Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe

A. Hilberink

Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe

Proefschrift
ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Technische Universiteit Delft, op gezag van de Rector Magnicus prof. ir. K.C.A.M. Luyben, voorzitter van het College voor Promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 19 december 2011 om 10.00 uur door

Annemiek HILBERINK

Ingenieur in Mechanical Engineering geboren te Wieringemeer

Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotoren: Prof. ir. F.S.K. Bijlaard Prof.dr.ir. L.J. Sluys Samenstelling promotiecommissie: Rector Magnicus Prof. ir. F.S.K. Bijlaard Prof.dr.ir. L.J. Sluys Prof.dr.ir. M.L. Kaminski Prof. dr. ir. W. de Waele Ir. A.M. Gresnigt Dr. S.A. Karamanos D. Haldane voorzitter Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor Technische Universiteit Delft Universiteit Gent, Belgi Technische Universiteit Delft University of Thessaly, Griekenland Heriot-Watt University Edinburgh, Verenigd Koninkrijk

ISBN 978-94-6186-012-5 Cover design: J. Niermeijer Layout: Grasch bureau Grapesh Printing: Sieca Repro, Delft, The Netherlands Copyright 2011 by A. Hilberink All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the autor.

Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe

A. Hilberink

This research was funded by: Delft University of Technology Heerema Marine Contractors Kuroki Tube and Pipe Co. Ltd. Agentschap NL, Maritiem Innovatie Platform

Table of Contents

AcknowledgementVII SummaryIX NomenclatureXI

SymbolsXI SubscriptsXII AbbreviationsXIII

1. Introduction
1.1 Tendencies in the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry 1.2 Offshore Installation 1.3 Lined Pipe 1.4 Research on the Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe 1.5 Research Objective 1.6 Research Approach and Thesis Outline 1.7 Conventions

1
1 2 4 5 5 6 9

2. Tight Fit Pipe

2.1 Manufacturing Process of Tight Fit Pipe 2.2 Geometry of Tight Fit Pipes 2.3 Stress-Strain Curves of Tight Fit Pipes 2.4 Radial Contact Stress in Tight Fit Pipes 2.5 Conclusions

11
13 15 16 19 24

3. Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Analytical Results 3.3 Numerical Results 3.4 Numerical Nonlinear Results Compared with Analytical Results 3.5 Numerical Parameter Study  3.6 Numerical Nonlinear Results Compared with Experimental Results 3.7 Conclusions

25
25 26 30 41 42 47 51

4.0 Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

4.1 Introduction 4.2 Numerical Results 4.3 Comparing Numerical Results of Lined Pipe with Single Walled Liner  4.4 Numerical Parameter Study 4.5 Conclusions

55
55 56 64 65 72

5. Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

5.1 Introduction

75
75

5.2 Numerical Uniform Ovalisation Model of Single Walled Liner  5.3 Numerical Model of Full Length Single Walled Liner in Pure Bending  5.4 Verication of Numerical Results for Single Walled Liner in Pure Bending 5.5 Numerical Parameter Study for Single Walled Liner 5.6 Numerical Uniform Ovalisation Model of Single Walled Outer Pipe  5.7 Numerical Model of Full Length Single Walled Outer Pipe in Pure Bending  5.8 Benchmark Results for Single Walled Outer Pipe 5.9 Numerical Results Single Walled Liner and Outer Pipe Compared 5.10 Conclusions

77 81 89 91 94 95 100 102 104

6. Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests on Lined Pipe

6.1 Introduction 6.2 Experiments 6.3 Conclusions

107
107 107 138

7. Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined pipe

7.1 Introduction 7.2 Numerical Uniform Ovalisation Model of Lined Pipe 7.3 Numerical Model of Full Length Lined Pipe in Pure Bending  7.4 Numerical Results Lined Pipe and Single Walled Pipes Compared 7.5 Numerical and Experimental Results Lined Pipe Compared 7.6 Numerical Parameter Study for Full Length Lined Pipe in Pure Bending 7.7 Conclusions 

141
141 143 146 156 158 175 195

8. Reeling of Lined Pipe

8.1 Introduction  8.2 Reeling Experiments 8.3 Comparing Reeling with Pure Bending Results 8.4 Conclusions

197
197 198 200 206

9 Conclusions and Recommendations

9.1 Conclusions 9.2 Recommendations

207
207 210

References213 List of Publications Appendix A Stress-Strain Curves TFP Appendix B  Inuence of Specimen Length on Residual Compressive Stress Test Results 219 221 225

Samenvatting231 Curriculum Vitae 233

VI

Acknowledgement

Many people and institutions have contributed directly and indirectly to this thesis. I would like to take the opportunity to highlight some of them. First of all I would like to thank Eelke Focke for her inspiration and enthusiasm without which I would never have started this research. I would like to thank Professor Frans Bijlaard and Professor Jan Meek for giving me the opportunity to start this PhD research. Especially, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Bert Sluys for embracing this research and always giving me the feedback I needed. I would like to thank Nol Gresnigt for his intractability, which led to lively and fruitful discussions. Furthermore, I would like to thank Anton de Koning, Dr. Nakasugi and Mr. Fujita from Kuroki Tube and Pipe for their contributions to this project. I would like to acknowledge Rien van de Ruijtenbeek for his valuable input during the progress meetings. Frank Lange I would like to thank for creating the environment that allowed me to work on this academic research within Heerema Marine Contractors, but above all for his condence, continuous support and personal coaching. Erwan Karjadi I would like to thank him for his endless patience, especially at those moments I lost mine. Thomas Balder I would like to thank for his support; he made me enjoy programming. My colleagues from the Innovation Department created a pleasant working atmosphere. Without the dedication of the IS department at Heerema Marine Contractors my PhD would have taken me signicantly longer. I hope the results of this project are as valuable for HMC, as the execution phase of the project was for me. I would like to thank all people that contributed to the bend test program. Especially I would like to express my appreciation to Heather Gower, I enjoyed working together, and hope we will work together again in the near future. I would like to acknowledge John Hermsen, Arjen van Rhijn, Cees van Beek and all other people in the Stevin laboratory for their commitment. Furthermore, I would like to express my gratitude to Martin Kik of Heerema Vlissingen as well as all the people at Pipeline Technique Limited for their exibility and the high quality of work delivered. I am thankful to the members of the Offshore Engineering Department at Delft University of Technology that made me always feel at home despite my limited presence. Finally I would like to thank my friends and family for their support throughout this PhD research. Joep, without your dedication, support and condence I would never have been able to combine nalising this PhD research with a job and our new family life, while enjoying. You make things possible for me. And little curious Tiemen, you make me see how interesting all normal things in life are.

VII

VIII

Summary

Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe Annemiek Hilberink

With the expected continuous volume growth of recovered corrosive hydrocarbons over the coming decennia under inuence of the increasing worlds primary energy demand and the accompanying expected volume growth of corrosive hydrocarbons, the need for corrosion mitigation grows. Mechanically bonded lined pipe is a cost efficient option which guarantees high corrosion resistance over a long lifetime. Mechanically bonded lined pipe is a type of double walled pipe, consisting of a carbon steel load bearing outer pipe that provides structural capacity and a corrosion resistant liner, mechanically tted inside the outer pipe, protecting the carbon steel outer pipe from the transported corrosive product. Installing lined pipe by means of the reeling installation method seems to be an attractive combination, because it provides the opportunity of eliminating the demanding welds from the critical time offshore and instead preparing them onshore. However, reeling of lined pipe is not yet proven technology. From previous research it is known that lined pipe undergoing high plastic strains during reeling, exhibits liner wrinkling and extensive ovalisation. The main objective of this study is to investigate the possibility of installing lined pipe by means of the reeling installation method. Initially, the interaction of the lined pipe with the reel is not taken into account and pure bending of the lined pipe is investigated. After the behaviour of the isolated lined pipe in pure bending is fully understood, the interaction with the reel can be added to the process. In dealing with the main research objective, the following questions were posed: 1.  What variables do inuence the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe in pure bending leading to a limit state? 2.  What is the sensitivity of the identied variables on this behaviour, in particular the onset of wrinkling and the growth of the wrinkles during further bending? In order to be able to determine what variables inuence the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe and to identify their sensitivity on this behaviour, rst the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe needed to be understood. A combination of numerical models and full scale four point bend tests were used to reach the objective. Full scale four point bend tests were executed in order to compare the numerical results with the test result and to investigate the inuence of several test conditions and pipe characteristics. With numerical modelling, the two different failure modes exhibited by elastic-plastic cylinders, i.e. ovalisation for thick elastic-plastic cylinders and wrinkling for thinner elastic-plastic cylinders, were rst investigated separately before allowing them to interact. This approach has proven valuable by giving a lot of insight and condence in the nal numerical models. The cascade of events exhibited by the lined pipe in pure bending was fully understood. Liner wrinkling appeared to be the main failure mode of lined pipe during bending.

IX

Comparison of the numerical results of the lined pipe with those of the single walled liner showed that connement of the liner in the outer pipe results in a signicant increase of the liners maximum moment capacity and corresponding curvature. The sensitivity of the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner in pure bending for several geometric, material and contact parameters was examined by means of a parameter study in which the maximum moments and corresponding curvatures have been used. Reeling of lined pipe becomes technically feasible when the reel radius exceeds the bending radius at which liner wrinkling initiates. Adjusting the lined pipe to an existing reel system is likely to be a more economic option than building a new reel for each lined pipe. From the parameter study it was found that the curvature at which the onset of liner wrinkling occurs as well as the curvature at which the lined pipe reaches its maximum moment capacity can be inuenced with geometric and contact parameters of the lined pipe. Material parameters do not have a signicant inuence on the curvature, until the ratio of the liner over outer pipe strength exceeds a certain limit, above which the relatively strong liner causes the outer pipe to fail at lower curvature. As a result, the lined pipe can be tuned for reeling with an existing reel system by means of the following parameters, in order of decreasing effectiveness: - Increasing liner thickness; -  Increasing relative outer pipe thickness with respect to liner pipe thickness while keeping the radius over thickness ratio of the liner constant; - Increasing friction between liner and outer pipe; -  Increasing radial contact stress between liner and outer pipe, i.e. the compressive hoop stress in the liner, and - Increasing tensile axial stress in liner. The above results were obtained from the lined pipe analysis in pure bending. The main difference between pure bending and reeling is that in addition to the constant moment applied during pure bending, a tensile and distributed load is applied to the lined pipe. From a comparison of the numerical results of the lined pipe in pure bending with the results of reeling experiments it was concluded that pure bending models result in a non-conservative and thus not safe approximation for reeling. In order to be able to obtain accurate results for reeling, cyclic bending should be included in the numerical model with for example the reel on one side and the aligner on the other side in correspondence with regularly used reeling rigs as well as a more accurate material model in order to account for anisotropy and hardening of the pipe material.

