1

DENSITY INDEX

Aim :
To determine density index of the given soil.
Apparatus :
Empty mould pouring device, IS 2720 Part IV 3600 RPM
Vibrating machine, scale, Vernier Calipers.
Reference Procedure :
Is 2720 (Part 14)- 1983
1) The diameter, height and weight of the empty mould were
measured and noted down.
2) The mould was then filled completely with given soil sample
and weight of the mould with soil was taken down.
3) The mould filled with soil was placed on the vibrator and
allowed to vibrate for about 4 minutes and it is said to be
forward vibration.
4) The vibration was done carefully and after switching it off,
the sand left on the pan of the vibrator machine was
collected and poured into the mould.
5) Then again reverse vibration was done for 4 minutes and the
screws were opened.
6) The height of the sand in mould is reduced due to vibrations,
was measured and volume of reduced sand was calculated.
7) The density of soil in both loose state and compacted states
were determined.
OBSERVATIONS:
Height of mould, h
1
=
Diameter of mould, d =
Volume of mould, V
1
=
2
4
d h
t

Weight of the mould W
1
=
Weight of the mould + sand after pouring into mould, W
2
=
Weight of sand + mould after vibrating , W
3
=
Height of compacted soil after vibrating h
2
= h
1
(reduction in
height) =
H
2
=
Volume of compacted soil, V
2
=
2
2
4
d h
t

Assume insitu dry density of soil
r
d
= 160g/cc
CALCULATIONS:
r
dmax
= w
3
-w
1
g/cc

2

r
dmin
=
2 1
1
w w
v

g/cc
Density Index (ID) or Relative Density (R
D
) :
Density index is an important index property of the soil, particularly
coarse grained material. It is expressed as :
I
D
=
max
max min
e e
e e

- (1)
Emax : Void ratio of the soil in compacted condition .
E : Void ratio of the soil in normal condition.
Emin : Void ratio of the soil in loose condition .
It can also be expressed as :
I
D
=
max min
max min
d d d
d d r d
r r r
r r

| |

|
\ .
X 100 - (2)
As e=Gr
w
/r
d
-1

RESULT:
Density Index of given soil =

GENERAL REMARKS:
INFERENCE :
As density index of given soil is 44.44%, the sand is of medium
dense type soil.
1) The Engineering properties of a mass of cohesionless soil
depend to a large extent on its relative density (D
r
) or density
index (I
D
).
2) The relative density of a soil gives a more clear idea of the
denseness than does the void ratio.
3) Two sands possessing the same relative density value,
usually behave in identical manner.

PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE :
1)The relative density of a soil indicates how it would
behave under loads.
2) If the deposit is dense, it can take heavy loads with very
little settlements.
PRACTICAL VALUES:
Depending upon the relative density, the soils are generally divided
into 5 categories:
Denseness Very
Loose
Loose Medium
Dense
Dense Very
Dense
Dr (%) <15 15 to 35 35 to 65 65 to 85 85 to 100



3


DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY BY FALLING HEAD METHOD

AIM:
To determine the coefficient of permeability of given soil by falling
head method.

APPARATUS :
Permeameter with accessories, beaker, measuring jar and stopwatch.

REFERENCE:
IS : 2720 (Part 17) 1986.

THEORY:
The variable head permeameter is used to measure the permeability
of relatively less pervious soils.
The Coefficient of permeability is given by
K =
1
10
2
2.30
log
aL h
At h
| |
|
\ .

Where

h
1
= Initial reading, cm = Initial head
h
2
= Final reading, cm = Final head
t = Time interval, sec
a = Cross- sectional area of the stand pipe, cm
2

A = Cross Sectional area of the specimen.
L = Length of the specimen
PROCEDURE:
1) The dimensions of the mould i.e. diameter and length of the
mould was measured.
2) The volume of the mould was calculated and from known
values of water content, dry density, Volume and wet weight
of the soil was completed.
3) About 2 kg of thoroughly mixed wet soil sample was taken
and wet weight of the soil completed was filled into the
mould, after applying grease to the inside
Surface of the mould. The soil was compacted at the required
dry density using a suitable compacting device.
4) The porous discs were saturated.
5) A porous disc was placed on the drainage basin and a fitter
paper was kept on the porous disc.
6) The dummy plate was removed, the mould with soil was
placed on the drainage base, after inserting a washer in
between.
7) The porous disc and the drainage cap were fixed using
washers.
8) The water reversion was connected to the outlet of the base,
and the water was allowed to flow upwards till it has
saturated the sample. Then the reservoir was disconnected
from the outlet at the bottom.
4

9) The constant head reservoir was connected to the drainage
cap inlet.
10) The stop cork was opened and the water was allowed to
flow downward so that all the air was removed.
11) The stop cork was closed and the water was allowed to flow
through the soil such that steady state was attained.
12) The water flowing out of the base was collected in a flask for
time interval of measured by stop watch.
13) Repeated the procedure for same quantity of water collected.
14) The initial and final heads readings and time taken were
noted down.
15) The coefficient of permeability was calculated using the
formula and its average value was found out.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Water content of the soil, w =


