The Schwarzschild Solutions

Notes for GR-I - CCD

We have already shown that with a suitable choice of coordinates, we can write any spherically symmetric metric in the form: ds2 = e (t,r) dt2 e(t,r) dr2 r2 d2 where and are both functions of t and r, and d2 = d2 + sin2 d2 is the line element on the 2-sphere. Dening the Lagrangian function, L, as L=
1 2

(1)

(2)

2 r2 sin2 2 2 e r e t 2 r2

(3)

(where is dierentiation wrt the ane parameter) and the Euler-Lagrange equations one can compute the Christoel symbols. Alternatively this can be done using the usual formula. The only non-zero components, up to symmetries, are
1 0 00 = 2 1 0 10 = 2 1 0 11 = 2 e 1 1 11 = 2

1 1 10 = 2

1 22 = re

1 sin2 33 = re

1 1 00 = 2 e

2 12 =

1 r

2 33 = sin cos

3 13 =

1 r

3 23 = cot

where now = and = . t r After computing the Riemann curvature tensor, and contracting, the ve remaining components of the Ricci tensor are given by: R00 = e

1 2

+1 21 + 4 4

1 2 + 1 1 2 4 4

(4)

c Charles C. Dyer

1 R11 = 2 1 2+1 + 4 4

+ e r

1 2

2 1 +1 4 4

(5) (6) (7)

R22 = R33 / sin2 = 1 e 1 + 1 r( ) 2 and R01 = /r

The Schwarzschild Vacuum Solution

We now restrict consideration to a vacuum spacetime, so Tab = 0, and assume that the cosmological constant is zero, so that the Einstein equations become,
1 Rgab = 0 Rab 2

(8)

Raising one index and contracting, we immediately have R = 0, so that the Einstein equations reduce to Rab = 0 (9) Since this implies that R01 = 0, we conclude that (t, r) is actually a function of r only, ie. = (r). In the equation R22 = 0 all quantities, except possibly , are independent of t, some being functions of r. By the independence of t and r, this requires that also be independent of t. Thus = 0 so that must be sum-separable in t and r, so that (t, r) = h(r) + f (t) where h(r) and f (t) functions to be determined. Since only occurs in the form e (t,r) dt2 = eh(r) ef (t) dt2 (11) (10)

such that dt = ef /2 dt, and thus remove the function we can dene a new time coordinate t , and also replace h(r) by (r), f (t). We will now simply use t for the new coordinate t resulting in the line element ds2 = e (r) dt2 e(r) dr2 r2 d2 (12)

We have thus arrived at a form of the line element, and consequently the metric tensor, such that the metric is manifestly independent of the new time coordinate t. As a result we can conclude that every spherically symmetric vacuum spacetime is static. This is known as Birkhos theorem. To say that the spacetime is static means that there exists a time-like coordinate in which the metric is independent of that coordinate. Of course it will not be independent of the time-like coordinate for a general choice of that coordinate, as we shall see shortly. We now turn to the solution for (r) and (r). Multiplying equation(4) by e and adding equation(5) to it yields 1 ( + ) = 0 (13) r Thus (r) = (r), where the additive constant of integration can be eliminated by a constant rescaling of the coordinates. Equation(6) now becomes e (1 r ) = 1 2 (14)

Letting = e , this becomes + The general solution of this ODE is

1 = r r A r

(15)

=1+

(16)

where A is a constant, which we will write as 2m for reasons to be discussed below. Thus the line element is ds2 = 1 2m 2m dt2 1 r r
1

dr2 r2 d2

(17)

This is known as the Schwarzschild vacuum solution of the Einstein eld equations. It was rst derived by K. Schwarzschild in 1916. Since the Schwarzschild vacuum metric is the solution to the Einstein eld equations in any region which has spherical symmetry and is empty of energy-momentum, ie. a vacuum, this will represent the geometry outside a spherically symmetric body, such as an idealized star. Thus it should be the exact solution to which our earlier weak eld, slow moving Newtonian approximation corresponds in that limit. Comparing the g00 component of the two metric tensors then implies that we can identify the parameter m above with the Newtonian gravitational mass, M as m= G M c2 (18)

