An Introduction to Code Division Multiple Access [CDMA]

S. Suresh Mohan , M. Vinoth Kumar

Pre final year, Bachelor of Engineering,
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Thanthai Periyar Government Institute of Technology,
Bagayam,Vellore-632002.
‘sutha.sugu@gmail.com’, ‘vinothec64@gmail.com’

ABSTRACT

CDMA is a form of multiplexing which allows numerous signals to occupy a single

transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. It refers to protocols
used in second and third generation wireless communication. It employs analog to digital
conversion in combination with spread spectrum technology. Audio input is digitized into
binary element. The transmitted frequency is varied to a defined pattern code so it can be
intercepted only by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with transmitted
code. Many codes occupy same channel but only user associated with particular code can
understand each other. It is used in high frequency cellular telephone system in the
800MHZ and 1.9GHZ bands. CDMA has been used in military applications such as Anti-
jamming, ranging, secure communication.

Introduction:

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple

Access) refers to any of several
protocols used in so-called second-
generation (2G) and third-generation
(3G) wireless communications. As the
term implies, CDMA is a form of
multiplexing, which allows numerous
signals to occupy a single transmission An analogy to the problem of multiple
channel, optimizing the use of available access is a room (channel) in which
bandwidth. The technology is used in people wish to communicate with each
ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular other. To avoid confusion, people could
telephone systems in the 800-MHz and take turns speaking (time division),
1.9-GHz bands. speak at different pitches (frequency
division), or speak in different languages
(code division). CDMA is analogous to
the last example where people speaking
the same language can understand each
other, but not other people. Similarly, in
radio CDMA, each group of users is
given a shared code. Many codes occupy
the same channel, but only users
associated with a particular code can
understand each other.
CDMA is a spread spectrum multiple
access technique. A spread spectrum
technique is one which spreads the
bandwidth of the data uniformly for the
same transmitted power. Spreading code
is a pseudo-random code which has a
narrow Ambiguity function unlike other
narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally
generated code runs at a much higher
rate than the data to be transmitted. Data
for transmission is simply logically XOR
(exclusive OR) added with the faster
code. The figure shows how spread
spectrum signal is generated. The data
signal with pulse duration of Tb is XOR
added with the code signal with pulse
duration of Tc. bandwidth is proportional
to 1 / T where T = bit time Therefore, the
bandwidth of the data signal is 1 / Tb and
the bandwidth of the spread spectrum
signal is 1 / Tc. Since Tc is much smaller
than Tb, the bandwidth of the spread
spectrum signal is much larger than the
bandwidth of the original signal. The
ratio Tb / Tc is called spreading factor or
processing gain and determines to
certain extent the upper limit of total
number of users supported
simultaneously by a base station.
Each user in a CDMA system uses a
different code to modulate their signal.
Choosing the codes used to modulate the
signal is very important in the
performance of CDMA systems. The
best performance will occur when there
is good separation between the signal of
a desired user and the signals of other
users. The separation of the signals is
made by correlating the received signal
with the locally generated code of the
desired user. If the signal matches the
desired user's code then the correlation
function will be high and the system can
extract that signal. If the desired user's
code has nothing in common with the
signal the correlation should be as close
to zero as possible (thus eliminating the
signal); this is referred to as cross
correlation.
In general, CDMA belongs to two basic
categories: synchronous (orthogonal
codes) and asynchronous
(pseudorandom codes).
Code Division Multiplexing:
(Synchronous CDMA)
Synchronous CDMA orthogonality
exploits mathematical properties of
between vectors representing the data
strings. For example, binary string
"1011" is represented by the vector (1, 0,
1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by
taking their dot product, by summing the
products of their respective components.
If the dot product is zero, the two vectors
are said to be orthogonal to each other.
Each user in synchronous CDMA
uses a code orthogonal to the others'
codes to modulate their signal. An
example of four mutually orthogonal
digital signals is shown in the figure.
Orthogonal codes have a cross-
correlation equal to zero. An example of
four mutually orthogonal digital signals.
Each user is associated with a different
code, say v. If the data to be transmitted
is a digital zero, then the actual bits
transmitted will be –v, and if the data to
be transmitted is a digital one, then the
actual bits transmitted will be v. For
example, if v=(1,–1), and the data that
the user wishes to transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1)
this would correspond to (v, –v, v, v)
which is then constructed in binary as
((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,–1),(1,–1)). For the
purposes of this article, we call this
constructed vector the transmitted
vector.
If sender0 has code (1,–1) and data