Dry density, rd = 1.6g/cc
Height of the mould, h =
Inner diameter of the mould, d =
Volume of the mould ,V =
Diameter of stand pipe, D =
Area of the stand pipe
Cross- sectional area, a =
Area of the mould, A =
Weight of wet soil =
Amount of air dried soil taken =
Water content added =
= 10
= 200ml
Average coefficient of Permeability, K =
SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:
For observation No. : 1
Initial head reading, h1 =
Final head reading, h2 =
Time taken, t =
Log10
Coefficient of Permeability, K = 2.303aL

RESULT :
Coefficient of permeability of given soil by Falling Head Method =
INFERENCE:


5


Since the coefficient of permeability lies between 10
-3
and 10
-5
Cm/s,
the soil is designated as semifervious and has fair drainage properties.
GENERAL REMARKS:
Alternate methods for determination of coefficient of permeability of
a soil are:
A) LABORATORY METHODS:
The coefficient of permeability of a soil sample can be determined by
the following laboratory methods:
1) CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY METHOD:

qL
k
Ah
=
Where L = length of specimen
H = head causing flow
q = discharge
A = cross sectional area of specimen
B) FIELD METHODS:
1) PUMPING OUT TEST:
Coefficient of permeability is given for and unconfined aquifer is
( )
2
10
2 1 1
2.30
log
2
q r
K
b z z r t
| |
=
|

\ .

Where z
1
= height of water level in observation well (1) at a radial
distance of r
1

Z
2
= height of water level in observation well (2) at a radial
distance of r
2

2) PUMPING IN TESTS:
In open end test,

5.5
q
K
rH
=
Where, r = Inner radius of the casing
H = Difference of levels between the inlet of the casing and
the water table.
Q = Discharge
In case of packet tests,
log 10
2
e
q L
K if L r
LH r t
| |
= >
|
\ .

1
sin 10
2 2
q L
K h if r L
LH r

t
| |
= > >
|
\ .

Where, L = Length of the hole
R = Inner radius of hole

3) INDIRECT METHODS:
Allen Hazens Formula
6


2
10
k CD =
Where D10 = Effective size (cm)
C = Constant, with a value between 100 & 150.
Kozeny-Carman Equation
( )
3
2 2
.
1
w
s
g e
K
e c s T

=
+

K = Coefficient of permeability


Where e
w
= Mass density of water (gm/ml)
C
s
= Shape factor, 2.5 for granular soil
= Coefficient of viscosity (Poise)
e = Void ratio, g = 981cm/sec
2

T = tortvosity,with a value of 2 for granular soils
S = Surface area per unit volume of soil solids known as
specific surface area per unit volume of soil solids.
Loudons formula
Log
10
(KS
2
) = a+bn
S = Specific surface cm
2
/cm
3
N = Porosity, expressed as a ratio,a =
Constant, with an average value of 1.365 at 10
0
C.b = Constant, with
an average value of 5.15 at 10
0
C.
Consolidation test data
K = C
r
r
w
m
v
= C
v
e
w
g m
v
,
C
v
= Coefficient of consolidation (m
2
/Sec),
w
= Density of water (kg/m
3
)
g = 9.81/Sec
2

m
v
= coefficient of volume compressibility (cm
2
/N)
r
w
= unit weight of water (N/m
3
)
PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE :



Permeability is an important engineering property of soil in order to find
out the settlement, yield of well seepage, etc. constant head method is
suitable for clear sand and gravel with k>10
-2
mm/s. The falling head
permeability test is suitable for fine sand silt with k = 10
-2
to10
-5
mm/s.
For large engineering problems, pumping out test is the usual practice to
measure the permeability of soil by this method. It is apt for a
homogeneous coarse grained soil deposits.
Typical Values of the Coefficient of Permeability
7



S.No Soil Type Coefficient of
Permeability
(mm/sec)
Drainage
Properties
1 Clean gravel 10
+1
to 10
+2
Very good
2 Coarse and medium
Sands
10
-2
to 10
+1
Good
3 Fine sands, loose silt 10
-4
to 10
-2
Fair
4 Dense silt, clayey silts 10
-5
to 10
-4
Poor
5 Silty clay, clay 10
-8
to 10
-5
Very poor
8

DETERMINATION OF KBY CONSTANT HEAD METHOD
AIM:
To determine the permeability of a soil specimen by Constant Head
Permeability Test.
REFERENCE :
IS 2720 : Part 36, 1975.
APPARATUS:
Pemeameter with its accessories, beaker, measuring jar and stop watch.
THEORY:
The coefficient of permeability is equal to the rate of flow of water
through a unit cross sectional area under a unit hydraulic gradient. In the
constant head permeameter , the head causing flow through the specimen
remains constant throughout the test. The coefficient of permeability (K)
is obtained from the relation.