Nomenclature

Symbols
Letters
a C D d E f F H L M N p R t T u V X Y Z Moment arm Circumference Diameter Displacement Youngs modulus of elasticity Ovalisation Force, load Height Length Bending moment Number Pressure Radius Wall thickness Temperature Displacement Shear force Radial position Tangential position Axial position [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [Mpa] [mm] [N] [mm] [mm] [Nm] [-] [Mpa] [mm] [mm] [K] [mm] [Mpa] [mm] [0] [mm]

Greek symbols
Difference, change Innitesimal small difference, derivative Strain Angle Curvature Poisson ratio Stress Friction coefficient Rotation Damping factor

[-] [rad] [-/m] [-] [Mpa] [-] [rad] [-]

XI

Subscripts
Position
cont curv cyl elem friction hw lastnode liner local outer out reel roi snug TFP w Contact surface between liner and outer pipe Curvature meter Hydraulic cylinder Element Friction Half wave Last node, i.e. node at cylinder end Liner Local Outer pipe Outside Reel Region of interest Snug-t, i.e. initially no radial contact stress nor a gap present Tight Fit Pipe Wave, wrinkle

Direction
avg axial b circ cont hoop long mean Mises radial S T x y z Average Axial direction; longitudinal direction Bending Circumferential Contact Hoop direction; circumferential direction Longitudinal Mean Von Mises Radial direction Secant Tangent Radial direction Tangential direction Axial direction

XII

Time step
i 0.01 0.2 ult Initial 0.01% proof, i.e. at 0.01% permanent deformation 0.2% proof, i.e. at 0.2% permanent deformation Ultimate

Magnitude
avg compr cr global max mean meas min nom pl tension yield Average value Compressive Critical Global Maximum value Mean value Measured Minimum value Nominal Plastic Tensile Yield

Abbreviations
CRA ERW FEM NDT RCS roi RP SMLS TFP Corrosion resistant alloy Electric resistance welded Finite Element Model Non-destructive testing Residual compressive stress test Region of interest Reference point Seamless Tight Fit Pipe

XIII

XIV

1.Introduction

1.1

Tendencies in the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry

The worlds primary energy consumption is expected to increase from the current 11.5 tonnes of oil equivalent to over 16 billion in 2030, due to population and income growth, a growth of about 40% [Dudley, 2011]. Gas and non-fossil fuels only slowly gain share at the expense of coal and oil, due to long asset lifetimes, the main driver of this change being the reduction of greenhouse emissions. The production of the three fossil fuels is expected to keep growing, still having an important share of 75% on the total energy consumption in 2030 as illustrated in Figure 1.1.

* Including biofuels Figure 1.1 World commercial energy use [Dudley, 2011] The contribution of natural gas is expected to increase signicantly in the coming years. Apart from the discovery of large reserves in Russia and Iran over the past few years, the potential economic development of unconventional gas has increased the proven reserves considerably. The number of gas developments offshore is increasing signicantly, in particular with the increased use of LNG, enabling global transportation. Investments are expected in long export pipelines, and oating LNG plants, which further increase the requirement for ineld gas pipelines [Westwood, 2011; Evans, 2011]. Major oil producing elds are depleting fast, pushing the oil and gas industry towards more difficult reservoirs. The offshore industry develops towards deepwater, harsher environments such as the Arctic, and elds with more difficult reservoir characteristics, for example high sulphur content, high pressure, high temperature, i.e. corrosive hydrocarbons, and/or high viscosity [Westwood, 2011]. Developments of smaller elds often not justifying an own platform and developments in areas with limited existing infrastructure, require long pipeline tiebacks to shore or to existing platforms.

Introduction

Deepwater production will double in the coming ve years until 2015, requiring large investments in subsea infrastructure expecting to exceed US$ 850 billion. The search for more cost efficient methods and materials has high priority in the industry, because development costs have more than doubled over the past decade [Westwood, 2011].

1.2

Offshore Installation

With the oil recovery moving towards more harsh environments, pipeline installation is becoming ever more challenging. During installation pipelines are exposed to loading conditions that are often governing for their design. In this section the most commonly used installation methods are discussed shortly, together with the possible limit states [Kyriakides, 2007].

Figure 1.2 Schematic representation of S-lay pipeline installation and associated pipeline loadings [Kyriakides, 2007] The rst installation method to be discussed is S-lay, referring to the shape in which the pipeline is suspended from the vessel to the seabed as illustrated in Figure 1.2. During S-lay pipe joints are welded to the free end of the pipeline, after which the welds are inspected and coated in a linearly arranged series of stations onboard. The welded pipe joints leave the vessel at the stern, held by tensioners and supported by the stinger with which the overbend radius is controlled. A too short stinger or too small bending radius, might lead to excessive bending of the pipe, leading to buckling and fracture, possibly resulting in ooding of the pipeline. After the pipeline leaves the stinger, it straightens and in the sagbend bends in the opposite direction. The bending radius in the sagbend is controlled by the tension exerted by the vessel. Excessive bending due to movement of the vessel in combination with the external water pressure might result in local buckling and collapse. In general plastic deformation in overbend and sagbend is avoided, and lay tension is minimised to avoid extensive ovalisation and additional installation costs. The S-lay installation method is characterised by its high production rate, up to 6.5 km/day. It is most suitable in shallow and intermediate water depths, because larger water depths require a longer stinger. The second installation method is J-lay where the pipeline leaves the vessel nearly vertical and is laid down on the seabed via the sagbend as shown in Figure 1.3 . During J-lay pre-welded multiple joint sections are raised into the tower and then welded to the free end of the pipeline, after which the weld is inspected and coated in a single station. The welded pipe joints are then lowered while the vessel moves

Chapter 1

forward, laying down a corresponding length of pipeline to the seabed. Excessive bending due to movement of the vessel in combination with the external water pressure might result in local buckling and collapse. The production rate for the J-lay installation method, up to 3.2 km/day, is somewhat lower than for S-lay, but it is suitable for deeper waters due to the shorter suspended pipeline length resulting in a reduced required lay tension.

Figure 1.3 Schematic representation of J-lay pipeline installation and associated pipeline loadings [Kyriakides, 2007] The last installation method to be discussed is the reel-lay installation method. Onshore, long lengths of pipeline are welded together. After inspection of the welds and coating, the pipeline is spooled onto a large diameter reel, generally mounted on the installation vessel. After spooling the pipeline onto the reel, the vessel sails to the installation site and starts installing by gradually unspooling the pipeline as illustrated in Figure 1.4. Eliminating most of the pipeline fabrication processes offshore and instead executing them onshore, results in signicant reductions in installation time and costs. Reeling is the most efficient installation method, reaching laying rates up to 3.5 km/hour.

Figure 1.4 Schematic representation of Reel-lay pipeline installation [Kyriakides, 2007]

Introduction

However, during the reeling process the pipeline is plastically deformed, experiencing strains in the order of 2%. The impact of the reeling installation method on the integrity of the pipeline becomes clear from the mechanics during the process, which can best be described following the moment-curvature ( M-) diagram of a pipeline subjected to reeling, as given in Figure 1.5. During the reeling process, the following stages can be distinguished: 1. Spooling on; 2. Unspooling, and 3. Straightening. During spooling on, the end of the pipeline is attached to the reel, a holdback tension is applied and the reel is rotated slowly. The pipeline is plastically deformed until it follows the reel radius (0-1). During unspooling the pipe straightens due to the tension, experiencing reverse bending, as it is pulled of the reel to the aligner (1-2). On the aligner, the pipeline is bent to a xed curvature before entering the aligner (2-3). As the pipeline moves from the aligner to the straightener, the pipeline straightens (3-4) and is reverse bent in the straightener (4-5), so that after unloading (5-0) it ends up at zero moment and curvature.

Figure 1.5 Moment-curvature response of pipeline during reeling installation The multiple bending cycles during the reeling process induce ovalisation of the pipe cross section, reducing the resistance of the pipe against external pressure and local buckling. Additionally, extensive plastic deformation results in some permanent elongation and changes in the material properties.

1.3

Lined Pipe

Together with the volume of recovered corrosive hydrocarbons increasing, the need for corrosion mitigation grows. When the hydrocarbons are only mild corrosive, carbon steel pipelines can be applied. In many cases a corrosion allowance suffices, or otherwise addition of corrosion inhibitors or a plastic coating. However, when corrosivity of the hydrocarbons increases and long term corrosion resistance needs to be

Chapter 1

guaranteed, these mitigation methods do not longer suffice. Corrosion resistant alloy pipelines provide a more suitable solution in these cases. Solid corrosion resistant alloy pipelines are very expensive. A more cost efficient option are double walled pipes, consisting of a carbon steel load bearing outer pipe, that provides the structural capacity, and a corrosion resistant alloy liner, protecting the carbon steel outer pipe against the transported corrosive hydrocarbons. Two types of double walled pipes exist: - Metallurgically bonded; clad pipe, and - Mechanically bonded; lined pipe In comparison with clad pipe, lined pipe has the advantage that it is less expensive and has a shorter lead time. Several manufacturing processes for the production of lined pipe exist. Lined pipes are manufactured in joints of 12m length. At the ends of the joint, the liner and outer pipe are generally sealed with a clad girth weld, which allows for NDT and cutbacks during welding offshore. A more detailed discussion on the manufacturing process will follow in section 2.1.

1.4

Research on the Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe

Over the last years, the behaviour of lined pipe during bending and reeling has gained interest as a research topic. In 2002, Heerema Marine Contractors started a research project in cooperation with Delft University of Technology and Kuroki Tube and Pipe to investigate the inuence of reeling installation on liner wrinkling and pipe ovalisation [Focke, 2007]. Axial compression tests and full scale reeling tests of the spooling-on process were performed on TFP, in order to investigate liner wrinkling. This resulted in a signicant increase in knowledge on the behaviour of TFP during spooling-on [Focke, 2005a; 2005b; 2006; 2007; 2007a]. It was found that lined pipe undergoing high plastic strains during reeling, exhibits liner wrinkling and extensive ovalisation. Det Norske Veritas initiated a Joint Industry Project called Lined and Clad Pipeline Materials in 2005 which still continues. This project will result in a design guideline with updated requirements for the design and fabrication of lined and clad pipelines [DNV, 2007; Johnsrud, 2009].In 2007 HMC and Delft University of Technology started the current research with the objective to further investigate the inuence of relevant variables on the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe during bending, in particular the onset of wrinkling and the growth of the wrinkles during further bending. In 2010 both Statoil [Endal, 2010] and Technip [Howard, 2010] patented the application of internal overpressure during reeling to minimise wrinkling. Very recently, Technip has published a paper describing their development program to design and qualify mechanically lined pipes for reeling based on the use of lined pipe with appropriately chosen liner thickness without the use of internal pressure [Tkaczyk, 2011a]. A patent covering the results of this development program has been applied for [Tkaczyk, 2011b]. A numerical analysis on the buckling of lined pipes under bending and external pressure is described by Vasilikis and Karamanos [Vasilikis, 2011].

