting four dead Afghan children and a father crying over the body of his dead baby. It is quite remarkable that the IHT published no such image of civilian casualty in Afghanistan. Considering the evidence of a lack of such visuals, almost immediately it becomes clear that the coverage in the IHT sanitized the conflict, leading to a single dominant interpretation; one that de-emphasized guilt for the lack of empathy with the civilians injured or killed; and one that tended to obscure rather than to highlight the realistic and graphic nature of war. This finding indicates that by and large, Al-Hayat newspaper humanized the tragedy by focusing on more visuals depicting loss of life and Afghan refugees, as opposed to the visual coverage that ran in the IHT, which emphasized the technical frame of coverage. To gain further insight into this specific human-interest vs technical frame and because the framing of suffering occurs in a dichotomy of us vs them, it was expected the pictures that ran in the two newspapers to be less centered on the humanity of the other, and thus less likely to evoke sympathy. If that were the case, it then seemed probable the coverage would differ in terms of the nationality of the subjects portrayed in tragedy. With this perspective, a cross-tab between nationality of the human-interest photographs and the
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Figure 2. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attack, emergency workers help a woman after she was injured at the World Trade Center. Photograph by Gulnara Samoilova, copyright 2001 AP Worldwide Photos.

two newspapers was administered. As expected, the findings indicate significant differences (w2 50.4, p < .001). The IHT depicted the majority of the human-interest photographs from the western world (75.4 percent). Al-Hayat newspaper depicted the majority of the human-interest photographs from the Arab and Muslim world (61.8 percent). In other words, the IHT published proportionally fewer images humanizing the tragedy of Arabs and Muslims than did Al-Hayat newspaper and vice versa. One additional point, thus, merits mention. Such findings suggest that audiences did not have an adequate opportunity to learn all sides of an event and resist any single
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Table 4. Frequency and percentages of images depicting the Afghan War in the IHT and Al-Hayat newspapers (N 359) Categories Technical frame Human-interest frame Total IHT 68 (68.7%) 31 (31.3%) 99 (100%) Al-Hayat 148 (56.9%) 112 (43.1%) 260 (100%) Total 216 (60.2%) 143 (39.8%) 359 (100%)

w2 4.14, p < . 05; d.f. 1. Notes: Afghan War pictures that did not fit in these two categories were coded as missing. The technical frame included images portraying the following: combat, weapons, explosions and overall destruction due to the Afghan War. The human-interest frame included images portraying the following: Afghan refugees, evacuation, casualties and death.

dominant interpretation. In cross-tabulating the above measures of framing devices with this visual frame, results showed that both frequency10 (w2 7.30, p < .01) and graphic portrayal (w2 10.60, p < .01) were significantly used. Journalists, thus, chose frequency and graphic portrayal devices to emphasize the human-interest vs technical frame of coverage. For example, in the striking difference regarding the decision to run the graphic photo of the injured woman at the World Trade Center in the IHT (Figure 2) as opposed to the graphic photo of dead Afghan children in Al-Hayat (Figure 3) lies a powerful demonstration of how the human-interest frame promoted contrasting evaluations of the two events in the two newspapers.

Figure 3. A man cries over the body of his son and neighbors who died in US raids in the Afghan capital of Kabul on 28 October 2001. Ten civilians, eight of them belonging to one family, perished in one bomb hit, while two more were killed in a mini bus when another bomb landed in the middle of a main road. Photograph by Sayed Salahuddin, copyright 2001 Reuters. 709

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The second visual frame focused on the ways the events were reported in terms of eliciting support or opposition for war. The cases suggest that overall Al-Hayat emphasized the anti-war frame and the IHT newspaper emphasized a pro-war frame of coverage. Furthermore, in cross-tabulating measures of framing devices with this frame, frequency (w2 87.81, p < .01) and graphic portrayals (w2 35.637, p < .01) were used significantly. Results showed the Arabic-language newspaper showed significantly more images of anti-American/anti-war protests in the United States, Afghanistan and abroad: 10.9 percent vs 6.9 percent of such images that ran in the IHT (w2 5.0, p < .05). In terms of the pro-war frame, the IHT showed significantly more images of patriotic symbols (w2 9.6, p < .01) and aid for the Afghan people (w2 10.2, p < .001) than its Arabic-language counterpart. For example, while the English-language newspaper ran images of patriotic symbols (4.2 percent), such as citizens waving the US flag, the Arabic-language newspaper published proportionally fewer such images (1.7 percent). Regarding aid efforts in Afghanistan, the IHT published significantly more images of support, such as US food packages: 7.3 percent vs 3.1 percent of such images in Al-Hayat newspaper. The major thrust of these findings, thus, suggests that when pro-war and anti-war frames got favored over others in the transnational arena, the two newspapers chose frequency and graphic portrayal devices to emphasize critical visual choices that inevitably became central to the way this visual frame helped establish support or opposition for the Afghan conflict.