qL QL
K
Ah Aht
= =
Where
q= discharge
Q = Total volume of water
H = head causing flow
T = time period
L = Length of the specimen
A = Cross sectional area.
PROCEDURE:
1) The collar of the mould was removed and the interval
dimensions of the mould was measured.
2) From the known water content and the dry density,the
weight of the wet soil occupying the total volume of the
mould was computed.
3) Crease was applied to the inside surface of the mould and
the collar was placed on it.
4) Soil was placed in the mould by compacting it in three
layers. Soil was compacted upto the top surface of the
mould.
5) The mould with the soil is placed on the drainage base
with the porous disc on the top, after inserting a washer in
between.
6) The drainage cap was then placed on the top and it along
with the porous disc was fixed using washers.
7) The constant head reservoir was connected to the drainage
cap inlet.
8) The stop clock was opened and the water was allowed to
flow downward so that all the air was removed.
9

9) The stop clock was stopped and water was allowed to flow
through the soil till a steady state was established.
10) The stopwatch was started and the water flowing out of
the base was collected in a measuring flask. The time was
noted after collecting certain discharge.
11) The above process was repeated by changing the head and
the time taken for collecting the same amount of discharge
are noted down.
12) The coefficient of permeability was calculated using above
data and average value was found.
OBSERVATIONS:


Diameter of specimen, d =
Length of the specimen, L =
Cross-sectional area of specimen, A =
Volume of specimen, V = Ah
Dry density, rd =
Water content =
Dry density of the soil required = rd V
Wet weight of the sample = rv
= r
d
(1+w)V
From table,
Average coefficient of Permeability =
RESULT:
Coefficient of permeability of a soil specimen by constant head
permeameter is
INFERENCE:
Since the permeability of soil is greater than 10
-2
mm/Sec, the soil is
classified as pervious soil and has good drainage properties.
GENERAL REMARKS:
ALTERNATE METHODS:
The coefficient of permeability can also be determined by the
follo
wing
metho
ds:
10

LABORATORY METHOD :
FALLING HEAD (OR) VARIABLE HEAD PERMEABILITY
TEST:
For relatively less permeable soils, the quantity of water collected
in the graduated jar of the constant head Permeability test is very small
and cannot be measured accurately. For such soils variable head
permeability test is used.
1
10
2
2.303
log
aL h
k
At h
| |
=
|
\ .

Where, h
1
= initial head
h
2
= final head
t = time interval
a = area of cross- section of stand pipe
L = length of the specimen
A = cross- sectioned area of specimen
This method is suitable for very fine sand silt with K = 10
-2
to 10
-5

mm/Sec.
FIELD METHODS:
PUMPING OUT TEST:
K determined by above methods do not give correct results
since the sample is distributed. The method is extremely useful for a
homogenous, coarse grained deposits and in this test, the soil deposit
over a large area is influenced and the results represent an overall
coefficient of permeability of a large mass of soil.
In case of unconfined aquifer,.
( )
2
10
2 2
1 2 1
2.303
log
q h
k
h z z t
| |
=
|

\ .

Where r
1
,r
2
are radial distances
In case of confined aquifer,
( )
2
10
1 2 1
2.303
log
2
q r
k
r b z z t
| |
=
|

\ .

Where Z
1
= height of water level in observation well (1) at a
radial distance of r
1

Z
2
= height of water level in observation well (2) at a
radial distance of r
2
.
PUMPING IN TESTS:
The pumping in tests gives the value of K of stream
just close to the hole
In case of open end tests K = q
Where r = radius inside of casing
H = difference of levels between the inlet of the casing
and water table.
11

In case of Packet Tests,
log 10
2
e
q L
k if L r
LH r t
| |
= >
|
\ .

1
10
2 2
q L
k Sinh if r L r
LH r t
| |
= > >
|
\ .

The coefficient of permeability can also be determined by
indirect methods and it is used in settlement analysis.
INDIRECT METHODS:
1) ALLEN HAZENS FORMULA :
K = CD
10
2



Where K = Coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)
D
10
= Effective size
C = Constant between 100 and 150
2) Kozeny carman equation:

( )
3
2 2
.
1
w
s
g
k
e c s T

=
+

K = Coefficient of permeability
e
w
= mass density of water (g/ml)
c
s
= shape factor, 2.5 for granular soils
= Coefficient of viscosity
e = void ratio,
g = 98/cm/ sec
2
,
T = tortuosity with a value of for granular soils and
s = surface area per unit volume of soil solids.
3) Loudons Formula :
Loudon gave the following empirical formula
Log
10
(KS
2
) = a+bn
S = Specific surface (cm
2
/cm
3
) n = porosity,
A = Constant = 1.865 at 10
0
C b = constant = 5.15 at 10
0
C.
4) Consolidation test data:
K = C
r
r
w
m
v
= C
r
e
w
gm
v