1.5

Research Objective

Installing lined pipe by means of the reeling installation method seems to be an attractive combination, because it provides the opportunity of eliminating the demanding welds from the critical time offshore

Introduction

and instead preparing them onshore. However, reeling of lined pipe is not yet proven technology. From previous research [Focke, 2007] it is known that lined pipe undergoing high plastic strains during reeling, exhibits liner wrinkling and extensive ovalisation. However, the mechanisms leading to these limit states were not fully understood. Local buckling of the outer pipe and thus of the integral lined pipe should be limited because of the following reasons [Focke, 2007]: -  The lined pipe installed on the seabed needs to have sufficient resistance against the external water pressure. -  A local buckle present after installation might increase during operation, for example in overspans. Excessive local buckles will obstruct the ow of hydrocarbons and a pig from passing through the pipe. -  Local buckling of the integral lined pipe might lead to fracture in the liner material. Once a through wall crack is present in the liner, the corrosion resistance is no longer guaranteed. Additionally, in case of a sudden pressure drop an overpressure might occur in between the liner and the outer pipe leading to collapse of the liner. Liner wrinkling should be limited because of the following reasons [Focke, 2007]: -  Wrinkles present in a production line might grow and shrink under the inuence of uctuations in operation pressure, causing crack initiation. -  The presence of excessive liner wrinkles will obstruct the ow of hydrocarbons and a pig from passing through the pipe. The main objective of this study is to investigate the possibility of installing lined pipe by means of the reeling installation method. Initially, interaction of the lined pipe with the reel is not taken into account while pure bending of the lined pipe is investigated. After the behaviour of the isolated lined pipe in pure bending is fully understood, the interaction with the reel can be added to the process. In dealing with the main research objective, the following questions are posed: 1. What variables do inuence the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe in pure bending leading to a limit state? 2. What is the sensitivity of the wrinkling behaviour to the identied variables, in particular the onset of wrinkling and the growth of the wrinkles during further bending? Based on the obtained knowledge, the parameters that inuence the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe in pure bending leading to a limit state can be quantied, enabling safe and economic design of lined pipe for installation.

1.6

Research Approach and Thesis Outline

The research approach is based on the two different failure modes exhibited by elastic-plastic cylinders under pure bending [Kyriakides, 1987; Reddy, B.D., 1979]: - Thick elastic-plastic cylinders ( smaller than about 40 for steel) exhibit a moment maximum due

Chapter 1

to uniform ovalisation, after which ovalisation localises. This is generally referred to as the natural limit load due to the Brazier effect. Thinner elastic-plastic cylinders exhibit wrinkling and shell-type buckling leading to localised collapse, which can precede the natural limit load of the Brazier effect as described for the thick cylinders above. In these cases wavy deformations at the compression side of the cylinder develop, which grow under increasing bending moment and curvature and then localise in a local kink. This in contrast with thin elastic cylinders ( larger than about 120 for steel) that may buckle in the elastic region and develop wrinkles and shell-type buckling even earlier, which can evolve into axisymmetric or even diamond shaped shell buckling modes.

Depending on the diameter-to-thickness ratio of the pipe either one of these mechanisms will occur, or the two mechanisms will interact, resulting in nal failure of the cylinder having a specic shape of local buckling as illustrated in Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7 [Corona, 1988; Kyriakides, 1992; Corona, 2006]. Based on the diameter-to-thickness ratio of liner and outer pipe, 100 and 22 respectively, the two mechanisms are expected to interact in the lined pipe.

Figure 1.6 Local buckling of a thick walled elastic-plastic cylinder (SS-304

) [Kyriakides, 2007]

Figure 1.7 Local wrinkling of a thin walled elastic-plastic cylinder (Al 6061-T6

) [Kyriakides, 2007]

In order to be able to determine what variables inuence the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe and to identify their sensitivity to this behaviour, rst the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe needs to be understood. The research approach, as illustrated in Figure 1.8, is to rst investigate the two different failure modes exhibited by elastic-plastic cylinders separately, i.e. liner wrinkling and ovalisation, before allowing them to interact. Investigation of the failure modes is based on nite element modelling in the software package Abaqus/Standard. The liner wrinkling failure mode is investigated separately with axial

Introduction

compression models, while models with unit length subjected to pure bending have been developed to investigate the ovalisation failure mode separately. Subsequently three dimensional full length models are developed in which the pipes are subjected to pure bending, and the two possible failure modes may interact. The failure mechanisms in the lined pipe can be better understood by investigating pure bending than by reeling, because in pure bending the lined pipe can be observed isolated, excluding the interaction between lined pipe and reel. Before starting the failure mode investigation, the characteristics of Tight Fit Pipe (TFP), a type of lined pipe will be discussed in Chapter 2, starting with a description of the manufacturing process. The rest of the chapter includes descriptions and results of the tests with which the characteristics of the TFPs that were subjected to four point bend tests were determined. For investigation of liner wrinkling, the single walled liner and the liner conned in the outer pipe have been modelled in axial compression. The buckling behaviour of the single walled liner under axial compression is discussed in Chapter 3. Additionally, the model outcomes are compared with test results from Focke [2007]. In Chapter 4 the buckling behaviour of the liner conned in the outer pipe under axial compression is discussed. Both chapters include a parameter study to determine the inuence of several geometric and material parameters as well as friction on liner wrinkling. The buckling behaviour of the single walled liner and outer pipe in pure bending is discussed in Chapter 5. For determination of the limit load due to ovalisation, models with unit length subjected to pure bending have been developed. Three dimensional full length models are developed in which the pipes are subjected to pure bending, and the two possible failure modes may interact. The numerical results are compared with the outcomes of empirical formulas. A parameter study is performed on the full length single walled liner model to determine the inuence of several geometric and material parameters on liner wrinkling. The full scale four point bend tests that were executed on a number of eight TFPs are described in Chapter 6, and the test results are presented. In Chapter 7 the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner as part of the lined pipe in pure bending is discussed. The numerical results are compared with the test results. Additionally, a parameter study is performed to determine the inuence of the geometric, material and contact parameters on the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe in pure bending. With this parameter study the variables that do inuence the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe in pure bending are determined, as well as their sensitivity to this behaviour, in particular the onset of wrinkling and the growth of wrinkles during further bending. As a nal step, numerical pure bending results are compared with reeling test results in Chapter 8 in order to determine the inuence of reeling on the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe.

Chapter 1

Figure 1.8 Research approach and thesis outline, showing the relationship between chapters

1.7 Conventions
1.7.1 Geometry and coordinate system
The cylinder geometry and coordinate system used for the liner and the outer pipe are given in Figure 1.9. In this gure denotes the radius, and denote the length and thickness of the cylinder, respectively. The in-plane positions in circumferential and axial direction of a typical point are denoted by and , whereas the radial position is referred to as . The corresponding displacements and rotations are denoted by and . The liner may have an initial geometric imperfection , that is assumed to be stress-free and positive inward.

Introduction

Figure 1.9 Shell geometry and coordinate system

Figure 1.10 Deformed geometry for calculating ovalisation

1.7.2

Parameter denition

For describing buckling behaviour of the liner under axial compression, the following parameters are used: -  The global axial strain, , which is calculated over a certain length of the cylinder as the quotient of the displacement over the initial length:

-  The axial stress, the load is applied.

, is extracted at the cylinder end, or the end of the region of interest, where

In correspondence with Murphey and Langner [Murphey, 1985], the geometric parameters curvature and global bending strain will be used to describe the critical bending behaviour of the cylinders. The small difference between the global bending strain and the actual local strain is not accounted for. The buckling behaviour of the liner under bending is described with the following parameters: -  The global bending curvature, which is calculated over a certain length of the cylinder as the quotient of the rotation over the initial length:

-  The global bending strain, , which is calculated as the product of the bending curvature and the outer radius of the cylinder:

-  The global bending moment,

, is measured at the cylinder end, where the load is applied.

- Ovalisation, , is measured in the deformed pipe geometry as illustrated in Figure 1.10 at discrete positions along the cylinder:

10

Chapter 1

2.

Tight Fit Pipe

An increasingly applied solution for the transportation of corrosive hydrocarbons is lined pipe. Lined pipe consists of a carbon steel load bearing outer pipe that provides the structural capacity and a corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) liner, protecting the carbon steel outer pipe from the transported corrosive product. The liner is mechanically tted inside the outer pipe. The following manufacturing processes are known to be used for the fabrication of lined pipe: - Hydraulic expansion of the full pipe length; - Hydraulic expansion in steps along the pipe length; - Thermo-hydraulic expansion of the full pipe length, and - Forming of welded plates.
The thermo-hydraulic expansion process is used by Kuroki Tube and Pipe for the fabrication of TFP, a type of lined pipe. This is the only expansion process resulting in a mechanical t when using liner materials with higher E-moduli such as duplex. A detailed description of this manufacturing process is given in section 2.1. A number of twelve TFPs were provided by Kuroki Tube and Pipe for this research. An overview of the tested pipes characterised by their material properties, geometric properties and residual hoop stress, the treatments before testing as well as the tests performed are included in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2. After explanation of the manufacturing process of TFP, the procedures for obtaining the geometric characteristics of the TFP are discussed. Complete descriptions of the procedures and all results of the tensile tests and residual compressive stress tests are included in [Kolstein, 2010]. This chapter includes an analysis of the results. The bend tests are discussed separately in Chapter 6.

11

Tight Fit Pipe

Table 2.1 Characteristics and performed tests on TFPs without a coating simulation cycle

12

Chapter 2

Table 2.2 Characteristics and performed tests on TFPs with a coating simulation cycle

2.1

Manufacturing Process of Tight Fit Pipe

TFP is a double-walled pipe where a corrosion resistant alloy liner is mechanically tted inside a carbon steel outer pipe through a thermo-hydraulic manufacturing process as illustrated in Figure 2.1. A schematic representation of the stress and strain ( ) development in the hoop direction of the liner during the different stages of the manufacturing process is given in Figure 2.2. The numbers in the explanation of the different manufacturing stages, correspond with the numbers indicated in the gures. (1) First the outer pipe is heated to a certain temperature inside an oven in which it remains throughout the manufacturing process. Subsequently, the corrosion resistant alloy liner is inserted concentrically into the heated outer pipe, while the liner temperature is kept low using cooling water. (2) Just after insertion, the water pressure in the liner is increased and the liner is expanded rst elastically and then plastically. The liner comes in contact with the outer pipe. Further increase of the water pressure causes the outer pipe to expand elastically together with the plastically expanding liner. (3) The liner tempera-

13

Tight Fit Pipe

ture increases due to contact with the outer pipe. (4) Then, the water pressure is decreased, causing both the outer pipe and the liner to shrink elastically, together forming the TFP. (5) Finally the oven is opened and the TFP is cooled in the atmosphere [Focke, 2007]. At the end of the manufacturing process a residual compressive hoop stress is present in the liner and a residual tensile hoop stress in the outer pipe, both illustrated in Figure 2.3. The resulting contact stress between the liner and the outer pipe provides the mechanical bond as can be seen in Figure 2.4. Furthermore, a residual compressive axial stress is present in the liner and a residual tensile axial stress in the outer pipe, as illustrated in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of the TFP manufacturing process [Focke, 2007]

Figure 2.2 Liner hoop stress and strain during manufacturing process of TFP

14

Chapter 2

Figure 2.3 Equilibrium of tensile hoop stress in outer pipe and compressive hoop stress in liner [Focke, 2007]

Figure 2.4 The radial contact stress causes a mechanical bond between the liner and outer pipe [Focke, 2007]

Figure 2.5 Equilibrium of tensile axial stress in outer pipe and compressive axial stress in liner

2.2

Geometry of Tight Fit Pipes

According to the standards, pipes can deviate from the nominal dimensions within specied tolerances. The actual dimensions of the tested TFPs were measured as described in this section.