Discussion
This study offers a quantitative contribution to a topic that has received mostly anecdotal discussion. Some critics accuse news reporting and visuals provided in US media vs Arab media of exploiting political incidents to expand support or opposition and mobilize public pressure. By operationalizing visual frames in terms of the humaninterest vs technical frame and anti-war vs the pro-war frame, and exploring the use of two framing devices: graphic portrayal and emphasis (which encompassed frequency and prominence), this study examined visual narratives employed by English- and Arabic-language transnational press in covering the 9/11 attack and the Afghan War. A notable omission of the framing research stream has been the lack of visual framing research investigating visual framing of news events in a cross-cultural and transnational context. It is hoped that this exploratory study will generate hypotheses for examining the nature of visual frames in transnational media. Both newspapers operate from Western European countries and both adhere to an ethos of journalistic objectivity. Nonetheless, both are subject to different cultural and political perspectives. These different perspectives gave rise to important differences in how they covered important events of worldwide significance. Clearly, the results of this study suggest that differences in covering 9/11 and the Afghan War did not lie in the dominant visuals published on the front pages of the two newspapers but in how these events were visually emphasized in the newspapers in general. The manifestation of visual emphasis was unmistakably noted in the higher proportion of photographs that referenced one event more than the other. The cases suggest that, overall, readers of the two transnational newspapers did not have an adequate
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opportunity to learn all sides of the 9/11 and the Afghan War events to resist any single dominant interpretation. When the human-interest vs technical frames and pro-war vs anti-war frames were favored over others, journalists significantly used frequency and graphic portrayal devices in developing congruent interpretations of both events. For example, the Arabic-language newspaper emphasized the emotion of guilt in the Afghan War by showing proportionally more visual messages that humanized the victims. Al-Hayat newspaper ran more graphic images depicting refugees, casualties and loss of life, and thus focused on the humanitarian crisis in a neighboring Muslim country. It framed the terrorist attack story in a more technical frame by de-emphasizing visual messages that focused on the victims and emphasizing images of material destruction and depictions of the planes impacts; it published fewer images of people mourning, no photographs depicting 9/11 funerals and victims of the tragic event. On a similar level, the English-language newspaper emphasized the emotion of guilt in 9/11 by showing the largest proportions of its visuals humanizing 9/11 victims. It ran images of citizens mourning, mug shots of the deceased and funerals, and focused less on depictions of material loss. The IHT de-emphasized the bombing of Afghanistan by running visuals that focused less on the victims and more on arsenals and weaponry, thus framing the Afghan War story in a technical frame. In comparing photographs depicting tragedy, the two newspapers seemed to be less centered on the humanity of the other, and thus less likely to evoke sympathy. The IHT newspaper depicted the majority of the victims from the western world and Al-Hayat newspaper depicted the majority of the victims from the Arab and Muslim world. Further, many of the photographs that ran in the two newspapers dehumanized the other by portraying wide-angle shots of rubble caused by the terrorist attack or US air strikes in Afghanistan (data not shown). Data analyses also showed Al-Hayat newspaper emphasized the anti-war frame and the IHT newspaper emphasized a pro-war frame. The IHT depicted fewer images of anti-American, anti-war protests and more images of aid and patriotism than Al-Hayat. For example, unlike Al-Hayat, the IHT ran images of US aid in Afghanistan, trying to portray a more benevolent coverage of the war. This finding suggests that the visual coverage of the IHT might have