C
v
: Coefficient of consolidation (m
2
/sec) g = 9.81 m/sec
2

PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
Permeability is an important engineering property of soil
inorder to find out the settlement, yield of well seepage, etc.
Constant head method is suitable for clear sand and gravel
with
K>10
-2
mm/s. The falling head permeability test is suitable for fine sand
and silt with K = 10
-2
to 10
-5
mm/s.
12

For large engineering problems, pumping out test is the usual
practice to measure the permeability of soil by this method. It is apt for
a homogeneous coarse grained soil deposits.
Typical values of the coefficient of Permeability




S.No Soil type Coefficient of
Permeability
(mm/sec)
Drainage
Properties
1
2
3
4
5
Clean gravel
Coarse & medium sands
Fine sands ,loose silt
Dense silt, clayey silts
Silty clay,clay
10
+1
to 10
+2

10
-2
to 10
+1

10
-4
to 10
-2

10
-5
to 10
-4

10
-8
to 10
-5

Very good
Good
Fair
Poor
Very poor

13

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

AIM:
To determine the shear parameters of a sandy soil specimen by
direct shear test.

REFERENCE:
IS : 2720 (Part 13) 1972.

APPARATUS:
Shear box divided into two halves by a horizontal plane and
filled with looking and spacing screws, grid plates, loading pad, loading
yoke, proving ring, dial gauge.
THEORY :
Shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shearing
stresses. The shear strength is expressed as
tan C t o | = +
Where C = Effective cohesion
= Effective stress
= Effective angle of shearing resistance.
PROCEDURE:
1) The internal dimensions of the shear box are measured.
2) The upper part of the box was fixed to the lower part using locking
screws.
3) The soil sample of known density was taken and its weight i.e.
Weight of the sample to be taken was determined from density and
volume.
4) The soil sample was placed in the box and the loading pad was
fixed on the base.
5) The box was mounted on the loading frame.
6) The upper half of the box was brought in contact with the pouring
ring. The contact was checked by giving a light movement.
7) The loading yoke was mounted on the ball placed on loading pad.
8) The weights are placed on the loading yoke to apply a normal load
of 5 lb initially.
9) The sample was allowed to get consolidated under the applied
normal load and all the dial gauges are adjusted to read Zero, the
pouring ring was adjusted to zero.
10) The horizontal shear load was applied at a constant rate of strain
of 0.2mm/min.
11) The readings of the pouring ring was recorded.
12) The test was repeated on identical specimen under the normal
loads of 10,15,20,25 lb.
13) The normal load stress and shear stress are computed and a graph
was drawn between them. The slope of the graph gives the angle
of shearing resistance.
OBSERVATIONS:
Length of shear box =
14

Breadth of shear box =
Depth of shear box = 3.7cm
Area of shear box =
Volume of shear box =
Self weight of load hanger =
Lever arm factor =
Dry density of soil, r
d
= 1.6g/cc
Weight of specimen = r
d
x volume
Least count of pouring ring =
SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:
For observation No :
Normal load = (load x leaver arm factor) +Self weight
Normal stress =
Normalload
Area

Shear force at failure = L.C X div
Shear stress =
Shear force
Area

1
7avg
Tan
avg
|
o

| |
=
|
\ .

RESULT:
For the given soil shear parameters are angle of shearing
resistance ,
0
27.47 | = form graph, c = o and
0
30.83 | = from
tabular column.
GENERAL REMARKS:
Direct shear test can be conducted for any one of the three
drainage conditions i.e, UV, CU,CD for UU test. Plain grids are used,
as no time is allowed for consolidation, the test can be conducted
quickly in a few minutes.
For CU test, perforated grids are used. The sample is allowed
to consolidate under the normal load and it is sheared in about 5-10
min.
For CD test, the sample is consolidated under the normal load
and is sheard slowly so that excess pure water pressure is dissipated. A
CD test takes about few hours for cohesionless soils, for cohesive
soils, it may take about 2-5 days.

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST:

The triaxial test is another method used for the determination
of shear characteristics for all types of soils under different drainage
conditions.

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST:
15

The unconfined compression test is a special form of triaxial
test. The test can be conducted on clayey soils which can stand
without confinement and it is generally performed on intact saturated
clays.
VANE SHEAR TEST:
The shear parameters are useful in the following cases:
1) In the stability analysis of slope.
2) In determining the lateral earth pressure.
3) In determining the bearing capacity of the soils.
4) In designing the retaining walls and depths of foundations.
Graph