2.2.1 Thickness
The thickness of the liner and outer pipe could not be measured for the intact TFPs, because the ends were seal welded. Therefore the thicknesses were measured from the residual compressive stress test specimens at four equally spaced positions around the circumference with a mechanical calliper. The thicknesses of the TFPs on which no residual compressive stress tests were performed, were measured after testing when they were sectioned. The thicknesses and as included in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 are the average values of the four measurements. For the numerical models, the conservative, nominal thicknesses were taken. When comparing the model results with the bend test results, this underestimation should be accounted for.

15

Tight Fit Pipe

2.2.2 Diameter
The measured outer diameters of the outer pipe as included in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 are the average of two values measured at each pipe end. The diameter was measured with a mechanical calliper at two equally spaced positions around the circumference, in the same cross-sectional plane for both pipe ends. The pure bending numerical models will be validated based on the experimental bend test results of the three TFPs without a coating simulation cycle. The outer diameters of the outer pipe used in the numerical models should therefore correspond with the actual bent TFPs and is set equal to the 324.7mm outer pipe outer diameter of the two 14.3mm thick outer pipes. This value slightly overestimates the outer diameter of the 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe. When comparing the model results with the bend test results, this overestimation should be accounted for.

2.3

Stress-Strain Curves of Tight Fit Pipes

Tensile tests are performed on liner and outer pipes of the TFPs to determine the stress-strain response, after the coating simulation cycle when applicable.

2.3.1

Set up and procedure of tensile test

The tensile tests are performed according to [NNI, 2001]. Specimens were taken from liner and outer pipe in both hoop and axial direction in order to determine the material characteristics in these two directions, as illustrated in Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7. For the ERW pipes, the tensile specimens were taken outside the heat affected zone of the weld. The liner wall was insufficiently thick to take a full round specimen from the hoop direction. Therefore, a specimen with a similar shape as the axial specimens was taken from the liner in hoop direction, after which it was attened.

Figure 2.6 Liner tensile specimens

Figure 2.7 Outer pipe tensile specimens

16

Chapter 2

Figure 2.8 and Figure 2.9 illustrate the test set up for the attened liner hoop specimen and the round outer pipe hoop specimen, respectively. The total elongation over the complete length of the specimen was measured with the actuators of the tensile test machine. Additionally, an extensometer was placed over the mid section of the specimen to measure local elongations where necking was expected to occur. Necking did not always occur in this section, but then still the total elongation could be used to determine the stress-strain curve for the specimen.

Figure 2.8 Flat specimen in test arrangement

Figure 2.9 Round specimen in test arrangement

The E-moduli resulting from the measured stress-strain curves during elastic deformation appeared to be higher than what was expected from literature. This might be caused by some setting in the test arrangement at the beginning of the test. It was decided to replace the resulting E-moduli with the values known from literature, i.e. 205 GPa for X65 and 193 GPa for 316L. The relevant stresses and strains as obtained from the tensile test results are included in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2.

2.3.2

Tensile test results of Tight Fit Pipes without coating simulation cycle

Pure bending numerical models will be compared with experimental bend test results of three TFPs without a coating simulation cycle. The material response used in the numerical models should therefore correspond with the actual bent TFPs. In Appendix A representative curves from the tensile tests are selected. Figure 2.10 includes the selected representative curves, P01KA M90-K for the outer pipe, and T13KB M99-K for the liner. From comparison of the tensile test results it was found valid to consider the liner and outer pipe material to be isotropic. Furthermore, the outer pipe material acts signicantly stronger than the liner material. In the numerical models the liner material consists of a linear elastic part, with a modulus of elasticity of 193 GPa until the representative curve deviates from this slope, followed by a plastic part, in correspondence with the representative stress-strain curve. The material curve for the outer pipe material is constructed in the same way, with a modulus of elasticity of 205 GPa.

17

Tight Fit Pipe

The representative outer pipe stress-strain curve matches the seamless pipes well, while it slightly overestimates the ERW outer pipe stress-strain curve. The numerical bend models can be validated directly based on the bend tests on TFPs with 14.3mm and 17.5mm seamless outer pipes. When comparing the model results with the bend test results of the TFP with the ERW outer pipe, the overestimation of the outer pipe strength in the models should be accounted for. The use of isotropic hardening and associative plasticity with a Mises yield surface in this research is anticipated to give sufficiently accurate numerical results, because the lined pipe materials do not show extensive hardening and the pipes are only bend ones in a single direction.
700 600 500

[MPa]

400 300 200 100 0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Representative tensile test curve liner T13KB M99-K Representative tensile test curve outer pipe P01KA M90-K

[-]
Figure 2.10 Representative true stress-strain curves for liner and outer pipe

2.3.3

Tensile test results of Tight Fit Pipes with a coating simulation cycle

In addition to the tensile tests on the TFPs without a coating simulation cycle, some more tests were performed on a TFP that underwent a coating simulation cycle, during which it was fully heated at 220 0C before it was tested and bent. The results of these tests are included in Appendix A. In correspondence with the results from the TFPs without a coating simulation cycle, it was found that the material behaviour of both the liner and the outer pipe is isotropic and that the outer pipe material acts signicantly stronger than the liner material.

2.3.4  Comparing tensile test results of Tight Fit Pipes without and with a coating simulation cycle
The stress-strain curves resulting for the liner and the outer pipe of the TFPs with a seamless, 17.5mm thick outer pipe, of which one underwent a coating simulation cycle while the other did not, are given in Figure 2.11. The outer pipe material of the TFP (T12KA) that underwent a coating simulation cycle acts less strong than the untreated TFP (T13KB), while the stress-strain curves of the liner material do correspond well. The relatively low temperatures and durations of the coating simulation cycle were not expected to have any inuence on the material properties. If it would have an inuence, an effect on the chrome alloy of the liner would be more likely than on the carbon steel of the outer pipe. The difference in strength of the two

18

Chapter 2

carbon steel outer pipes was probably already present before the coating simulation cycle. This is conrmed by the fact that an equal stress difference is found between the material properties of the three pipes without a coating simulation cycle as included in Appendix A. Furthermore, since the variability of the material properties in seamless pipes is known to be high and the test specimens were taken from the pipe at a certain location, the tensile test results might be different at other locations.

Figure 2.11 Nominal stress-strain curves for liner and outer pipe of 17.5mm and without a coating simulation cycle compared

2.4

Radial Contact Stress in Tight Fit Pipes

As a result of the manufacturing process, a residual compressive hoop stress is present in the liner and a residual tensile hoop stress in the outer pipe. The resulting radial contact stress between the liner and the outer pipe provides the mechanical bond as was illustrated in Figure 2.4. This resulting radial contact stress will be determined by means of residual compressive stress tests.

19

Tight Fit Pipe

2.4.1

Set up and procedure of residual compressive stress test

Residual hoop stress tests are performed on 200mm long TFP specimens in correspondence with the method as proposed in [API, 2009], to determine the residual compressive stress in the liner due to the mechanical bond between liner and outer pipe. During these residual compressive stress tests, the outer pipe is taken off the liner by saw-cutting it in longitudinal direction with a band saw as illustrated in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12 Residual compressive stress test The inside surface of the liner is equipped with three bi-axial strain gauges at half the specimen height at 600, 1800 and 3000 around the circumference, while the saw cut is located at 1200 as illustrated in Figure 2.13. During saw cutting the outer pipe, the strain gauges measure the changes in hoop and axial strains in the liner continuously.

Figure 2.13 Location of strain gauges and saw cut during residual compressive stress test The measured strain changes equal the elastic strains that were present in the liner after the manufacturing process of the TFP. During the manufacturing process, the liner is plastically deformed and plastic strains are present in the liner as a result. The difference between the measured strain changes and the actual strains present in the liner as part of the TFP is illustrated schematically in Figure 2.14. The radial contact stress between the liner and outer pipe is the result of the difference in elastic strains and can thus be derived from the measured strain changes. In addition to the strain changes, the resulting gap between the two saw cut surfaces was measured at half the outer pipe thickness.

20

Chapter 2

Figure 2.14 Measured change in hoop strain The residual stresses in hoop and axial direction that were present in the liner can be calculated from the measured strain changes with the following equations:

where is the number of strain gauges. Additionally, the radial contact stress that was present between liner and outer pipe can be retrieved with the following equation:

In Appendix B, a discussion on the validity of the residual compressive stress test and its results is included. As a result of this discussion it is considered valid to use the strain changes measured during the residual compressive stress test as a rst approximation for calculating the contact stress, hoop stresses, and axial stresses originally present in the TFP.

21

Tight Fit Pipe

2.4.2

Residual compressive stress test of Tight Fit Pipes without pretreatment

The strains measured during the residual compressive stress test for the TFP with the 14.3mm thick seamless outer pipe are represented in Figure 2.15, as an example. This gure shows that the axial strains decreased, while the hoop strains increased, i.e. that the liner shortened in length and increased in diameter. The material needed for the increase in diameter was provided for by a decrease in length. An overview of the measured strains for the TFPs tested is given in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2. The average strains are based on two or three consistent measured strains. In case one strain showed signicant deviation from the remaining two, it is not included in the average strain.

Figure 2.15 Strain curves for liner and outer pipe of 14.3mm seamless TFP P01KA in hoop and axial direction

2.4.3

Inuence of preheating and hydrotesting on radial contact stress

To investigate the inuence of preheating and hydrotesting on the residual compressive stress, specimens of a TFP with a seamless 17.5mm thick outer pipe (T14KA), were given the following pretreatments before they were subjected to the residual compressive stress test: - Preheating at 1800C for 30 minutes; - Preheating at 2500C for 30 minutes; -  Hydrotesting at an internal pressure of 150 bar for 10 minutes. These hydrotests were carried out on 1000mm long TFP pieces, which were closed with welded end caps. After hydrotesting the 1000mm long pieces were cut into 200mm long specimens. An overview of the measured strains for these pipe specimens is given in Table 2.3. The inuence of preheating can be determined by plotting the contact pressures against the preheating temperatures. From Figure 2.16 it can be concluded that preheating had a negative effect on the contact stress, and increase of the preheating temperature resulted in a further decrease of the contact stress. The loss of contact stress due to preheating is caused by the thermal expansion coefficient of the liner being higher than that of the outer pipe.

