Air flows into and out of the lungs during the act of breathing by moving down alternately reversing

pressure gradients established between the alveoli and atmosphere by cyclic respiratory muscle activity. Three different pressure considerations are important in ventilation 1. Atmospheric (barometric) pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the air in the atmosphere on objects on Earths surface. At sea level it equals 7 ! mm "g .Atmospheric pressure diminishes with increasing altitude above sea level as the layer of air above Earths surface correspondingly decreases in thic#ness. $inor fluctuations in atmospheric pressure occur at any height because of changing weather conditions %that is& when barometric pressure is rising or falling'. Intra-alveolar pressure, also #nown as intrapulmonary pressure, is the pressure within the alveoli. (ecause the alveoli communicate with the atmosphere through the conducting airways& air quic#ly flows down its pressure gradient any time intra)alveolar pressure differs from atmospheric pressure* air)flow continues until the two pressures equilibrate%become equal'. +ntrapleural pressure is the pressure within the pleural sac. Also #nown as intrathoracic pressure& it is the pressure exerted outside the lungs within the thoracic cavity. The intrapleural pressure is usually less than atmospheric pressure& averaging 7, mm "g at rest. -ust as blood pressure is recorded using atmospheric pressure as a reference point %that is& a systolic blood pressure of ./! mm "g is ./! mm "g greater than the atmospheric pressure of 7 ! mm "g or& in reality& 00! mm "g'& 7, mm "g is sometimes referred to as a pressure of 1 mm "g. "owever& there is really no such thing as an absolute negative pressure. A pressure of 1 mm "g is just negative when compared with the normal atmosphere pressure of 7 ! mm "g. To avoid confusion& we will use absolute positive values throughout our discussion of respiration. +ntrapleural pressure does not equilibrate with atmospheric or intra)alveolar pressure& because there is no direct communication between the pleural cavity and either the atmosphere or the lungs. (ecause the pleural sac is a closed sac with no openings& air cannot enter or leave despite any pressure gradients that might exist between it and surrounding regions. The lungs are normally stretched
Cough Reflex (hal 504 di ver. Indo)

2.

3.

The bronchi and trachea are so sensitive to light touch that very slight amounts of foreign matter or other causes of irritation initiate the cough reflex. The larynx and carina (the point where the trachea divides into the bronchi) are especially sensitive, and the terminal bronchioles and even the alveoli are sensitive to corrosive chemical stimuli such as sulfur dioxide gas or chlorine gas. Afferent nerve impulses pass from the respiratory passages mainly through the vagus nerves to the medulla of the brain. There, an automatic sequence of events is triggered by the neuronal circuits of the medulla, causing the following effect. First, up to .! liters of air are rapidly inspired. "econd, the epiglottis closes, and the vocal cords shut tightly to entrap the air within the lungs. Third, the abdominal muscles contract forcefully, pushing against the diaphragm while other expiratory muscles, such as the internal intercostals, also contract forcefully. #onsequently, the pressure in the lungs rises rapidly to as much as $%% mm &g or more. Fourth, the vocal cords and the epiglottis suddenly open widely, so that air under this high pressure in the lungs explodes outward. 'ndeed, sometimes this air is expelled at velocities ranging from (! to $%% miles per hour. 'mportantly, thestrong compression of the lungs collapses the bronchi and trachea by causing their noncartilaginous parts to invaginate inward, so that the exploding air actually passes through bronchial and tracheal slits. The rapidly moving air usually carries with it any foreign matter that is present in the bronchi or trachea.
Sneeze Reflex

The snee)e reflex is very much li*e the cough reflex, except that it applies to the nasal passageways instead of the lower respiratory passages. The initiating stimulus of the snee)e reflex is irritation in the nasal passageways+ the afferent impulses pass in the fifth cranial nerve to the medulla, where the reflex is triggered. A series of reactions similar to those for the cough reflex ta*es place+ however, the uvula is depressed, so that large amounts of air pass rapidly through the nose, thus helping to clear the nasal passages of foreign matter.