(1,0,1,1), and sender1 has code (1,1) and
data (0,0,1,1), and both senders transmit
simultaneously, then this table describes
the coding steps:
Ste
Encode sender0 Encode sender1
p
vector0=(1,–1), vector1=(1,1),
0 data0=(1,0,1,1)=( data1=(0,0,1,1)=(
v,–v,v,v) –v,–v,v,v)
encode0=vector0. encode1=vector1.
1
data0 data1
encode0=(1,–1). encode1=(1,1).(–
2
(1,–1,1,1) 1,–1,1,1)
encode0=((1,–1), encode1=((–1,–1),
3 (–1,1),(1,–1),(1,– (–1,–1),(1,1),
1)) (1,1))
 signal0=(1,–1,– signal1=(–1,–1,– Further, after decoding, all values
4
1,1,1,–1,1,–1) 1,–1,1,1,1,1) greater than 0 are interpreted as 1 while
all values less than zero are interpreted
Because signal0 and signal1 are
as 0. For example, after decoding, data0
transmitted at the same time into the air,
is (2,–2,2,2), but the receiver interprets
they add to produce the raw signal:
this as (1,0,1,1).
(1,–1,–1,1,1,–1,1,–1) + (–1,–1,–1,–
1,1,1,1,1) = (0,–2,–2,0,2,0,2,0) We can also consider what would
happen if a receiver tries to decode a
This raw signal is called an interference
signal when the user has not sent any
pattern. The receiver then extracts an
information. Assume signal0=(1,-1,-
intelligible signal for any known sender
1,1,1,-1,1,-1) is transmitted alone. The
by combining the sender's code with the
following table shows the decode at the
interference pattern, the receiver
receiver:
combines it with the codes of the
senders. The following table explains
Ste
how this works and shows that the Decode sender0 Decode sender1
p
signals do not interfere with one another: vector0=(1,–1), vector1=(1,1),
0 pattern=(1,-1,- pattern=(1,-1,-
Ste
Decode sender0 Decode sender1 1,1,1,-1,1,-1) 1,1,1,-1,1,-1)
p decode0=pattern. decode1=pattern.v
vector0=(1,–1), vector1=(1,1), 1
vector0 ector1
0 pattern=(0,–2,– pattern=(0,–2,– decode0=((1,–1), decode1=((1,–1),
2,0,2,0,2,0) 2,0,2,0,2,0) 2 (–1,1),(1,-1),(1,- (–1,1),(1,-1),(1,-
decode0=pattern. decode1=pattern.v
1 1)).(1,–1) 1)).(1,1)
vector0 ector1 decode0=((1+1),
decode0=((0,–2), decode1=((0,–2), decode1=((1–1),(–
3 (–1-1),(1+1),
2 (–2,0),(2,0),(2,0)). (–2,0),(2,0),(2,0)). 1+1),(1-1),(1-1))
(1+1))
(1,–1) (1,1)
decode0=((0+2),
decode1=((0–2),(– data0=(2,–
3 (–2+0),(2+0), 4 data1=(0,0,0,0)
2+0),(2+0),(2+0)) 2,2,2)=(1,0,1,1)
(2+0))
data0=(2,– data1=(–2,–
4
2,2,2)=(1,0,1,1) 2,2,2)=(0,0,1,1)
When the receiver attempts to decode
the signal using sender1’s code, the data
is all zeros, therefore the cross
correlation is equal to zero and it is clear
that sender1 did not transmit any data.
In CDMA, each phone's data has a
unique code.
Asynchronous CDMA:
The previous example of orthogonal
Walsh sequences describes how 2 users
can be multiplexed together in a
synchronous system, a technique that is
commonly referred to as Code Division
Multiplexing (CDM). The set of 4 Walsh
sequences shown in the figure will
afford up to 4 users, and in general, an
NxN Walsh matrix can be used to
multiplex N users. Multiplexing requires
all of the users to be coordinated so that
each transmits their assigned sequence v
(or the complement, -v) starting at
exactly the same time. Thus, this
technique finds use in base-to-mobile
links, where all of the transmissions
originate from the same transmitter and
can be perfectly coordinated.
Spread Spectrum Characteristics of
CDMA:
Most modulation schemes try to
minimize the bandwidth of this signal
since bandwidth is a limited resource.
However, spread spectrum techniques
use a transmission bandwidth that is
several orders of magnitude greater than
the minimum required signal bandwidth.
One of the initial reasons for doing this
was military applications including
guidance and communication systems.
These systems were designed using
spread spectrum because of its security
and resistance to jamming.
CDMA can also effectively reject
narrowband interference. Since
narrowband interference affects only a
small portion of the spread spectrum
signal, it can easily be removed through
notch filtering without much loss of
information.
Direct Sequence Spread Sprectrum -
DSSS CDMA :
In this method, the direct sequence(input
data) which is spread over a limited
bandwidth is multiplied with a code or
spreading sequence (a pseudorandom
sequence also known as PN sequence)
which will spread the input data over the
CDMA Demodulation:
entire bandwidth of the communication
channel.
The power density is also reduced and is
spread over the frequency spectrum and
hence is known as spread spectrum
method. The modulation part of DSSS is
as shown below.
CDMA Modulation:
The modulated signal is transmitted over
the channel and all users can receive it
but only the user which knows the
correct code can decode the message.
This is depicted in the figure below.
 CDMA's spread spectrum
technique overlaps every
transmission on the same carrier
frequency by assigning a unique
code to each conversation.
 The signal is spread at two levels
first using a Walsh Code and then
using a PN Code. The number of bits
in either of the two codes is known
as the "chip rate," and each bit in the
spreading signal is called a "chip".
One bit from each conversation
(baseband signal) is multiplied with
the Walsh code and then the PN code
by the spreading techniques giving
the receiving side an enormous
amount of data it can average just to
determine the value of one bit.
 Base station is the one that
assigns spreading code to each call
when a mobile requests for a call
(unique Walsh code for each
 conversation and a same PN code for
each call in a cell sector). In the
analysis henceforth we discuss the
dynamic allocation of these spread
codes in accordance with the
required QoS.