16

NORTH DAKOTA CONE PENETRATION
TEST

AIM:
To determine the bearing capacity of soil using NORTH DAKOTA CONE
PENETRATION TEST.
REFERENCE:
IS : 2720 (Part 32) 1980
APPARATUS:
North Dakota cone, set of weights. Stop clock, hardened steel cone.
GENERAL:
It was developed by North Dakota Highway Development. The test with
North Dakota is simpler and more rapid than CBR test. It is accurate and
has reliable results only in fine grained soils.
SOIL SAMPLE:
6 Kgs of soil sample passing through 4.75 mm IS sieve .
PROCEDURE:
1. The given soil sample was sieved through 4.75 mm IS sieve and
about 6 kg of the soil sample was taken .
2. About 10% of water was added to the sample taken and
thoroughly mixed.
3. The mould with the base plate, collar was taken and a surcharge
was placed at the bottom on the base plate.
4. The soil sample was compacted in the mould in 5 layers by
giving 56 blows with a heavy rammer.
5. The collar was then removed and the excess soil was
trimmed to the top level of the mould and the base plate.
Surcharge mass are also removed.
6. The central shaft was mounted vertically and slided freely up
and down through collars of two trackets.
7. The central shaft could he located at any revered position by
lightening on clamping collar. The graduated plunger which
entered one of the the side supports permits the reading of
the penetration corrected to 1mm.
8. The apparatus was placed in position. The shaft was
unlocked and carefully moved down until the tip of the cone
just touches the surface of sample in mould.
9. The shaft was locked and the reading on the plunger was
noted.

17

10) The shaft was unlocked and simultaneously the stop watch was
made on and the penetration was allowed for one minute.
11) The final reading on the shaft was noted. The difference
between the readings gives the penetration in on under the
weights of moving parts in 5 kg.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Average Bearing Pressure = (33.56+27.49+25.1+27.49)/4
= 28.41 kg/cm
2


12) Similarly the above procedure was repeated with the loads of
10kg, 20kg, 40kg and these included 5kg of the moving parts.

OBSERVATIONS:
Weight of the soil sample taken =
Water content added =

CALCULATONS:
The correction to be applied is obtained by the
formula:
C= P
40
-2P
10

Where C= correction to be allied
P
40
= Penetration at 40 kg load
P
10
= Penetration at 10 kg load
Bearing area =
4
H
(2P
c
tan 7
0
45

)
2
= 0.0582 P
c
2

Where P
c
= corrected penetration (am)
C= P
40
-
10
2 P
=
Average bearing pressure =

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:
S.No Load
(
k
g
)
Penetration (cm) Corrected
Penetration(cm)
Area
=0.0582P
c
2
cm
2
Bearing
Pressur
e
Kg/cm
2
Initial Final Difference
1 5 4.7 6 1.3 1.6 0.149 33.56
2 10 4.7 6.9 2.2 2.5 0.364 27.49
3 20 4.7 8.1 3.4 3.7 0.797 25.10
4 40 4.7 9.4 4.7 5.0 1.455 27.49
18

For observation NO=
Load on the shaft =
Initial Shaft reading =
Final shaft reading =
Penetration = Final Initial =
Area = 0.0582 P
c
2 =
Bearing pressure =
Load
Area
=
=
RESULT:
The average bearing pressure of soil given by North Dakota
cone test in

GENERAL REMARKS AND PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
North Dakota is an empirical test and it can be conducted on
untrained samples and compacted samples.
The slows should be uniformly distributed over the surface
of each layer. Clearing and drying of base plate is necessary grease
should be applied to the walls of the mould.

This method is used for the design of flexible pavements

This method helps in finding out the institute bearing
capacity of the subgade.

The method comprises of load penetration test performed in
the laboratory or institute with the empirical design charts to
determine thickness of pavements and its constituent layers.

19

CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
AIM:
To determine the California Bearing Ratio value of giver soil
sample.

REFERENCE:
IS : 9669-1980

APPARATUS:
CBR mould with detachable collar and base plate, rammer,
balance, surcharge weight, IS Sieve.

PROCEDURE:
1) The sample is sieved through 4.75 mm and about 6kg of
material passing through 4.75 mm sieve is taken.
2) The material was mixed thoroughly with the specified quantity
of water.
3) The extension collar was fixed to the top of the mould and base
plate was fixed to the bottom.
4) The space disc was inserted over the base, with the central hole
of the disc at the lower face.
5) The soil sample was taken in the mould and the soil was
compacted in fine layer. Each layer was given 56 blowers by
small rammer.
6) The extension collar was removed and the excess compacted soil
was trimmed with a straight edge with the top of the mould.
7) The base plate was loosened. The base plate and the spacer disc
are removed.
8) The mould was weighed with the compacted soil.
9) The mould was inverted with the compacted soil. The
surcharged mass was placed on the mould.
10) The penetration plunger was placed and seated at the centre of
the specimen to establish full contact between the plunger and
the specimen.
11) The load dial gauge and penetration dial gave are set to zero.
12) The load was recorded corresponding to the penetration of
25,50,75,..in the dial gauge.
13) The load was recorded and applied on the plunger the rate of
penetration was kept as 1.25 mm/min.
14) At the end of the test the plunger was raised and the mould was
removed from the loading machine
20

