Work Life Balance and Subjective Well Being

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British Journal of Psychology (2009), 100, 365375 q 2009 The British Psychological Society
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Worklife balance and subjective well-being: The mediating role of need fullment
pel* and Julius Kuhl Peter Gro
University of Osnabru ck, Osnabru ck, Germany
The relationship between worklife balance (WLB) (i.e. the perceived sufciency of the time available for work and social life) and well-being is well-documented. However, previous research failed to sufciently explain why this relationship exists. In this research, the hypothesis was tested that a sufcient amount of the time available increases well-being because it facilitates satisfaction of personal needs. Using two separate samples (students and employees), the mediating role of need fullment in the relationship between WLB and well-being was supported. The results suggest that perceived sufciency of the time available for work and social life predicts the level of well-being only if the individuals needs are fullled within that time.
Integration of work and social life is a critical task of early and middle adulthood (Lachman & Boone-James, 1997). As we jump into job life, success on balancing work and social roles becomes a strong contributor to how well we feel. However, little is known about the process underlying this relationship. The present study addresses this gap by examining the role of need satisfaction as mediator between worklife balance (WLB) and well-being. Research on work and personal life issues has been conceived of in terms of work family balance (e.g. Hill, Hawkins, Ferris, & Weitzman, 2001) and workfamily conict (e.g. Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964). Workfamily balance reects integration of work demands with family roles, whereas workfamily conict represents incompatibilities between work and family responsibilities because of limited resources, such as time and energy (Kahn et al., 1964). Integration of work and family roles is relevant to married individuals but whereas it does not concern people without a family. To include the latter group, we extend the focus on social relationships in general and use the broader term WLB. Addressing the proposition that the problems of balancing necal, Vallerand, life demands depends on time allocation across various life-roles (Se
* Correspondence should be addressed to Peter Gro pel, Department of Psychology, University of Trnava, Trnava 91843, Slovakia (e-mail: pgroepel@uos.de).
DOI:10.1348/000712608X337797

366 Peter Gro pel and Julius Kuhl
& Guay, 2001), we investigate WLB as the degree to which a person subjectively perceives sufciency of the time available for work and family/social roles. Perceived balance between work and social roles usually is conducive to life satisfaction. Workfamily balance was found to predict well-being and the overall quality of life (Fisher, 2002; Greenhaus, Collins, & Shaw, 2003). Conversely, failure to achieve balance was associated with reduced job and life satisfaction (cf. Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998), decreased well-being and quality of life (Aryee, 1992; Grant-Vallone & Donaldson, 2001; Noor, 2004; Rice, Frone, & McFarlin, 1992), as well as with some others outcomes related to well-being, such as increased stress (Burke, 1988), impaired mental health (Beatty, 1996; Grzywacz & Bass, 2003), and family conict (Higgins, Duxbury, & Irving, 1992; Kofodimos, 1990). The above research strongly suggests that WLB is related to well-being. However, previous research did not sufciently explain the causes mediating this relationship. Why does the perceived sufciency of the time available for work and social life predict the level of well-being? The goal approach within context theories of well-being (Diener, Suh, & Oishi, 1997) provides a useful framework to understand it. According to this approach, well-being is gained when goals are reached. Indeed, progress towards goals increases well-being (Brunstein, 1993; Emmons, 1986; Sheldon & Kasser, 1998). For attaining goals, however, resources (e.g. time, energy, money) are needed. Moreover, resources that are required to gain a persons specic goal are best predictors of wellbeing (Diener & Fujita, 1995). Hence, if the person views time as an important resource for his or her goals, perceived sufciency of time available for goal-pursuit may affect well-being. However, not all goals affect well-being. Sheldon and Kasser (1998) suggest that only those goals that do satisfy important psychological needs increase well-being. Recent ndings by Brunstein (2001) conrm this assumption, as do results reported by Baumann, Kaschel, and Kuhl (2005). In addition, need satisfaction (need fullment) mediated the effect of goal attainment on well-being (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). As a consequence, we may expect that perceived sufciency of the time available for work and social life (i.e. WLB) affect well-being if personal needs are fullled within that time. Conversely, conict between work and social life (i.e. insufcient time for work and social demands) may decrease the level of well-being because of need frustration. For example, missing an important dinner with ones partner because of working late (i.e. experiencing worklife conict) may lead to decrease in well-being because of frustrated need to meet the loved person. This logic leads to the mediation hypothesis of the present study: Fullment of needs mediates the relationship between WLB and subjective well-being (SWB).