shifted the attention and the public sympathy away from the agony and suffering inflicted upon the Afghans to a new concern, supporting and winning the war. Results indicate the IHT dedicated a considerable proportion of its images depicting war preparations, patriotism and US aid. Meanwhile, the newspaper portrayed the war as a bloodless event by not publishing a single image of casualty and loss of life in Afghanistan. As 9/11 and the Afghan War had far-reaching consequences for international relations, politics, diplomacy and military action, the contrasting visual framing of the two violent events by English- and Arabic-language transnational press was expected. The gap between the two cultures currently runs deep. With the ongoing Afghan and Iraq conflicts and the unresolved IsraeliPalestinian issue, discontent around the Arab world with US policies has intensified (see Fahmy and Johnson, 2007b). Similarly, in the aftermath of 9/11, high levels of anti-Arab sentiments in American public opinion polls were reported, in addition to significant stereotyping of Arab Americans, Arabs and Muslims as terrorist sympathizers (see Nacos and Torres-Reyna, 2003).
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As further evidence for misunderstanding and use of contrasting visual narratives, the following makes the point best. One of the most controversial images of 9/11 was the Reuters photograph of Palestinians cheering following the event. Anecdotal evidence suggests this particular image was highly criticized by the US public (Fahmy et al., 2006). The idea that the attack was celebrated in Arab media is widespread. However, results here showed that the IHT published the image and the Arabic-language newspaper did not. Trying to depict the peoples reaction to 9/11 in Arab and Muslim countries, Al-Hayat published several images of Arabs and Muslims memorializing the victims. For example, Al-Hayat ran an image of Iranians chanting anti-terrorism slogans and holding candles for 9/11 victims and another image of Arab women mourning the victims in a church in Damascus, Syria (see Fahmy, 2005b). Such images of Arabs and Muslims, however, were absent in the IHT newspaper. As for the use of graphic photographs, Al-Hayat consistently ran more graphic images of both events. This finding suggests the two newspapers might have tailored the visual coverage to their target readers. Current literature indicates that whereas many Americans expect the media to be sensitive to graphic images, a recent survey of viewers of Al-Jazeera found overwhelming support for the use of graphic imagery among the Arab audience (Fahmy and Johnson, 2007), suggesting, however, that cultural differences may predetermine any comparison based on this studys definition of what constitutes graphic imagery. Investigating the interaction between visuals and the thinking of English- and Arabic-speaking news professionals, the author contacted high-ranking editors of both newspapers.11 For journalists to explain that those differences in visual coverage were never intentional was to be expected. The literature suggests the concept of framing is one that could include the intent of the sender, but the motives could also be unintentional (Gamson, 1989). In other words, although journalists may follow guidelines for objective reporting, different cultural and political perspectives do filter into the newsmaking process, leading to a dominant framing of the news event to the target audience. Nick Stout, the assistant managing editor of the IHT at the time, explained that there was no conscious effort by journalists to differentiate between the coverage of the two events.12 They had simply tried to choose the visuals that told the story in the most objective way. Based on the differences between the target audiences, editors did not find the findings surprising.13 Saadawi, the editor at Al-Hayat newspaper, further commented:
The factors that we considered for running 9/11 images in Al-Hayat were to show the magnitude of the horror and its symbolism (vast destruction of buildings considered as icons and symbols of power and wealth). . . . As for the Afghan War coverage, we concentrated on two factors: women and children (the most vulnerable) and contrasts between preTaliban and post-Taliban as far as society is concerned.14