22

Chapter 2

Table 2.3 Residual compressive stress results of TFPs with different heat treatments and hydrotests

Figure 2.16 Inuence of preheating temperature on contact stress

Figure 2.17 Inuence of hydrotest pressure on contact stresses from different preheating temperatures From Figure 2.17, it unexpectedly shows that hydrotesting resulted in a further decrease of the contact stress. Theoretically it is expected that a hydrotest introducing plastic deformation of the liner would result in an increase of the contact stress due to the elastic radial retraction of the outer pipe being larger

23

Tight Fit Pipe

than of the liner after pressure release. Test results in correspondence with this expectation are reported by Wilmot [2011].

2.5 Conclusions
The geometric and material characteristics that will be used as the base case for the numerical models simulating axial compression and pure bending of the single walled liner, single walled outer pipe and the lined pipe, are included in Table 2.4. Table 2.4. Material and geometric characteristics TFP used for base case pure bending numerical model

*) The yield stress for the liner cannot properly be dened, since the 316L material shows plasticity at very low strains

24

Chapter 2

3.

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

3.1 Introduction
The wrinkling behaviour of single walled cylinders under axial compression has been a topic of interest for many researchers. Much work has been done on elastic wrinkling; however, the liner investigated in this chapter wrinkles in the plastic range.
The main experimental data for plastic wrinkling of single walled elastic-plastic cylindrical shells under axial compression quoted in literature are from Lee [1962] and Batterman [1965]. In addition to the experiments, both authors compared the experimental results with analytical predictions. As mentioned by Bardi [2006a], Lees comparison of the measured limit stresses with calculated bifurcation stresses is inappropriate because of the signicant difference in strains at which bifurcation occurs. Additionally, Bardi mentioned that Battermans conclusions based on his experiments are somewhat suspicious since his experimental collapse stresses were inuenced by length effects. However, these length effects do not inuence Battermans analytical predictions for innitely long cylinders. In this chapter, Battermans analytical predictions will be used. Additional analytical works were published, starting with Bushnell [1976]. Bushnells Bosor-5 program based on the nite difference energy method calculates plastic wrinkling and post buckling for a variety of different cylindrical shells. Gellin [Gellin, 1979] also developed a model for the post buckling behaviour of elastic-plastic axially loaded cylindrical shells. Amongst others, Tvergaard [1983a; 1983b] extended this type of analysis by rst allowing the axisymmetric wrinkles to localize and then modelling the transition to non-axisymmetric wrinkling modes. A very comprehensive description of the behaviour of cylindrical shells under axial compression was given by Bardi [2006a; 2006b]. This description is used as a guide to explain the cascade of events preceding plastic collapse of the liner. Figure 3.1 shows a typical stress-strain response resulting from a numerical model of a single walled liner under axial compression. Initially the liner deforms uniformly following the perfect response, until the so-called plastic bifurcation point is reached, as indicated in Figure 3.1, from which the liner response deviates from the perfect response. Axisymmetric wrinkling becomes prevailing with increasing amplitude, eventually leading to the limit load as indicated in Figure 3.1. The limit load can be considered as the limit state of the structure. Under displacement controlled loading after passing the limit load, the load carrying capacity of the liner drops.

25

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

Figure 3.1 Typical stress-strain response of single walled liner under axial compression In this thesis, the wrinkling behaviour of the numerical models is evaluated based on the stress and strain at the resulting limit load, since the limit load can be better dened than the bifurcation point. However, the analytical methods give expressions for the stress and strain at the bifurcation point. For the numerical models of the single walled liner, the bifurcation point is dened as the point where the stress difference between the liner response and the perfect solution exceeds 0.1%.

3.2

Analytical Results

As mentioned in the introduction, an analytical prediction of the critical stress, strain and half wavelength at the bifurcation point is obtained according to Batterman [1965]. An analytical t of the stress-strain curve as resulted from the tensile tests is required. The liner material has a low proportionality limit and extended strain-hardening capability, characteristic for stainless steel alloys as discussed by Rasmussen [Rasmussen, 2001]. As a consequence, nor the Ramberg-Osgood expression nor the Needleman expression give representative ts. The following alternative analytical t developed for the stress-strain curves of stainless steel alloys based on the Ramberg-Osgood expression [Rasmussen, 2001], is used:

26

Chapter 3

The derivation of the input parameters from a tensile test stress-strain curve is illustrated in Figure 3.2. The characteristic values used to t the representative material curve of the liner material with the alternative analytical Ramberg-Osgood expression are included Table 2.4. The resulting stress-strain response of the t is given in Figure 3.3, together with the representative tensile test curve of the liner material as derived in section 2.3.2.

Figure 3.2 Denition of input parameters for alternative Ramberg-Osgood expression

Figure 3.3 Representative tensile test and alternative Ramberg-Osgood t of liner compared

27

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

This stress-strain curve is used to derive the material moduli used by Batterman [1965] as illustrated in Figure 3.4 as input for the analytical equations to determine the plastic critical wrinkling stress and strain, as well as the critical half wavelength of the axisymmetric mode.

Figure 3.4 Denition of modulus of elasticity, tangent modulus and secant modulus The theory according to Batterman [1965] provides the following analytical equations, based on the J2-ow theory with isotropic hardening:

Similar expressions were obtained by Batterman for the J2-deformation theory.

28

Chapter 3

The resulting stress, strain and critical half wavelength values at the bifurcation points calculated according to Batterman are included in Table 3.1 and plotted in Figure 3.5, together with the stress-strain curves from the tensile test and the analytical t according to the alternative Ramberg-Osgood expression. It shows that ow theory gives results that bifurcate later than deformation theory.

Figure 3.5 Bifurcation stresses and strains according to Batterman Table 3.1 Plastic bifurcation stress, strain and critical half wavelength according to Batterman

In literature extensive discussions on the proper choice of a plasticity theory for bifurcation buckling can be found [Deerenberg, 1994]. From a physical perspective, ow theory is the correct theory to use. However, for some bifurcation buckling problems of thin-walled metallic structures, such as axially compressed cylindrical shells, the so-called plastic buckling paradox exists. It has been shown by various authors [Bushnell, 1982; Blachut, 1996] that test results are in better agreement with deformation theory than with ow theory, the latter resulting in unrealistically high bifurcation loads. For different bifurcation buckling problems it was demonstrated that small imperfections bring the outcomes of the J2-ow and deformation theories closely together [Tugcu, 1991]. Needleman and Tvergaard [Needleman, 1981; Tvergaard, 1983] showed in particular for axially compressed cylindrical shells that a plasticity theory with a corner in the yield surface lowers the buckling stress in comparison with the ow theory. Sewel [Sewel, 1972] anticipated that the precise truth involves a combination of anisotropy, yield surface corners and imperfections. Summarising, no simple answer exists on what plasticity theory to use for a buckling problem.

29

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

Since the main focus of this study is bending of lined pipe, for which the plastic buckling paradox does not apply, ow theory with isotropic hardening will be used throughout the complete study. Flow theory for axial compression resulted in high bifurcation loads, but the results were more consistent than obtained with deformation theory. The bifurcation results for axial compression will be adjusted by introducing small geometric imperfections.

3.3
3.3.1

Numerical Results
Linear buckling analysis

Linear buckling analyses, i.e. eigenvalue analyses, are performed on different lengths of the liner to determine the critical half wavelength. Model description of numerical linear buckling analysis The geometry of the liner model as used for the linear buckling analyses is shown in Figure 3.6. No symmetry planes are used in the circumferential direction, to allow for all axisymmetric as well as nonaxisymmetric mode shapes to occur. The cylinder ends are constrained to a reference point at the centre of the respective cylinder end, and , by means of a kinematic coupling in axial and tangential direction, as illustrated in Figure 3.7. The applied boundary conditions fully constrain the reference point at , while the reference point at is free in axial direction. A unit load is applied at the reference point at , compressing the liner in axial direction.

Figure 3.6 Geometry and boundary conditions of single walled liner, linear wrinkling model

Figure 3.7 Geometry including mesh and kinematic couplings of single walled liner linear wrinkling model The mesh consists of three layers of C3D8R solid elements, which are 8-node linear bricks with reduced integration and hourglass control. The number of elements in circumferential direction is kept constant at 240 elements. While varying the length of the liner, the number of elements in axial direction is adjusted to keep the ratio between element length and width approximately constant at one.

30

Chapter 3

3.3.2

Results of numerical linear buckling analysis

From linear buckling analyses on different liner lengths, the rst wrinkling mode shape of the liner is axisymmetric for all lengths, similar to the enlarged linear mode shape as shown in Figure 3.8 for the liner having a length of 106 mm.

Figure 3.8 Axisymmetric mode shape of liner with length of 106mm consisting of three half waves With increasing liner length, the liner exhibits an increasing number of half waves . For example, in a liner with a total length of 50mm only one half wave develops when performing an eigenvalue analysis, while two half waves develop in a 51mm long liner. A liner with a total length of 86mm exhibits two half waves and an 87mm long liner exhibits three half waves in an eigenvalue analysis. For each number of half waves, a maximum and minimum total length for the cylinder is determined. By dividing the total cylinder length by the number of half waves, the maximum and minimum half wave lengths can be determined for each number of half waves. The maximum determined half wave lengths for the different numbers of half waves together form the upper bound, whereas the minimum lengths form the lower bound. From the upper and lower bound, the average critical half wavelength is calculated, as illustrated in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9 Critical half wavelength liner

31

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

The calculated average half wavelengths iterate towards the critical half wavelength, which follows from Figure 3.9:

The linear eigenvalue buckling loads depicted in conrm that 35.35mm is the critical half wavelength. Table 3.2 Linear eigenvalue buckling loads for different liner lengths

This numerically determined critical half wavelength approximates the analytical solution of Batterman based on deformation theory while it is overestimated by the analytical solution of Batterman based on ow theory, as included in Table 3.1. This result is in line with what would be expected based on the plastic buckling paradox as discussed in section 3.2.

3.3.3

Model description of numerical nonlinear analysis

The geometry of the liner as used for the nonlinear investigation of the liner wrinkling behaviour under axial compression is shown in Figure 3.10. In order to reduce calculation times, a quarter of the liner is modelled with symmetric boundary conditions along the longitudinal edges.

Figure 3.10 Geometry and boundary conditions of single walled liner under axial compression The constraints and boundary conditions at the cylinder ends are the same as described for the linear wrinkling model. A displacement is prescribed at the reference point at , compressing the liner in axial direction. The length of the liner model is set to 106 mm, three times the elastic critical half wavelength as determined from the numerical linear buckling analyses in section 3.3.1. This absolute number of three times the critical half wavelength results in a length closest to the specimen length of 100mm as tested

32

Chapter 3

by Focke [Focke,2007], which will be discussed in section 3.6. The mesh consists of C3D8R solid elements, which are 8-node linear bricks with reduced integration and hourglass control. Based on the mesh sensitivity analysis as described later on in this section, the mesh consists of 120 circumferential, 30 longitudinal and three radial elements. The material properties of the liner are dened according to the representative nominal isotropic stress-strain curve that resulted from the tensile tests as included in section 2.3. The axial stress is measured at the cylinder end where the load is applied. The global axial strain is calculated as the quotient of the displacement over the initial cylinder length. As is customary [Bardi, 2006b], the post buckling response is followed by introducing a small initial imperfection corresponding with the critical mode shape as found from the linear eigenvalue analysis. The critical mode shape is the mode for which the liner is most sensitive, although the cylinder might be even more sensitive for combinations of mode shapes. A sinusoidal imperfection, consisting of three half waves in correspondence with the linear wrinkling mode for this cylinder, was prescribed to the liner geometry. In reality pipes will never be perfect either, so introducing such a small imperfection can be justied.