Method
We used two different samples to test the mediation hypothesis. In the rst (pilot) study, college students were sampled. They were instructed to understand their student role including its responsibilities and demands as part of the work domain. In the second study, married employees were sampled. Whereas the student sample is relevant to investigate balance between work and social domain, people who are both employed and married represent the most relevant sample for investigating balance between work and family domains. Conrming our hypothesis in both groups would establish the reliability of our results.

Worklife balance and subjective well-being
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Participants Study 1 Seventy-three undergraduate volunteers (51 women, 22 men) were recruited through yers around University of Osnabru ck. Their mean age was 24.5 years (range 1940 years).
Study 2 Seventy-nine persons (45 male, 34 female) were recruited through yers and posters offering individual counselling on personality development. Their mean age was 41.2 years (range from 23 to 57). In addition to various scales used, participants reported the number of hours they work per week (mean 45 h=week; range from 28 to 64). A total of 65% of respondents have had at least one child living with them. The modal number of children living at home was 2.
Measures In the student sample (Study 1), WLB was assessed using Gro pels (2006) work-life balance scale, need fullment using the incongruence questionnaire (INK; Grosse Holtforth & Grawe, 2003), and SWB using series of adjective ratings and the satisfaction with life scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Grifn, 1985). In the employee sample (Study 2), the same measures were administered as in Study 1. In addition, neuroticism and social desirability were controlled using the NEO ve-factor inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1991) and Eysencks and Eysencks (1964) social desirability scale, respectively. Further, the workfamily conict scale (Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrian, 1996) was administered as an additional measure of WLB. All scales are described below.
Worklife balance Two questionnaires were used. First, the six-item work-life balance scale (WLB-6; Gro pel, 2006) was administered, which measures perceived sufciency of time available for work and social life, respectively. The items are: I often visit my friends and acquaintances; Because of my work (studies), I have no free time (R); Because of my work (studies), I neglect my family or friends (R); I have enough time for my friends; In my free time I still deal with my work duties (R); and I have enough time for my family (partner, parents, children : : : ). Participants answered all items using a 6-point Likert-type scale from completely disagree (1) to completely agree (6). Reverse items (R) were re-scored before analysis. A total score was calculated by adding up ratings across all items. A high total score indicates high WLB. The internal validity of the WLB-6 has been supported through both conrmatory factor analysis and Mokken, (1971) scaling (cf. Gro pel, 2006). As assessed by Cronbachs a, internal consistencies were .81 and .75 in the student and employee sample, respectively. Second, the workfamily conict scale developed by Netemeyer et al. (1996) was used as an additional measure of workfamily interface in the employee sample. Based on the directionality and the source of conict (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985), the scale includes two subscales (work-to-family conict and family-to-work conict) consisting of ve items each. Example items of the work-to-family conict scale are: The amount of time my job takes up makes it difcult to full family responsibilities and Due to workrelated duties, I have to make changes to my plans for family activities. Example items of the family-to-work conict scale are: I have to put off doing things at work because of

demands on my time at home and My home life interferes with my responsibilities at work such as getting to work on time, accomplishing daily tasks, and working overtime. Responses were obtained using a 7-point Likert-type scale. As reported by Netemeyer et al. (1996), the workfamily conict scale was found to have sufcient internal and external validity. In the present study, internal consistencies of the two subscales were a :84 and a :74 for work-to-family and family-to-work conict, respectively. Whereas the WLB-6 scale (Gro pel, 2006) assesses perceived sufciency of the time available for work and personal life, the Netemeyers et al. (1996) scale focuses on perceived incompatibilities between work and personal life because of overload and limited time. Thus, reports on the Netemeyer et al. scale may be viewed as an index of low WLB. The use of