The quantity m is referred to as the geometrized mass corresponding to the conventional mass M . Clearly m must have the units of length, as does the radial coordinate r. The quantity 2m will be called the Schwarzschild radius, and will play a signicant role in later discussions, since it is clear that the metric becomes critical as r approaches 2m. It is important to note that the identication of m with a conventional mass is not inherent in Einsteins equations, but arises from the requirement that the solution correspond to the Newtonian description in the limit. We have taken the cosmological constant, , to be zero in this derivation. When is not zero, the Einstein eld equations are:
1 Rab 2 Rgab + gab = Tab

(19)

where it is useful to recall that here we are dening the Ricci curvature as Rab = Rcacb , while it is also sometimes dened as Rab = Rcabc , which results in a change of sign. In this latter case, the Einstein eld equations would become: Rab 1 Rgab + gab = Tab 2 (20)

but the sign of would change, so that care must be taken when discussing the role of , as its sign is not uniquely determined. Upon setting Tab = 0 since we are considering a vacuum spacetime, these become:
1 Rab 2 Rgab + gab = 0

(21)

and on raising the index a and contracting on a and b, we have R = 4, so that the Einstein eld equations reduce to: Rab = gab (22) Since gab is still diagonal, R01 must still vanish, so that Birkhos theorem is still valid. Proceeding in a manner similar to the = 0 case, the Schwarzschild solution can be extended, yielding the line element: ds2 = 1 2m 1 2 2m 1 2 + 3 r dt2 1 + 3 r r r
1

dr2 r2 d2

(23)

m It is clear that the 2r will dominate for small r, with the 1 r2 term only becoming impor3 tant at large r. In the above solution, it is useful to consider the result of setting m = 0, yielding the solution: 1 1 ds2 = 1 + 3 r2 dt2 1 + 1 r2 dr2 r2 d2 (24) 3

This is the metric of a de Sitter spacetime, written in a coordinate system that makes it manifest that the spacetime is static, since the time coordinate t does not appear in gab at all, while the spatial sections of the spacetime appear to be inhomogeneous. We shall nd later that we can write the metric for such a vacuum spacetime in another coordinate system where it does not appear to be static, but its spatial sections do appear to be homogeneous and isotropic. For the rest of this discussion we shall restrict consideration to the case where = 0.

A Schwarzschild Interior Solution

As we have seen, the restriction to a vacuum spacetime results in an impressively compact exact solution of the Einstein equations, largely because of Birkhos theorem, since we could then nd coordinates where the metric was independent of the time coordinate. When we drop the vacuum restriction, we no longer have anything equivalent to Birkhos theorem, and things become quite dicult. Thus rather than having a static metric of necessity, we will have to simply choose to consider that class of spacetimes which are static and spherically symmetric. Thus we will use the same general spherically symmetric metric, with the additional requirement that it be static, so that using the appropriate time-like coordinate, t, we have ds2 = e (r) dt2 e(r) dr2 r2 d2 (25) The components of the Ricci tensor have already been given, except that all the timederivative terms can be dropped, so that R01 = 0, and Rab is diagonal. Since the metric is diagonal, and can be easily inverted, it is straightforward to obtain the Ricci scalar R = 2e
1 2

+1 21 + ( )/r + 1/r2 2/r2 4 4

(26)

We will consider solutions where the energy-momentum is that of a perfect uid with total local energy density , and isotropic pressure p, so that T ab = ua ub ( + p) uc uc g ab p 4 (27)

where we are choosing units where the speed of light is c = 1, so that energy density and pressure are measured in the same units. Since the solution is to be static in the t time-like coordinate, the uid will be at rest in this comoving coordinate system, so that ua = (u0 , 0, 0, 0). To determine u0 , we compute ua = gab ub with g00 = e , and require that ua ua = 1, so that u0 = e/2 . Thus the 4-velocity of the uid is ua = (e/2 , 0, 0, 0). Since the uid is static in this coordinate system, we have the following conditions: |a ua = 0 , p|a ua = 0 and ua||a = 0 (28)