3.3.4

Sensitivity for applied mesh of numerical nonlinear model

The liner mesh should result in acceptable computation time in combination with sufficiently accurate results. In this section, the sensitivity of the numerical model for the applied mesh will be evaluated. This evaluation is based on the stresses and strains at resulting limit load, since the limit load can be better dened than the bifurcation point. In this subsection, the initial imperfection is given an amplitude of 10-2mm. First of all, the number of elements in longitudinal and circumferential direction in the liner mesh is varied while keeping the ratio between element length and width approximately constant at one. The results are represented in Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.11 Strain sensitivity of different meshes with the ratio between element length and width approximately constant at one

33

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

Figure 3.12 Stress sensitivity of different meshes with the ratio between element length and width approximately constant at one Table 3.3 Inuence of mesh renements with the ratio between element length and width approximately constant at one on stress and strain at limit load, relative to the nest solid mesh with 480 circumferential and 60 elements in axial direction

From Table 3.3 it shows that the mesh with 240 elements is the coarsest mesh resulting in negligible difference in stress and strain at limit load compared with the nest mesh applied. Comparing the meshes with 240 and 120 elements in circumferential direction in Table 3.3 shows that a 75% reduction in the total number of elements results in a 0.5% increase in stress at limit load and a 6.7% increase in strain at limit load. For two meshes with 120 and 240 elements in circumferential direction, the inuence of the aspect ratio is studied. The results are given in Figure 3.13, Figure 3.14 and Table 3.4.

34

Chapter 3

Figure 3.13 Strain sensitivity of different meshes with 120 and 240 elements in circumferential direction and different aspect ratios The strain at limit load of the mesh with 240 circumferential and 30 elements in axial direction corresponding with the strain of the nest mesh, as shown in Figure 3.13, might be caused by the fact that the number of 30 elements in axial direction can be divided by the number of three half waves, and the location of the maximum amplitude of the prescribed sinusoidal imperfection exactly coincides with one of the mesh nodes. This makes it easier for the model to follow the mode shape. The inuence of the number of elements in axial direction compared to the number of half waves became more explicit when modelling another lined pipe, as described in [Hilberink, 2010a].

Figure 3.14 Stress sensitivity of different meshes with 120 and 240 elements in circumferential direction and different aspect ratios Figure 3.13, Figure 3.14 and Table 3.4 conrm that a signicant reduction in number of elements in circumferential direction from 240 to 120 results in only a minor difference in stress and strain at limit load. In general, it can be concluded that an increased number of elements in axial direction makes it easier for the

35

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

model to follow the mode shape, resulting in lower stress and strain at limit load. However an increased number of elements results in an increase in computation time. Table 3.4 Inuence of mesh renement with ratio between element length and width approximately one on stress and strain at limit load, relative to nest solid mesh with 240 circumferential and 60 elements in axial direction

The difference between the meshes with 240 and 120 elements in circumferential direction both having 30 elements in axial direction on the stress-strain response, as shown in Figure 3.15, is considered negligible.

Figure 3.15 Stress-strain response of meshes with 120 and 240 elements in circumferential direction and 30 elements in axial direction Increasing the radial number of elements from three to seven, in the mesh with 120 circumferential and 30 elements in axial direction, results in a slightly lower strain for the limit load. The values in Table 3.5 conrm that the inuence on the limit load and corresponding strain is small.

36

Chapter 3

Table 3.5 Inuence of element type and number of elements over liner thickness for solid elements on stress and strain at limit load, relative to nest solid mesh with 240 circumferential and 60 elements in axial direction

In Figure 3.16 the stress-strain responses of the models consisting of C3D8R solid elements are compared with the stress-strain response of a model meshed with S4R shell elements. The shell geometry is discretised at a reference plane, in this case the mid-plane and the corresponding thickness is dened through the section property denition. From Figure 3.16 it shows that the post buckling behaviour of the single walled liner under axial compression is inuenced by the type of element and number of solid element layers over its thickness. Contrary, the resulting mode shapes as given in Figure 3.17 show less difference. However, from the perspective of the research objective, the mechanical behaviour up to the bifurcation point and limit load is of main interest. After passing the limit load, the load carrying capacity of the liner drops prohibiting safe installation. From the values in Table 3.5 it can be concluded that element type and number of elements in thickness direction do not have a signicant inuence on the limit load but do have a signicant inuence on the post buckling response.

Figure 3 . 1 6 Stress-strain response of meshes with 120 circumferential, 30 elements in axial direction consisting of S4R and C3D8R elements with respectively three or seven elements in thickness direction

37

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

Figure 3.17 Resulting mode shapes at maximum strain of meshes with 120 circumferential, 30 elements in axial direction consisting of S4R and C3D8R elements with respectively three or seven elements in thickness direction The mesh with 120 elements in circumferential direction, 30 elements in axial direction and 3 elements in thickness direction gives sufficiently accurate results in combination with an acceptable number of elements and thus acceptable computation time. This mesh will be used in the remainder of this chapter.

3.3.5

Mechanical behaviour of liner under axial compression

Wrinkling behaviour The wrinkling behaviour is described, following the solutions of the single walled liner with an initial sinusoidal imperfection consisting of three half waves having an amplitude of 10-2mm. The stress-strain responses of the perfect single walled liner under axial compression and the single walled liner with an initial imperfection amplitude of 10-2mm, both given the mesh with 120 elements in circumferential direction, 30 elements in axial direction and 3 elements in thickness direction are shown in Figure 3.18. The bifurcation point and limit load of the imperfect liner are indicated in the gure.

Figure 3.18 Stress-strain response of perfect single walled liner under axial compression and single walled liner with initial imperfection amplitude 10-2mm 38 Chapter 3

Figure 3.19 Radial deformation development along the length of single walled liner under axial compression with initial imperfection amplitude 10-2mm Figure 3.19 includes the radial deformation of the axially compressed imperfect liner at subsequent strain levels. In the beginning, the imperfect liner follows the material stress-strain response of the perfect liner. The liner expands axisymmetric and uniform over the complete length in outward radial direction. At the bifurcation point, indicated in Figure 3.18, the stress-strain response starts deviating from the perfect liner solution and the liner deforms into an axisymmetric wrinkling mode in correspondence with the critical axisymmetric mode shape consisting of three half waves. With the prescribed displacement increasing, the amplitude of the wrinkles developing in the imperfect liner grow progressively, reducing the stiffness of the liner and leading to a load maximum, the limit load indicated in Figure 3.18. After the stress-strain response has passed the limit load, the load carrying capacity of the liner decreases and the wrinkles grow excessively. This is in correspondence with the description according to Bardi [2006a; 2006b]. Imperfection amplitude As mentioned during the model description, the post buckling response of the wrinkled cylinder can be followed by introducing a small initial imperfection corresponding with the critical axisymmetric mode shape [Bardi, 2006b] as found from the linear eigenvalue analysis. The high bifurcation values resulting from using ow theory can be adjusted for by introducing small geometric imperfections. In this subsection the sensitivity of the numerical model for the initial imperfection will be evaluated.

39

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

Figure 3.20 Stress-strain response for different initial imperfection amplitudes Table 3.6 Stresses and strains at bifurcation point for different initial imperfection amplitudes, relative to initial imperfection amplitude 10-3 mm

Table 3.7 Stresses and strains at limit load for different initial imperfection amplitudes, relative to initial imperfection amplitude 10-3 mm

The stress-strain curves resulting for several initial imperfection amplitudes are shown in Figure 3.20. The stress and strain values at the bifurcation point as well as those at the limit load of the liner decrease with increasing initial imperfection amplitude. The stresses and strains at the bifurcation point and the limit load are included in 3.6 and Table 3.7, respectively.

40

Chapter 3

3.4

Numerical Nonlinear Results Compared with Analytical Results

The critical stress, strain and half wavelengths resulting from the analytical solutions, as well as the numerical models with different initial imperfection amplitudes are included in Table 3.8. The results are illustrated in Figure 3.21. Table 3.8 Stresses and strains at bifurcation point compared for analytical and numerical models with several different initial imperfection amplitudes

Figure 3.21 Comparing analytical results with numerical stress-strain response for different initial imperfection amplitudes Table 3.9 Stresses and strains at bifurcation point compared for analytical and numerical model

As mentioned earlier, the introduction of a small initial imperfection is required to follow the post buckling response of the liner. The smallest imperfection amplitude applied, of 10-3 mm, results in a bifurcation

41

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

point closest to the Batterman deformation theory. The relative difference between the analytical and numerical solution are included in Table 3.9.

3.5

Numerical Parameter Study

In this section, the inuence of several geometric and material parameters on the wrinkling behaviour of the single walled liner under axial compression is investigated. The single walled liner model with the mesh consisting of 120 elements in circumferential direction, 30 elements in axial direction and 3 elements in thickness direction is used. The prescribed initial imperfection is given an amplitude of 10-3 mm, since the numerical results of this model corresponded best with the analytical results. The evaluation of the different parameters is based on the stresses and strains at the resulting limit load, since the limit load can better be dened than the bifurcation point. The inuence of the following geometric parameters on the liner wrinkling behaviour will be studied: - Half wavelength over radius-ratio , and - Diameter over thickness-ratio . Additionally, the inuence of material parameters on the liner wrinkling behaviour will be studied. To allow for variation of the liner material parameters, these models use the alternative Ramberg-Osgood t for the liner material as discussed in section 3.2. The liner material has a low proportionality limit, which makes it difficult to dene a yield stress. Instead the 0.2% proof stress, , is used. The inuence of material hardening is studied by varying the ultimate tensile stress . The resulting material curves for variation of and are given in Figure 3.22 and Figure 3.23 respectively.

Figure 3.22 Material curves for three different cases of

42

Chapter 3

Figure 3.23 Material curves for three different cases of To determine the inuence of each parameter, three cases are studied: - The base case (BC), - A low case (LC) of -10%, and - A high case (HC) of +10%. The same variation is applied to each parameter in order to allow for comparison of the resulting inuences of the different parameters. The variation of +/- 10% is considered to be a representative value for the construction tolerances of linepipe as given by DNV [DNV, 2000].

3.5.1

Critical half wavelength over radius-ratio

The inuence of the half wavelength over radius-ratio, , on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied by varying the liner half wavelength, , while keeping constant: - LC , with ; - BC , with ; - HC , with . The stress-strain response resulting for each of the three cases is illustrated in Figure 3.24. The stress and strain values at limit load are included in Table 3.10. Table 3.10 Inuence of on stresses and strains at limit load, relative to the base case values

43

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

Figure 3.24 Inuence of The 10% difference in half wavelength over radius-ratio does not have a signicant inuence on the limit load stress. From determination of the critical half wavelength in section 3.3.1 of which the results are shown in Figure 3.9, it can be concluded that the +/-10% variation applied on the critical half wavelength is only a fraction of the total range of half wavelengths between the lower and upper bound resulting in three half waves. The limited inuence is therefore corresponding with expectations. The resulting strains at limit load for both the low and high case being higher than the base case, indicate that the half wavelength as used in the base case is the critical half wavelength.