two separate measures related to the same construct was to further explore the validity of our ndings. Need fullment The short form of the incongruence questionnaire (Grosse Holtforth & Grawe, 2003) as a measure of needs fullment was used. The INK is a self-report questionnaire that assesses the subjective degree to which a person experiences satisfaction with the attainment of goals and fullment of his or her needs related to various work and social domains. The short version consists of 23 items related to intimacy, sociability/separation, acceptance, altruism, receiving help, approval, status, autonomy/dependence, performance/failure, control, understanding, sense of meaning, excitement, trust in oneself/embarrassment, and self-reward. Example items are: In recent times, I have been effective; In recent times, I have had many social contacts; In recent times, I have been loved; or In recent times, I have perceived my life as meaningful. Participants responded to each item using the 5-point Likert scale from not at all (1) to quite sufcient (5). As assessed by coefcient a, internal consistency was .84 and .88 in the student and employee sample, respectively. Subjective well-being According to Diener et al. (Diener et al., 1997), SWB consists of two components a cognitive component (life satisfaction) and an affective component (emotional wellbeing). Therefore, we used two measures, each of them related to one SWB component. First, emotional well-being was measured with series of adjective ratings. In the student sample, positive mood was assessed with nine adjectives (e.g. happy, active, pleased, joyful ), negative mood with 12 adjectives (e.g. helpless, nervous, annoyed, n, Rohrmann, & Kuhl, in press). In the employee tense, irritable; cf. Quirin, Kaze sample, positive mood (happy, joyful, pleased, and condent) and negative mood (sad, depressed, frustrated, and anxious) were assessed with four adjectives each (cf. Brunstein, 1993). Participants indicated the extent to which they feel these moods in their everyday life. Internal consistencies satised traditional standard (as . :78). Second, the SWLS (Diener et al., 1985) was administered to assess life satisfaction (cognitive component of SWB). The SWLS is a ve-item, self-report scale having subjects rate their level of agreement with each item (e.g. In most ways my life is close to ideal and So far I have got the things I want in life) on a 7-point Likert scale. A total score is obtained by adding the ratings across all items. High scores indicate high life satisfaction. Several studies conrmed that the SWLS has good reliability and internal consistency (Pavot & Diener, 1993). In the present study, internal consistencies were a :82 in the student sample, and a :73 in the employee sample.

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To create a total SWB score, we used the same procedure reported by Sheldon and Elliot (1999). The SWB score was created by subtracting negative affect from the sum of positive affect and life satisfaction. Supporting the unidimensionality of these composites, principal components analysis of the SWB variables revealed a single primary factor that accounted for 66 and 65% of the variance in the student and employee sample, respectively. This result is consistent with the nding that a single factor underlies measures of both life satisfaction and emotional well-being (Diener, 1994). Neuroticism The neuroticism scale from the NEO-FFI (Costa & McCrae, 1991) was administered to assess neuroticism. Example items on the neuroticism scale are: I often feel blue, and I am relaxed most of the time (reversed). Participants responded using a 5-point Likert-type scale. As assessed by coefcient alpha, internal consistency was .79. Neuroticism was controlled in the second study only. Asking about well-being and need fullment, individuals may report they are feeling unhappy and not satised in their needs because of their neurotic tendencies (e.g. still looking for the negative). Conversely, they may report high need satisfaction because of their high emotional stability (e.g. they do not admit that their needs are not satised). Indeed, the measures of neuroticism and need satisfaction or need frustration highly correlated with each other (e.g. Baumann & Quirin, 2006; Grosse Holtforth & Grawe, 2003). Social desirability The social desirability scale developed by Eysenck and Eysenck (1964) was administered. We used 10 truefalse items that describe both acceptable, but improbable behaviours, as well as those deemed unacceptable but probable. In keeping with traditional practice, the scale was scored such that higher values represented larger numbers of socially desirable responses endorsed. In this sample, the alpha reliability coefcient for the scale was .54. Social desirability was controlled in the second study only.