15) A graph was driver between load as penetration and the loads
corresponding to 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm are determined and the
corresponding CBR values are determined.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Penetration dial gauge Load dial gauge
S.NO Dial gauge
reading
Penetration(mm)
= ReadingL.C
2
Proving
ring
reading
Load in kg
= proving
ring
reading
L.C
1 0 0.0 0 0
2 2.5 0.635 10 124.95
3 50 1.27 26 324.87
4 75 1.905 41 512.30
5 100 2.54 57 712.22
6 125 3.175 71.5 893.40
7 150 3.81 85 1062.08
8 175 4.445 98 1224.5
9 200 5.08 109 1361.96
10 250 6.35 134 1674.3
11 300 7.65 157 1961.7
12 400 10.16 225 2811.4
13 500 12.70 255 8186.23

OBSERVATIONS:
Diameter of the mould d =
Height of the mould, M =
Least count of proving gauge =
Least count of dial gauge =
=
Volume of the mould, V =
2
4
d H
H

=
Optimum water content =
Mass of empty mould =
Mass of mould + compacted soil =
Mass of compacted soil =
From graph.
Loud at 2.5 mm penetration =
Load at 5.0 mm penetration =
CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration=
CBR value at 5mm penetration = 100
tan
Penetration load
S dard load

=
RESULT:
California Bearing Ratio of given sample =
GENERAL REMARKS
21

The CBR test may be conducted in the laboratory on a
prepared specimen in a mould or institute in the field
It is a test development by the California division of
highways. The test is used for evaluating the suitability of sub grad
and the materials used in sub base and lose courses. The test results
are correlated with the thickness of various materials for flexible
pavements. It is evident that as CBR value increases the thickness of
constriction above the material decreases.

ALTERATE METHODS:
The alternative methods for deterging the thickness are:
1) Group Index method
2) CBR method
3) California resistance value method
4) MCLEOD method.

GRAPH
22

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
AIM
To determine the shear strength of clayey soil remoulded
corresponding to proctors Density.

REFERENCE:
IS : 2720(Part 10) 1973

APPARATUS:
Proctors mould with its accessories and unconfined
compression apparatus. Proving ring type, dial gauge weighing
balance over sampling tube split mould of 38 mm dia, 76 mm
long sample extractor knit larger mould.

FORMULAE:
The unconfined compressive strength (q
u
) is the load per unit
area at which the cylindrical specimen of a cohesive soil fails in
compression
q
u =
P
A

Where P= Axial load at failure
A= Area is corrected area =
0
1
A
c

Where
0
A is the institute area of the specimen
c = axial strain =
change inlength
original length

Figure
The undrained shear strength (S) of the soil is equal to are half
of the unconfined compressive strength
S =
2
u
q

PROCEDURE:
1) Oil was applied to the proctors mould initially the soil sample
about 3 kg was taken and water content of about 10% was
added.
2) The sample was compacted in the similar manner as the
Proctors test.
3) The two sampling core wetter tubes are oiled and pushed into
the sample
4) The sampling tube filled with the soil was removed.
5) The sample was extruded out of the sampling tube into the splint
mould using the sample extruder and knife.
6) The two ends of the specimen in the split mould was trimmed.
23

7) The specimens
from the split
mould was
removed by
splitting the mould
into two parts.
8) The length and
diameter of the
specimen are
measured
9) The specimen was
placed on the
bottom plate of the
compression
machine and the
upper plate was
adjusted to make
contact with the
specimen.
10) The dial gauge and
the proving ring
gauge are adjusted to
zero.
TABULAR
COLUMN:
Sample 1:

11) The
compression load was
applied and the dial
gauge and the proving
ring readings are noted
after energy 25
th

division in the dial
gauge.
12) The
compressive stress and
strains are calculated
and a graph was drawn
then

Reformed dial gauge Proving ring gauge Strain
(E)% area
100
1
l A

Corrected area,
A
1
=
2
1
1
AO
A cm
EO
=

Compressive
strength
(kg/cm
2
)
Divisio
n R
Deformatio
n R
0.01mm
Divisio
n
Load
(P)= n
0.2071
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
25 0.25 6 1.243 0.33 11.38 0.11
50 0.50 15 3.107 0.67 11.42 0.27
75 0.75 35 7.249 1.00 11.45 0.63
100 1.00 50 10.36 1.33 11.49 0.90
125 1.25 64 13.254 1.67 11.53 1.15
150 1.50 79 16.254 2.00 11.57 1.41
175 1.75 95 19.361 2.33 11.61 1.69
200 2.00 108 22.367 2.67 11.65 1.92
225 2.25 125 25.888 3.00 11.69 2.21
250 2.50 135 27.959 3.33 11.73 2.38
275 2.75 146 30.237 3.67 11.77 2.57
300 3.00 159 32.929 4.00 11.81 2.79
325 3.25 168 34.793 4.33 11.85 2.94
350 3.50 179 37.071 4.67 11.90 3.12
375 3.75 186 38.521 5.00 11.94 3.23
400 4.00 195 40.38 5.33 11.98 3.37
425 4.25 202 41.83 5.67 12.02 3.48
450 4.50 209 43.28 6.00 12.06 3.59
475 4.75 215 44.53 6.33 12.11 3.68
500 5.00 217 44.94 6.67 12.15 3.70
525 5.25 222 45.98 7.00 12.19 3.77
550 5.50 226 46.81 7.33 12.24 3.82
24