3.5.2

Diameter over thickness-ratio

on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied by

The inuence of the diameter over thickness-ratio varying while keeping constant: - LC , with ; - BC , with ; - HC , with .

The stress-strain response resulting for each of the three cases is illustrated in Figure 3.25. The stress and strain values at limit load are included in Table 3.11. It can be concluded that a decrease of , i.e. a relatively thicker liner, results in an increase of both the stress and strain at limit load. Table 3.11 Inuence of on stresses and strains at limit load, relative to the base case values

44

Chapter 3

Figure 3.25 Inuence of

3.5.3

Hardening by varying the ultimate tensile stress

:

The inuence of the material hardening is studied by varying the ultimate tensile stress - LC ; - BC ; - HC . The liner material curves used are given in Figure 3.23.

The inuence of the material hardening by means of varying the ultimate tensile stress on the liner wrinkling behaviour is shown in Figure 3.26 and Table 3.12.

Figure 3.26 Inuence of

45

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

Table 3.12 Inuence of

on stresses and strains at limit load, relative to the base case values

The stress-strain response resulting for the low case in Figure 3.26 diverges from the other two cases during post wrinkling. This can be explained by the resulting mode shapes. In the low case one localised outward wrinkle has developed at the cylinder end as illustrated in Figure 3.27, while in the other cases uniform periodic wrinkling takes place along the cylinder length as illustrated in Figure 3.28.

Figure 3.27 Resulting mode shape for low case of

Figure 3.28 Resulting mode shape for base case and high case of

Based on the resulting limit loads and corresponding strains it can be concluded that a decrease of the ultimate stress, i.e. reduced material hardening, results in a decrease of both the stress and strain at limit load.

3.5.4

0.2% Proof stress

The inuence of the 0.2% proof stress, , on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied for the following cases: - LC - BC ; - HC ; The liner material curves used are given in Figure 3.22. The inuence of the 0.2% proof stress on the liner wrinkling behaviour is shown in Figure 3.29 and Table 3.13. It can be concluded that a decrease of the 0.2% proof stress results in a decrease of both stress and strain at limit load. The inuence on the stress at limit load is larger than on the strain.

46

Chapter 3

Figure 3.29 Inuence of Table 3.13 Inuence of on stresses and strains at limit load, relative to the base case values

3.6

Numerical Nonlinear Results Compared with Experimental Results

In order to get more condence in the numerical model giving representative outcomes, the model is used to simulate axial compression tests as were performed by Focke [Focke, 2007].

3.6.1

Experiment description

Axial compression tests on liners from a 12.75 Tight Fit Pipe with material and geometric characteristics as included in Table 3.14, were performed by Focke [Focke, 2007]. The test set-up as shown in Figure 3.30 was used. A plate was used for transferring the axial force from the compression machine to the liner. To avoid bending forces in the liner, an extra hinge with low friction was positioned between the compression machine and the plate. Much care was taken to ensure good contact between the test specimen and the compression plate at all points on the circumference. Variations in this contact inuence the wrinkling behaviour. Apart from the load introduction effects, constraints in radial direction will have an effect on the wrinkling behaviour. The edge conditions may cause local wrinkling to start at the edges. In the tests performed, wrinkling in the mid sections occurred.

47

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

Table 3.14 Material and geometric characteristics of axially compressed liner

Figure 3.30 Test set-up for the liner pipe from the 12.75 Tight Fit Pipe

3.6.2

Nonlinear numerical model of experiments

The model geometry and mesh corresponds with the geometry as discussed in section 3.3, except for the fact that the length of the liner was set to 107 mm, three times the elastic critical half wavelength as resulted from an eigenvalue analysis. This absolute number of three times the critical half wavelength results in a length closest to the specimen length of 100mm. Unfortunately, the shape and size of the initial imperfections in the cylinders are not known, since they were not measured before axial compression. Just as in the preceding sections, a small sinusoidal imperfection, consisting of three half waves in correspondence with the linear wrinkling mode for this cylindrical shell, was prescribed to the shell geometry.

3.6.3

Comparison numerical and experimental results

For matching the model results with the test results, the sensitivity of the model for the initial imperfection amplitude is investigated, i.e. the wrinkling behaviour of the liner was simulated for different initial imperfection amplitudes. The stress-strain curves resulting from the models and the experiments are shown in Figure 3.31.

48

Chapter 3

Figure 3.31 Stress-strain curves resulting from axially compressed liner in experiment and numerical models The critical wrinkling stress and strain are not known from the tests [Focke, 2007], due to the very gradual occurrence of the liner wrinkles. Therefore, the stresses and strains at the limit load of tests and models, as included in Table 3.15, are compared. Table 3.15 Maximum capacities resulting from experiments and numerical models of axial compression tests on liner pipe

From Figure 3.31 and Table 3.15 it can be seen that the strain at limit load of the model with initial imperfection amplitude of 10-1mm corresponds best with the test results, while the general trend as well as the limit load of the model with initial imperfection amplitude of 510-2mm matches the test results. Based on the tolerances from pipeline codes [DNV, 2000], the initial imperfection amplitude present in the liner due to variations in diameter, out-of-roundness and wall thickness of the outer pipe, is expected to be in the order of millimetres, which is larger than the above mentioned 10-1mm amplitude. However, the shape will be different and probably of less prevalence than the imposed mode shape as found from the linear eigenvalue analysis. Until now, the boundary conditions at the liner ends were assumed to be perfectly symmetric. However, due to the occurrence of friction between the liner ends and the compression surfaces, the boundary conditions in the experiments are expected to be neither perfectly clamped nor perfectly free. Figure 3.32 includes the numerical results of models with initial imperfections of 10-1mm and 510-2mm for both boundary conditions. From this gure and Table 3.16 it can be concluded that the general trend in stress-

49

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

strain response as well as the limit load of the model resulting from the symmetric boundary conditions corresponds best with the test results. Table 3.16 Inuence of boundary conditions on stresses and strains at limit load, relative to the test values

Figure 3.32 Axial compression FEM results comparison clamped and symmetric boundary conditions The resulting mode shapes as included in Figure 3.33 to Figure 3.34 show that the clamped boundary conditions correspond best with the test results. The model with symmetric boundary conditions at the ends develops an axisymmetric mode shape as can be seen in Figure 3.33. The mode shape resulting for clamped boundary conditions has one localised outward wrinkle at one third of the cylinder height, which corresponds well with the test result as shown in Figure 3.35.

Figure 3.33 Axisymmetric mode shape resulting from models with symmetric boundary conditions

50

Chapter 3

Figure 3.34 Localised axisymmetric mode shape Figure 3.35 Localised axisymmetric deformed shape resulting from models with clamped boundary resulting from axial compression experiment on 12 liner conditions [Focke, 2007] The discrepancy that the experimental general trend in stress-strain response as well as the limit load matches best with the model results for symmetric boundary conditions, while the experimental mode shape corresponds best with the model results for clamped boundary conditions may be explained by the static friction that had to be overcome in the experiment before the liner could expand in radial direction. Once the static friction was overcome, the liner could expand in radial direction, following the stress-strain response of the model with symmetric boundary conditions. However, it already inuenced the mode shape. Focke executed the tests on lengths smaller than the radius. According to Bardi [Bardi, 2006], the boundary conditions do have a large inuence for these lengths up to three times the radius of the cylinder.

3.7 Conclusions
In this chapter, the wrinkling behaviour of the single walled liner under axial compression has been discussed. The critical half wavelength of the liner was determined analytically according to Batterman and numerically with a linear buckling analysis. The numerically determined half wavelength approximates the analytical solution of Batterman based on deformation theory. The liner length of the nonlinear numerical model was set equal to three critical half wavelengths. The post buckling response was followed by introducing a small initial imperfection corresponding with the critical mode shape as found from the linear eigenvalue analysis. The mesh sensitivity of the nonlinear numerical model was investigated. From this sensitivity analysis it resulted that in general the stress and strain at limit load converge towards an asymptotic value for an increasing number of elements. Furthermore it was concluded that the resulting stress and strain at limit load for a specic case is insensitive for the number of circumferential half waves. In cases that the number of elements in axial direction can be divided by the number of three half waves, the location of the maximum amplitude of the prescribed sinusoidal imperfection exactly coincides with one of the mesh nodes. This makes it easier for the model to follow the mode shape and consequently results in lower limit load stresses and strains. The inuence of the number of elements in axial direction compared to the

51

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

number of half waves became more explicit when modelling another lined pipe, as described in [Hilberink, 2010a]. Imposing a small imperfection on the numerical model makes it possible to follow the post buckling behaviour of the liner under axial compression. An increase in initial imperfection amplitude caused a decrease in stress and strain at limit load. The bifurcation point resulting from the nonlinear numerical model with an initial imperfection amplitude of 10-3mm corresponds best with the bifurcation point calculated according to Batterman based on deformation theory. The bifurcation point according to Batterman based on ow theory occurs later as expected due to the plastic buckling paradox, as discussed in section. The inuence of several geometric and material parameters on the wrinkling behaviour of the liner was examined in a parameter study. The relative difference of the stress and strain at limit load for the low (-10%) and high case (+10%) with respect to the base case are illustrated in Figure 3.36 and Figure 3.37 respectively.

Figure 3.36 Inuence of investigated parameters on stress at limit load

Figure 3.37 Inuence of investigated parameters on strain at limit load

52

Chapter 3

Since spooling-on of lined pipe during reeling is a displacement controlled process, in which the plastic deformation of the pipeline is determined by the radius of the reel, the inuence of the parameters on the strain at limit load, further referred to as the strain wrinkling capacity of the liner, is of most interest. From Figure 3.37 the well known dependence of the strain at limit load on the diameter over thicknessratio shows. Increasing the liner thickness is the most effective way to increase the strain wrinkling capacity of the liner. This has a positive inuence on the stress wrinkling capacity as well. Increasing the ultimate tensile strain of the liner material also has a positive inuence on the strain wrinkling capacity. Increasing the 0.2% proof stress results in a signicant increase in the stress capacity but has a negligible inuence on the strain capacity. The half wavelength over radius-ratio is not a parameter of practical value. Its limited inuence was expected, since the 10% variation applied is only a fraction of the total range of half wavelengths between the lower and upper bound for three half waves as resulted from determination of the critical half wavelength in section 3.3.1. The increase in limit load strain for both the low and high case with respect to the base case conrms that the half wavelength as used in the base case is the critical half wavelength. From the parameter study it can be concluded that increasing the liner thickness is the most effective way to increase the strain capacity of the liner, i.e. the reeling capacity. The model was adjusted and veried based on experimental results of axial compression tests performed by Focke [Focke, 2007]. The stress-strain response of the numerical model with symmetric boundary conditions having an initial imperfection amplitude of 510-2mm corresponds well with the experimental results. However, the mode shape of the numerical model with clamped boundary conditions corresponds best with test results. This is caused by the static friction that needs to be overcome before the liner could expand in radial direction. At that time however, the mode shape was already inuenced. The boundary conditions would have a smaller effect when longer pipe specimens would be used for testing, at least three times the radius of the cylinder.