Results
Table 1 presents the correlations between all variables studied. In either study, WLB was positively associated with SWB and need fullment. Further, need fullment was positively related to SWB. In addition, gender differences were found. Women reported higher well-being than men (F 9:73, p , :01, Study 1 and F 5:5, p , :05, Study 2) and scored higher in WLB (F 25:2, p , :001; Study 2 only) and lower in either form of conict (F 15:4, p , :001, for work-to-family conict and F 8:1, p , :01, for familyto-work conict; Study 2 only). Also, age and control variables (social desirability, neuroticism, number of children, and hours worked) showed several signicant associations (see Table 1). Therefore, demographic and control variables were controlled in additional analyses. Testing the mediation hypothesis Following the procedure recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986), we conducted a series of path analyses to establish mediation. First, to control the effects of
Table 1. Correlation matrix of study variables for the student sample (Study 1) above the diagonal and for the employee sample (Study 2) below the diagonal 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Variable
2 .15 .15
2 .24* .19
2 .19 .35**
1. Social desirability 2. Age 3. Sex 4. Number of children 5. Work hours/week 6. Neuroticism 7. Worklife balance 8. Work-to-family conict 9. Family-to-work conict 10. Need fullment 11. Subjective well-being 2 .05 .05 2 .34** 2 .10 .48*** 2 .40*** 2 .30** .10 .26* .21 .33** 2 .17 .01 .07 2 .40*** 2 .44*** .08 2 .32** .45*** .13 2 .19 2 .25* 2 .21 .28* .21 2 .37** 2 .49*** 2 .71*** 2 .66*** .34** .40*** .45*** 2 .34** 2 .39** 2 .36*** 2 .36** .52*** .30* .33** .64***
.19 2 .08 2 .19 .04 2 .08 .02 2 .03 2 .03 .13 2 .23*
2 .01 .67*** .21 .30** 2 .03 2 .08 2 .01 2 .17 2 .53***
Note. Sex: 1 male, 2 female; *p , :05; **p , :01; ***p , :001. Social desirability, number of children, work hours, neuroticism, work-to-family conict, and family-to-work conict were assessed in the second study only.

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demographic and control variables, a hierarchical regression analysis was conducted on SWB with demographic and control variables entered in block one. Second, SWB was regressed on to WLB. Once these variables were entered, need fullment was entered as a next step. Evidence of mediation would be shown if (1) WLB predicted need fullment, (2) WLB predicted well-being when entered into the regression equation alone (i.e. without mediator), and (3) this effect was eliminated after the mediator (i.e. need fullment) was entered into the equation (cf. Baron & Kenny, 1986). The results of the mediator test supported the mediating role of need fullment. WLB predicted SWB over and above social desirability and other control variables. Similarly, WLB predicted need fullment. When WLB and need fullment were simultaneously regressed on SWB, need fullment had a signicant effect, and the effect of WLB became smaller and no more signicant. Table 2 presents regression weights obtained from the mediator test. For all worklife/workfamily scales used, need fullment mediated the effect of WLB on well-being. Using Sobels (1982) test for mediation, the mediation effects were signicant (see Table 2). In addition, computation of the effect size ( f 2) revealed a medium to large mediating effect of need fullment when added to the regression model (see Table 2). Hence, perceived sufciency of the time available in work and social domain facilitates need fullment and, in turn, affected the level of well-being positively.
Table 2. Summary of regression tests examining need fullment as a mediator of the relationship between worklife interface and subjective well-being
Predictor to criterion path Predictor to Mediator to b prior to b after entry mediator path criterion path mediator of mediator Sobels test Effect size ( f 2)
Predictor Study 1 Worklife balance Study 2 Worklife balance Work-to-family conict Family-to-work conict
.29* .29* 2 .33** 2 .32**
.48*** .40*** .38*** .36***
0.30** 0.22* 2 0.31** 2 0.28**
0.16 0.11 2 0.18 2 0.16
2.04* 2.01* 2 2.38* 2 2.34*
0.37 0.27 0.23 0.22
Note. Standardized regression weights (b) are reported. Mediator need fullment, Criterion subjective well-being; the Sobels test indicates whether the indirect effect of predictor on criterion through the mediator variable is signicant; f 2 is the effect size attributable to the addition of the mediator variable to the model. By convention, effect sizes of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 are considered small, medium, and large, respectively. *p , :05; **p , :01; ***p , :001.