Several aspects of these findings, the author believes, are suggestive about the way transnational papers allowed for different interpretations of news and issues, specifically those related to war and terrorism. First, the visual coverage introduced contrasting visual frames that limited the two transnational newspapers from replicating the
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complex nature of the two tragic events. Second, the medias emphasis on these frames was somehow predetermined, a conclusion the author formed based upon the predominance of photographs that ran in the two newspapers from identical news sources: AP, Reuters and AFP (Fahmy, 2005b). The events and aftermath of 9/11 and the Afghan War catalyzed the two newspapers into presenting contrasting visual narratives of the two complicated events, making them explicitly relate to political and cultural differences that favor certain ways of seeing. To be specific, regardless of whether journalists in either newspaper were aware of the news-framing process, the visual comparison revealed that choices were not inevitable but rather were central to the way the frames and framing devices were employed to establish contrasting interpretations of war and terrorism. This raises at least two significant questions for future research. First, the cases suggest the need for more research focusing on audience frames. Audience frames analysis focuses on how audiences make sense of the news by using mentally stored ideas that guide information processing (see Entman, 1993). Current literature suggests visual journalists believe their work can have powerful effects on the public (Fahmy and Wanta, 2007) and that news photographs are particularly powerful in visual agenda setting (Fahmy et al., 2006) and in evaluating social and political environments (Domke et al., 2002). On the evidence of the two cases examined, in which contrasting visual narratives tended to obscure and to highlight certain information, the thinking among the bulk of the audience of these transnational media are unlikely to learn a comprehensive view of the events and issues covered. The second focus for more research is to examine how visual framing may be influenced by social-structural factors, organizational factors, individual factors and ideological factors (e.g. Eliasoph, 1988; Gitlin, 1980; Shoemaker and Reese, 1996; Tuchman, 1978). While the cases examined here suggest the reporting may have heavily tailored the visual coverage to the target audiences, there is little basis for predicting or understanding to what extent the visual frames and framing devices were a revealing component of ownership, and thus a system of production and distribution. The conditions that promote ideological and organizational control over framing vs autonomous journalistic control in a transnational context merit research, especially since transnational media claim to adhere to internationalist and cross-cultural positions and constitute a crucial forum in which news outlets compete to establish interpretations of importance to elite audiences. Finally, the author acknowledges that the two cases examined do not provide a sufficient basis for determining whether these visual indicators are common to other transnational media outlets. Moreover, this research did not examine the function of captions in framing photographs of conflicts. It is possible that different captions for identical pictures might produce different ways in which images are interpreted. Indeed, more than in the past, comparative visual research is needed. Findings of this study suggest that Arabic- and English-speaking audiences most likely do not get exposed to similar visual coverage of war and terrorism. During an information age, these differences in visual reporting may lead to more critical perceptions of the other, and more importantly, reinforce the trend of a progressively more polarized public opinion worldwide.
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Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Notes
1. Both newspapers have access to the same western news agencies: AP, AFP and Reuters. The vast majority (99.3 percent) of photographs of 9/11 and of the Afghan War that ran in the IHT and Al-Hayat newspapers were from these three western news agencies (Fahmy, 2005b). 2. In 2003 The New York Times acquired full ownership of the International Herald Tribune. 3. Nick Stout, deputy managing editor and chief editor for the International Herald Tribune in Asia, Hong Kong, personal communication, 18 February 2005. 4. N Itanim, the International Section director of Daralhayat Information Centre, Beirut, Lebanon, personal communication, 19 February 2006. 5. An important part of the analysis included registering and coding information from accompanying captions. For example, a photograph of people cheering at a sporting event is different from a photograph of people celebrating victory after winning a conflict. 6. To maintain reasonable cell sizes, the very graphic and graphic categories were later collapsed into one category. 7. The author is proficient in four different languages including Arabic and could read the captions to help identify the nationality of the subjects portrayed in Al-Hayat newspaper. 8. The IHT ran 4.1 percent and Al-Hayat newspaper ran 3.3 percent of 9/11 images as dominant; the IHT ran 13.9 percentand Al-Hayat newspaper ran 13percent of its AfghanWar imagesasdominant. 9. Several identical photographs were shared across the news media. Identical photographs in both the IHT and Al-Hayat newspapers included images of the plane crashing into the building on the front page and the public relations photograph of Yasser Arafat, the late president of the Palestinian National Authority, donating blood for 9/11 victims. 10. Because the two publications did not differ on how prominently they ran visuals on the front pages, dominance was removed from this and subsequent analyses that cross-tabulated framing devices with the two visual frames examined. 11. To familiarize them with the focus of the research, a list of questions was included in the email messages. The main questions focused upon the gate-keeping process regarding selecting photographs of 9/11 and the Afghan War and whether the process differed based on the news event. The editors were: Samir Saadawi, the international section editor of Al-Hayat newspaper; Nick Stout, the 2001 assistant managing editor of IHT; and Robert McCartney, the 2001 managing editor of the IHT. 12. Nick Stout, personal communication, 18 February 2005. Nick Stout reported he is currently in Hong Kong, working as the chief editor for the IHT in Asia. 13. Robert McCartney, personal communication, 25 February 2006. McCartney explained: Our paper is US owned and we publish for the elite English speaking audience abroad. I am not surprised then that our newspaper differed from an Arabic-language newspaper, I am not surprised the photo choice was also different. Robert McCartney is back in Washington, DC, as the assistant managing editor for continuous news at the Washington Post. He is in charge of the desk that provides breaking news coverage to washingtonpost.com and serves as the principal liaison between the newspaper and the website. 714

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14. Samir Saadawi, personal communication, 18 February 2005.

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