OBSERVATONS & CALLULATIONS:
Length of the specimen = lo=
Diameter of the specimen = d =
Weight of sample (1)=
Weight of specimen (2)=
Area of specimen =
2
4
d
H
=
Volume of specimen =
2
4
d M
H
=
Least count of dial gauge = 0.01
Least count of proving ring = 100/219lbs
Least of soil taken =
No of layers =
No of blows=
% of water added =
12
3000 360
100
= ml
CALCULATIONS:
The unconfined compression strength of given soil sample (1) from
graph (qu
1
)=
TABULAR COLUMN:

SAMPLE 2
Shear strength of sample (1), S
1
=
1
3.84
2 2
u
q
= = 1.92 kg/cm
2
UCC strength of given soil sample (2) from graph,
q
u2
=
Shear strength of given sample (2) S
2
=
2
2
u
q
=
Unconfined compressive strength of sample
q
avg
=
Average cohesion of sample =
2
u
q
=
RESULT:
Average unconfined compressive strength of given soil sample , q
u
=
Cohesion of a given soil sample =

ALTENATE METHODS:
The following are the methods of determining the their strength of
clayey soils.

1) DIRECT SHEAR TEST:
The direct sheen test is conducted on cohesion less soils as CD
test but it is occasional used to determine the strength parameters
of clay under unconsolidated untrained and consolidated drained
25

condition. But it does not after flexibility of a triaxial
compression test.
2) TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST:
The triaxial test is another method used for the determination of
shear characteristics of all types of solids under different
drainage conditions.
3) UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST:
The unconfined compression test is a special form of triennial
test and it is generally performed on intact saturated clays.
4) VANE SHEAR TEST:
The untrained shear strength of soft clays can be determined by
this test
S=
2
3
[ ]
2
T
D H
D H +
where T = Torque applied
GENERAL REMARKS:
The shear parameters are useful in the following cases:
In the stability analysis of the slope
In determining the earth pressures laterally
In determining the bearing capacity of soils
In the design of retaining walls and in estimating or
Calculating the depth of foundation etc.
In assessing sensitivity of soils.
Graph :1
Graph :2

26

TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST
AIM
To determine the shear parameters of the soil specimen by
triaxial shear test.
REFERENCE:
IS : 2750 (Part 13) 1986
ASTH D 3080
APPARATUS:
Triaxial cell rubber membrane O rings porous stones loading
frame proving ring (LVDT for deformation measurement)
PROCEDURE:
1. The given soil sample was compacted in the similar process of
proctors test and samples were taken by pushing sampling tubes
into the specimen.
2. The sample was extracted out of the sampling tube into the split
mould using sample extractor and knife.
3. The two ends of the specimen in the split mould was trimmed
and was removed by splitting mould into two parts.
4. A porous stone was enclosed in a rubber membrane which was
sealed to the specimen with the help of O rings.
5. The loading machine was spirited on and the cell pressure was
sent to 0.5 kg/cm
2
initially.
6. The sensor for measuring deformation deformation of the
sample is LVDT.
7. The LVDT for measuring Arial deformation of the specimen
was set to 12.5 mm
8. The loading readings were taken correspondingly to
deformations of 0.5,1,1.5,..
9. The loading was stopped after the completion of the test ie,
when the sample fails.
10. The test was repeated on two more samples extracted from some
mould for cell pressure 1.0 kg/cm
2
by adding corresponding
weights on loading machine.

OBSERVATIONS:
Diameter of specimen, d =
Length of specimen, L=
Area of specimen = A
0
=
2
4
d
H
=
Least count of dial gauge = 1 div = 0.01 mm
Least count of proving ring = 1div = 2.54 N
Weight of wet soil =
27

Weight of dry soil =

FORMULA:
T
3
= Minor principal stress
T
1
= Major principal stress
Deviator stress = T
d
=
Load
Connected area


Corrected area =
0
1
A
E

Where A
0
= Original area
L A = Deformation
L = Length of specimen

CALCULATIONS
From graph:
Deviator stress (for T
31
) =
Deviator stress (for T
32
) =
Deviator stress (for T
32
) =
Major principal stress T
11
= T
31
+ T
d 1

=
Major principal stress, T
12
= T
31
+ T
d 2
Major principal stress, T
13
= T
33
+ T
d3