Discussion
The present research aimed to examine the relationship between WLB and SWB. As in previous studies (e.g. Greenhaus et al., 2003; Noor, 2004; Rice et al., 1992), perceived life balance predicted well-being. Moreover, need fullment mediated this relationship. The mediating effect remained consistent when social desirability, neuroticism, and other control variables were controlled. Thus, the results are not solely due to problems with self-report bias or shared variance with neuroticism. These ndings support

Seiwerts (2001) suggestion that it is not only important to have the time but also to ll that time. In order to perceive benets of sufcient time in work and social domain, goals that satisfy personal needs should be attained within that time. The benecial effect of WLB and the mediating effect of need fullment remained consisted across samples used. Students as well as employees beneted from WLB. Hence, balancing work and social life may bring advantages to both married individuals and to those living single. Further, the effects tested were obtained with two different worklife measures supporting so the reliability of our ndings. In addition, strong correlation between both measures allows suggesting that the both scales are related to the same construct and support the validity of these scales. Interestingly, in the second study, women scored higher than men in WLB and lower in either form of workfamily conict. Although no gender differences in workfamily balance/conict were found previously (e.g. Grant-Vallone & Donaldson, 2001; Grzywacz & Bass, 2003), some authors propose that women experience higher levels of worklife conict than do men (cf. Duxbury & Higgins, 2001). This could be due to differences in stress response and differences in socialization and role expectations that expose women to a higher level of stressors. For example, women, irrespective of their involvement in paid work, are signicantly more likely than men to bear primary responsibility for home chores and child care (cf. Duxbury & Higgins, 2001). From this point of view, women in our sample represented a special population experiencing relatively high levels of WLB when compared to men.
Limitations and future directions Several limitations should be discussed. First, we used convenience samples that were rather small. Thus, their representativeness is limited and the results obtained cannot be overgeneralized. Large stratied samples should be used in future research. Second, the social desirability scale used had an internal consistency something below the traditional standards. Thus, the possibility that social desirability bias inuenced participants self-reports cannot be ruled-out. More reliable measure should be used in the future research. Third, we modelled recursive relationships; only one way of causal ow was considered. However, reciprocal relationships among the variables studied can be also assumed. For example, according to personality systems interaction theory (Kuhl, 2001), successful coping with negative affect activate integrative functions of the right hemisphere which contribute to holistic perceptions of many domains of the internal and external world. Such holistic perceptions can help to simultaneously perceive various demands of life and to balance the time needed for these demands. Moreover, positive affect presumably facilitates the enactment of intentions and goal attainment and thus inuences the goal oriented behaviour towards need satisfaction (Kuhl & n, 1999). Consistent with this approach, Sheldon and Elliot (1999) found initial Kaze well-being to be a predictor of later positive outcomes such as goal attainment and need satisfaction. Fourth, the data we used were cross-sectional, and thus it is impossible to ascertain the causal ordering of the relations among variables studied. Alternative causal models can also be assumed. For example, people scoring high on the well-being scale are more likely to see the bright side of affairs and cope with problems (McCrae & Costa, 1986), which may facilitate WLB or increase tolerance for worklife imbalances and, in turn, facilitate need fullment.

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Finally, we did not address the issue of goal attainment directly. Instead, we expected the time available, if it was subjectively perceived as sufcient, to be lled with goal oriented behaviour towards need satisfaction. An interesting issue for future studies concerns the nature of the goals which are to be attained in the time available. According to Sheldon and Elliot (1999), goals that are in concordance with the self (i.e. goals that are consistent with the persons authentic interests and values) are important for making progress, and attaining need satisfaction and well-being: individuals pursuing self-concordant goals put more effort into achieving those goals and thus are more likely to attain them. In addition, they reap greater well-being benets from attainment of such goals (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). Thus, attaining self-concordant goals within the time available should reveal stronger mediating effects on well-being when compared with goals that are not concordant with the self (i.e. introjected or externally controlled goals). Conversely, failures in attaining self-concordant goals because of perceived insufciency of time available would have a stronger frustrating effect than introjected or externally controlled goals. Future research is needed to test these assumptions. Summary Our research provided support for the hypothesis that need fullment plays a mediating role in the relationship between WLB and SWB. Participants who perceived the available time as sufcient were found to be more likely to full their own needs within that time, which resulted in an increased level of well-being. Conversely, perceiving conict between work and social life because of insufcient time frustrated personal needs and, in turn, affected well-being negatively.
Acknowledgements
This research was a part of the rst authors dissertation completed at the University of Osnabru ck, Germany. The work was supported by a grant from the German Science Foundation (GRK 772/2) to Julius Kuhl. We thank three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this article.
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