We will not impose an equation of state, so that we have no imposed relationship between and p. The Einstein eld equations are then = e p = e p = e 1 2 r r 1 + 2 r r
1 2

1 r2 1 r2 2r

(29) (30) (31)

+1 21 + 4 4

The integrability conditions for the Einstein equations, ie. T ab ||b = 0, become the single equation 1 p = 2 (p + ) (32) This same equation can also be deduced from the Einstein equations given above. Equation(29) can be re-arranged to yield r2 = 1 re so that on integration we have re = r 2m(r) + C where C is a constant of integration, and
1 m(r) = 2 r 0

(33)

(34)

(x)x2 dx

(35)

will be called the mass function. We then have e = 1 2m(r) C + r r (36)

It is interesting to note that the C/r term is essentially the same terms as arose in the vacuum Schwarzschild solution, and could be seen as representing something like a point mass at the centre of the object. In fact, we wish to nd a solution that is regular at r = 0, so we will take C = 0 from now on, so that e = 1 5 2m(r) r (37)

At this point, since we wish to obtain a tractable solution, we will impose an equation of state of sorts, albeit a rather simple and not too realistic equation of state. We will take (r) to be constant, so that the mass function is m(r) = 1 r3 with constant 6 Thus if we dene the constant A = /3, we have e = 1 Ar2 We can then integrate equation(32) directly to obtain p + = Be/2 (40) (39) (38)

where B is another constant of integration. If we add equations (29) and (30) we can derive another expression for p + . Equating these two expressions for p + we then have: e/2 Ar + 2A = B r (41)

On determining an integrating factor, we can write this in the form 2(1 Ar2 )3/2 e/2 (1 Ar2 )1/2 which can be integrated directly to yield e/2 = B D 1 Ar2 2A (43) = Br (42)

where D is another constant of integration. We have thus determined both (r) and (r) for our spacetime. We can now determine the pressure as a function of position in the uniform density sphere, nding that B 1 3AD 1 Ar2 1 2 p= (44) B D 1 Ar2 2A At this point we have the full Schwarzschild interior solution, but with two undetermined constants, B and D. To go any further, we need to consider this solution in terms of a nite, local, spherical body surrounded by a region of spherically symmetric vacuum, not necessarily extending to innity. This could represent, for example, a single spherically symmetric star in an otherwise empty universe. On the basis of our previous results, we know that the region external to this body must be the Schwarzschild vacuum solution. This exterior metric depends on one constant, which we have described as the geometrized mass, m, although we had no physical source for m. The metrics for the two regions considered here must be mutually compatible at their interface, ie. they must be matched. Matching the geometry across a boundary between two dierent regions of spacetime ranges from being a fairly simple problem to a complicated problem. There are a number of ways of expressing the matching conditions, with varying applicability. The most general are the Darmois matching conditions, based largely on the 6

compatibility of the hypersurface comprising the boundary in the spacetime manifold on either side of the boundary. When it is possible to nd a coordinate system that exists on both sides of the boundary, these conditions simplify, yielding the Lichnerowicz conditions. In the present situation, we impose the condition that the metric tensor, gab , be continuous across the boundary, which we take to be r = r0 , since the coordinates are in common. In addition, we require that the pressure, p, drop to zero as r r0 , for otherwise the outer surfaces of the static sphere would be driven o the object. We then obtain the three conditions at r0 for g00 , g11 , and p respectively B 2 D 1 Ar0 2A
2

=1 2m r0

2m r0

(45) (46) (47)