Multipath Fading :

In a mobile environment, a mobile

station will receive one direct signal Power Control:
from the base station and multiple
As the propagation losses between BS
signals which are reflected from
and MS's are different according to
obstructions like buildings and towers.
individual communication distances, the
Each signal would have traveled a received levels at the base station are
different length and would be displaced different from each other when all
in time. Due to this, when they are mobile stations transmit their signals at
combined at the mobile handset, it will the same power.
cause interference resulting in poor
Moreover, the received level fluctuates
signal quality. This is known as fading.
quickly due to fading. In order to
This problem is handled in a very good maintain the strength of received signal
way in CDMA. Here, the phase of the level at BS, power control technique
multiple signals is modified such that must be employed in CDMA systems.
only positive interference (addition)
takes place and the overall signal
strength increases. A receiver that
implements the above principle is known
as a RAKE receiver as shown in the
figure below.
Power control can be implemented in
two ways: open loop power control and
closed loop power control.
Effect of Power Control:
Power control is capable
compensating the fading fluctuation.
Received powers from all MS are
controlled to be equal. 　 Near-Far
problem is mitigated by the power
control.
Benefits:
CDMA is a mobile technology that has
been implemented by TM as a Fixed
Wireless service. The CDMA network
implemented in TM is to enhance the
current PSTN network and is targeted to
serve customers in rural areas.
TM's CDMA Network consists of 3
main elements:
• 3 Mobile Switching Centres
(MSC)
• 10 Central Base Station
Controllers (CBSC)
• 257 Base Transceiver Stations
(BTS)
Frequency used:
of • Base Station transmission:
869Mhz – 894 MHz
• Base Station reception: 824 MHz
– 849 MHz
• Currently 2 carriers being used
within the above frequency band.
• CDMA channels currently in use
are (centre frequency):
Channel 1: 878.49 / 833.49 MHz (Base
Tx/Rx)
Channel 2: 877.23 / 832.23 MHz (Base
Tx/Rx)
The channel bandwidth is 1.25 MHz.
Features:
i) Access Line
• Fixed Wireless Telephone
(CDMA) will provide basic
telecommunications applications
of a normal fixed telephone,
which support incoming and
outgoing PSTN voice calls.
ii) Data (Internet)
• CDMA 95B System-Internet
services in the circuit switch
environment
• CDMA 1X System-Internet
Access up to 144 Kbps
iii) Facsimile
iv) Traffic Minutes/Calls
The connection will support outgoing
PSTN calls of all types:
• Geographic calls
• Non-geographic calls, 1800,
1300
• Emergency calls, e.g. 999, 994
• Equal access
• Operator assistance
• Directory assistance
• Enhanced features
• Call waiting
• Call forwarding
• Call forwarding on busy
• Call forwarding on no reply
CDMA vs. GSM? – Which is more
ubiquitous? Well, the obvious answer is
GSM, but this answer may not be that
obvious few years down the line –
CDMA is quickly catching up with
GSM; and the subscriber base (for
CDMA) in India has already surpassed
50 million fixed and mobile device
users.
As per the report from CDG,
• 50 million subscriber growth
reached this milestone only four
years after the technology’s
introduction to the market, while
it it took GSM more than ten
years to reach the same number.
• CDMA growth rate exceeds than
that of GSM on a monthly basis
(5% vs. 4,1%).
• With up to 2.01 million net
subscriber additions in June
2007, CDMA2000’s 5 percent
growth rate exceeded that of
GSM, at 4.1 percent,.
• Reliance Communications and
Tata Teleservices, are among
 the top 20 fastest-growing
operators in the world.
• CDMA2000 is quickly becoming
the technology of choice for
emerging markets.
• Reliance has embarked on one of
the largest CDMA2000 network
expansions on the planet—with
plans to reach more than 20,000 Conclusion:
towns and 300,000 villages.
 CDMA provides an advanced
Key reasons behind this growth are: technology for cellular
applications.
• Availability of very low-end
 It provides high-quality service
(VLE) handsets – There are
to a large number of users.
currently 45 VLE CDMA2000
 It is a system that has been
devices from 14 suppliers
extensively tested and it will be
available below US$50 in
deployed later this year in
wholesale price.
precommercial applications.
• Rapid expansion of the
Commercial service is scheduled
CDMA2000 networks into the
to begin in 1994.
rural areas of India to deliver
state-of-the-art telephone and
References:
broadband Internet access
• Price gap between 2G GSM low- [1] G. K. Rushforth, “Transmitted-
end handsets and 3G reference techniques for random
CDMA2000 handsets has orunknown channels,” IEEE Trans.
narrowed to only $4 USD Inform. Theory, vol. IT-10, pp. 39–
42,Jan. 1964
.2. J.G. Proakis, Digital
Communications, Second Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1989.