=

From
T
1
=
2
1 3
tan 2 tan T T c o o = +

2
0.5 tan 2 tan (1) x c o o = +

2
1.0 tan 2 tan (2) y c o o = +

2
1.5 tan 2 tan (3) z c o o = +
Average of C=
Average of | =
RESULT:
From calculations:
Shear parameters, C =
| =
From graph, C=
| =
GENERAL REMARKS:
28

The triarial compression test is used for the determination of
shear parameters characteristics of all types of soils under
different drainage
SIGNIFICANCE:
The shear parameters are used in the stability analysis of shapes,
in design of foundations and in design of retaining walls
estimating lateral earth pressures.
ALTERNATE METHODS:
The following tests are used to determine the shear parameters
of the soil:
1) Direct shear test
2) Unconfined compression test
3) Vane shear test
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Merits:
1) The sample preparation is easy test is sample and convenient
2) It is really suited for CD tests on coheuonless soils
3) The apparatus is cheap
Demerits:
1) The stress conditions are known only at the failure the
conditions prior to the failure are indeterminate and hence
Mohrs circle can not be drawn.
2) The orientation of failure plane is fixed, plane may not be the
weakest plane.
3) The measurement of pore water pressure is not possible.
Trianial Test:
The above limitations of direct methods shear test are over come
by trianial test. But the test has some limitations.
1. The apparatus is elaborate costly or bulky
2. The drained test takes a longer period
3. It is not possible to determine the cross sectional area of the
specimen at large strains.
4. The consolidation of the specimen in the test is isotropic where
as in field, it is generally an isotropic

The above limitations of direct shear test are over come by triaxial
test. But the test has some limitations.
1) The apparatus is elaborate, costly or bulky
2) The drained test takes a longer period
3) It is not possible to determine the cross sectional area of the
specimen at large strains.
4) The consolidation of the specimen in the test is isotropic where
as in field, it is generally anisotropic.
Unconfined compression Test:
29

1) Merits:
i) The test is convenient simple and quick
ii) Ideally suited for measuring unconfined shear strength of intact
saturated clays.
iii) The sensitivity of soil may he determined.

Demerits:
1) The test can be conducted on saturated clays/ fissure clays.
2) The test may be misleading for soils for which angle of shearing
resistance is not zero.

Vane Shear Test:
The shear strength is given by

3
2
( )
2 6
T
S
H D
D
=
H +

Where T = Torque applied
d= diameter
H= Height of the vane
Graph:1
Graph: 2

30

CONSOLIDATION TEST
AIM:
To determine the consolidation characteristics of a soil

REFERENCE:
IS : 2720(Part 15)-1965

APPARATUS:
Consolidometer with a loading device specimen ring water
reservoir to saturate the sample porous stones knife weighing
balance over steel ball dial gauge large container.
PROCEDURE:
1) The metal ring was cleaned and dried, its diameter, height mass
height mass of the empty ring is measured
2) The ring was pushed into the soil and these removed and
specimen was thinned with tops and bottom of ring
3) The consolidometer was assembled and the bottom porous stone
bottom fitter paper specimen top filter paper specimen, and
porous stone were placed are by one
4) The loading block was placed exactly at the top of the porous
stone.
5) The mould assembled was mounted on the loading fames a
placed such that the load applied was axial.
6) An initial reading load of 5 KN/M
2
pressure was applied and
final gauge reading was taken after 24 hours.
7) The load was increased to a pressure of 10,20,40,80,160,320
KN/M
2

8) The load was decreased to
1
4
th
of the previous load and the dial
gauge readings were noted after 24 hours.
9) Finally the means of ring with the specimen was taken and water
content was determined.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
Height of the specimen = H
0
=
Diameter of the sample =
Empty weight of ring, w
1
=
Weight of empty ring + wet soil, w
2
=
Weight of empty ring + dry soil, w
3
=
Area of the specimen, A =
2
60
4
H
=
=
Specific gravity, G = 2.68
31

Weight of solids, H
S
=
S
w
W
Gr A
=
=
Final water content, W
f
=
2 3
3 1
W W
W W
| |
|

\ .

=
Final void ratio, ef = Wf G
=
= 1.07
RESULT:
From graph, height of solids method
Compression index, C
C
=
Coefficient of consolidation, C
V
=
Preconsolidation pressure = J
C
=
Squalling index, C
S
=
Square root of time method:
From graph:
Coefficient of consolidation = C
V
=

GENERAL REMARKS AND PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
The degree of consolidation depends upon the time factor T
V
,
given by
T
V
=
2
V
C T
d

The compression index of a normally consolidated soil is
constant and settlement is given by
log
C
f o o
o
C
S H T T
He
= + A
The coefficient of permeability is obtained by using
V
w w
k
C
ge M

The liquid limit of a specimen can be obtained by knowing the
compression index by
C
C
= 0.009 (W
L
-10)- Undisturbed samples
= (0.007) (W
L
-10)- Remoulded samples
Graph : 1
Graph : 2



1)