2 1 Ar0 =1

2 3AD 1 Ar0 =1 B 2

where m here refers to the m appearing in our previously derived Schwarzschild vacuum solution. Solving for m, B , and D, we have
3 3 m= 1 Ar0 =1 r0 = m(r0 ) = 2 6

4G 3 r0 3

(48) (49) (50)

2 2 = 1 1 r0 B = 3A 1 Ar0 3

and

1 2 Finally we have the metric for the region r r0 , with uniform density : D= ds2 = 3 1 2 1 Ar0 1 Ar2 2 2
2

dt2

dr2 r2 d2 2 1 Ar

(51)

and the metric for the region r r0 : 2m 2m ds = 1 dt2 1 r r

2 1

dr2 r2 d2

(52)

3 rr with Ar0 is discontinuous at the boundary, r = r0 . = 2m. It is important to note that g r It is possible to nd coordinates in the local region of the boundary in which the derivative is continuous, should that be desired. While m = m(r0 ), where 4 3 Gr0 (53) m(r0 ) = 3 is the mass function evaluated at the surface r = r0 , is the eective mass in terms of the Schwarzschild mass as seen in the vacuum outside the object, it is not the mass one would calculate based on the volume integral of the density out to r0 . This last integral would require the use of the proper element of volume in the integral, that is involving the determinant of the 3-space metric tensor. The dierence between the total eective

mass, m(r0 ), and the volume integral of the density represents the binding energy in the Newtonian analog situation. It is an interesting feature of general relativity that the binding energy arises so naturally as part of the self-consistent solution. It is useful to look again at the pressure as a function of position in the object, after substituting for the constants we have obtained. The pressure is then 2 1 Ar2 1 Ar0 p= (54) 2 3 1 Ar0 1 Ar2 The pressure vanishes at r0 , and is positive for smaller r, but to remain physically reasonable, we must require that p remain nite as r approaches zero. This requires that the denominator in the above expression remain positive, from which one can derive the condition 9 r0 > 2m (55) 8 Thus we cannot expect to have stable congurations of uniform density if the radius is less than 9/8 of the Schwarzschild radius. While this result has been derived for a uniform density sphere, such a limit exists for congurations with density increasing monotonically toward the centre of the sphere. An interesting feature of the uniform density Schwarzschild solution can be seen by considering the 3-metric of the spatial sections as dened in the 4-metric we have obtained. That 3-metric takes the simple form: d 2 = dr2 + r2 d2 2 1 Ar sin r= A We then have: d 2 = (56)

where A is a constant. Suppose that we change the radial coordinate by dening (57)

1 d 2 + sin2 d2 + sin2 d2 (58) A Thus we have the line-element of a 3-sphere, of radius 1/ A, which can be veried by embedding it in a 4-D Euclidean space. One interesting result is that all points in this spatial section are equivalent if consideration is restricted to purely spatial properties, while they are not equivalent when consideration includes the time-like properties.

Reissner-Nordstr om Charged Solution

In 1916, Reissner solved the Einstein equations for a electrically charged vacuum (see later in this section), a natural extension of the Schwarzschild vacuum solution. Suppose that a central spherical object has a geometrized mass m, and an electric charge e in geometrized units. The electromagnetic potential is then simply that of a Coulomb eld, with scalar potential proportional to e/r and vanishing vector potential. The resulting line element is then: 2m e2 2m e2 2 + 2 dt 1 + 2 ds = 1 r r r r
2 1

dr2 r2 d2

(59)

This is known as the Reissner-Nordstr om solution, since Nordstr om showed that this is a solution for the exterior of an extended charged spherical body. To conrm that this is not a vacuum solution, it is useful to calculate the Einstein tensor, with the result: e2 Gab = 4 gab (60) r Thus the energy-momentum tensor, Tab = Gab /, is non-zero. At large r, where g00 and g11 approach 1 and 1 respectively, the energy-momentum approaches the form one would expect in the Minkowski space-time. This solution is an example of a non-null electrovacuum solution.