53

Axial Compression of Single Walled Pipe

54

Chapter 3

4.

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the mechanical behaviour under axial compression of a snug-t lined pipe is studied. Snug-t indicates that initially neither a radial contact stress nor a gap is present between the liner and the outer pipe, i.e. a perfect t.
On the plastic wrinkling behaviour of conned cylinders under axial compression little has been published. In 2007 experimental results have been published by Focke [2007a] and a comparison between numerical and experimental results is published in [Focke, 2011]. No references describing analytical methods for calculating the critical stress-strain values for conned cylinders under axial compression were found. From the description of the mechanical behaviour of the single walled liner under axial compression in the preceding chapter, it is known that liner wrinkles occur in an axisymmetric periodic mode shape. The mechanical behaviour of the conned liner as part of the lined pipe under axial compression is similar to the mechanical behaviour of the single walled liner as described in section 3.3. The description of Bardi [2006a;2006b] used in Chapter 3 will therefore be used again as a guide to explain the behaviour of the conned liner under axial compression.

Figure 4.1 Typical stress-strain response of conned liner under axial compression Initially the liner and outer pipe deform uniformly in radial direction, following the perfect response, until the so called plastic bifurcation point of the liner is reached, as indicated in Figure 4.1. From the plastic bifurcation point the liner response deviates from the perfect response. The plastic bifurcation point is dened as the point where the liner locally starts to exert an increased contact pressure on the inside of the outer pipe. Axisymmetric wrinkling becomes prevailing with increasing amplitude, eventually leading to the limit load as indicated in Figure 4.1. The limit load can be considered as the limit state of the

55

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

structure. The conned liner has a higher load carrying capacity than the single walled liner, because connement of the liner in the outer pipe restricts the liner from wrinkling in outward direction. Under displacement controlled loading after passing the limit load, the load carrying capacity of the liner drops.

4.2
4.2.1

Numerical Results
Model description

The geometry of the snug-t lined pipe used for investigation of the wrinkling behaviour of the liner conned in the outer pipe is shown in Figure 4.2. Modelling a quarter of the lined pipe is justied because the liner will wrinkle in an axisymmetric mode shape, as is known from modelling the single walled liner under axial compression as well as from axial compression tests on lined pipe as performed by Focke [Focke, 2007].

Figure 4.2 Geometry and boundary conditions of lined pipe under axial compression with mesh regions indicated The boundary conditions and constraints at the cylinder ends correspond with those applied on the single walled liner under axial compression. From the single walled liner under axial compression it followed that three element layers of C3D8R solid elements in thickness direction suffice to model the axisymmetric wrinkling behaviour of the liner. Since the outer pipe will deform less than the liner, the same mesh is applied. Four different mesh regions along the length of the cylinder are used, consisting of elements with different lengths as included in Table 4.1 and illustrated in Figure 4.3. The nest mesh is applied in the region of interest (roi), where liner wrinkling occurs. The length of the three additional regions allows for displacement controlled axial compression

56

Chapter 4

of liner and outer pipe over the same distance, without inuencing the stresses in the region of interest. Furthermore, the additional pipe length connes the liner when wrinkles propagate from the region of interest during the post wrinkling behaviour. The region of interest is given the same length as well as the same number of longitudinal and circumferential elements as the single walled liner. The suitability of this mesh will be discussed during the mesh sensitivity analysis in 4.2.3. Table 4.1 Mesh regions of the original mesh

The axial stress is measured at the beginning of the region of interest. The global axial strain is calculated as the quotient of the displacement over the initial length of the region of interest. Surface-to-surface with hard contact and nite sliding without friction is used for the contact denition between liner and outer pipe, with the inside surface of the outer pipe being the slave surface and the outside surface of the liner being the master surface. A small sinusoidal imperfection consisting of one half wave ( ) is imposed on the region of interest, as illustrated in Figure 4.3. The half wavelength of the imperfection is set to 35.35mm, the critical half wavelength as will be discussed later on. The imperfection amplitude used as the base case is taken as 0.1 mm, which is larger than the 10-2 mm used for the single walled liner. This larger imperfection amplitude is required, because contact between the liner and the outer pipe introduces some imperfection, while connement makes the liner less sensitive for the imposed imperfection. The material properties of the liner and the outer pipe are dened according to the representative nominal isotropic stress-strain curves as included in section 2.3.

Figure 4.3 Initial sinusoidal imperfection imposed on liner in region of interest

57

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

4.2.2

Determination of critical half wavelength

The critical half wavelength of the conned liner cannot be determined from a linear buckling analysis, since this type of analyses does not take into account contact. The critical half wavelength of the conned liner has therefore to be determined from nonlinear analyses. The model used for determination of the critical half wavelength is similar to the model described above, except for the prescribed imperfection. The rst model includes a perfect liner, i.e. the liner is not given an initial imperfection, while the liner in the second model is given an initial imperfection where only the last row of nodes at the symmetry plane is given a slightly smaller radius, i.e. Rlastnode=Rliner-0.1mm. The critical half wavelength is determined as the distance from the cylinder end of the region of interest to the location where the liner starts to exert a local contact pressure on the outer pipe at the rst signs of liner wrinkling. The local contact pressure exerted by the liner on the outer pipe in the perfect model is illustrated in Figure 4.4. Figure 4.5 includes the stress-strain responses of both models. The two vertical lines in Figure 4.5 indicate the strains at which the critical half wavelengths have been determined. The model with the liner imperfection on the last node starts to wrinkle at lower strains than the perfect model as expected, because the perfect liner only wrinkles due to numerical imperfections.

Figure 4.4 Contact pressure exerted by the liner on the outer pipe in the perfect model at an axial strain of

58

Chapter 4

Figure 4.5 Stress-strain diagram with indicated strains at which the critical half wavelength is determined Both models result in a half wavelength of 35.35mm for the rst wrinkle. The wavelength of the second wrinkle from the model with an imperfection on the last node Lw=70.67mm equals twice the half wavelength, while the resulting wavelength of the perfect model, Lw=77.99mm, is slightly longer. The critical half wavelength of the liner as part of the lined pipe under axial compression is set equal to the critical half wavelength of the single walled liner under axial compression:

The length of the region of interest is kept at 106 mm, equal to the length of three half wavelengths as used in the models of the single walled liner, while a sinusoidal imperfection consisting of one half wave with a length of 35.35mm is prescribed to the conned liner as illustrated in Figure 4.3.

4.2.3

Sensitivity for applied mesh

In this section the suitability of the mesh from the single walled liner for simulation of the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner in the snug-t lined pipe will be examined by comparing the resulting stress-strain response and deformations with those resulting for a rened mesh. The number of elements per region for the original mesh is included in Table 4.1, and for the rened mesh in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 Mesh regions of the rened mesh

The stress-strain responses ( ) of the conned liners with the two different meshes are given in Figure 4.6 and Table 4.3. The radial deformations of the liners over the region of interest at a strain level of are illustrated in Figure 4.7.

59

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

Figure 4.6 Stress-strain responses of conned liners with different mesh both having an initial imperfection of one half wave with an amplitude of 0.1mm

Figure 4.7 Radial deformations at strain level = 0.015 of conned liners over the region of interest with different meshes both having a sinusoidal initial imperfection of one half wave with an amplitude of 0.1mm Table 4.3 Inuence of mesh renement on stress and strain at the limit load of the liner, relative to original mesh with 120 elements in circumferential direction and 30 elements in axial direction in the region of interest

The results of the two meshes are in line with the expectations. The rened mesh, with over three times more elements in axial direction in the region of interest, acts little less stiff than the original mesh. However, despite the signicant decrease in the number of elements the trend of the results corresponds well. The results are sufficiently close to conclude that the original mesh is suitable for modelling wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner under axial compression.

60

Chapter 4

4.2.4

Sensitivity for initial imperfection shape

The sensitivity of the conned liner for the shape of the imperfection is investigated by comparing the resulting deformations for the sinusoidal initial imperfection of one half waves with an amplitude of 0.1mm, with those resulting for an initial imperfection where only the last row of nodes at the symmetry plane is given a slightly smaller radius, i.e. . The radial deformations of the liner over the region of interest at a strain level of = 0.015 are given in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8 Radial deformations at strain level = 0.015 of conned liners over the region of interest with one half wave sinusoidal imperfection and a smaller radius at the last node respectively, both with an amplitude of 0.1mm The conned liner with the imperfection prescribed at the last node has developed less far than the conned liner with the sinusoidal imperfection prescribed as expected due to the less pronounced initial imperfection. The half wavelengths of the two liners do correspond. It can thus be concluded that the resulting deformations are relatively insensitive for the initial imperfection shape introduced.

4.2.5

Mechanical behaviour of lined pipe under axial compression

Wrinkling behaviour
The wrinkling behaviour is described following the solutions of the conned liner with an initial sinusoidal imperfection consisting of one half wave and an amplitude of 0.1mm. The stress-strain responses of the conned liner without an imperfection under axial compression and the imperfect conned liner are shown in Figure 4.9. The bifurcation point and the limit load of the imperfect conned liner are indicated in the gure. Figure 4.10 includes the radial deformation of the axially compressed imperfect conned liner and outer pipe at increasing axial strains.

61

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

Figure 4.9 Stress-strain response of perfect conned liner and conned liner with an sinusoidal imperfection having one half wave with an amplitude of 0.1mm under axial compression

Figure 4 . 1 0 Radial deformation development along the region of interest of the conned liner with a sinusoidal imperfection of one half wave with an amplitude of 0.1mm and the corresponding conning outer pipe Initially the liner and outer pipe deform uniformly in radial direction, following the perfect response, until the so-called plastic bifurcation point of the liner is reached. From the plastic bifurcation point the liner response deviates from the perfect response. The axisymmetric wrinkles of the initial imperfection increase in amplitude, eventually leading to the limit load. The limit load can be considered as the limit state of the structure. Under displacement controlled loading after passing the limit load, the load carrying capacity of the liner drops.

Inuence of imperfection amplitude

The post wrinkling response of the conned liner can be followed by introducing a small initial imperfection. In this subsection the sensitivity of the numerical model for the initial imperfection prescribed to the conned liner is evaluated. The stress-strain curves resulting for the conned liner with several initial imperfection amplitudes prescribed are shown in Figure 4.11.

62

Chapter 4

Figure 4.11 Stress-strain response of conned liner for different initial imperfection amplitudes For increasing amplitude of the initial imperfection, the stress and strain values at the bifurcation point as well as at the limit load of the liner decrease. The stresses and strains at the limit load are included in Table 4.4. Table 4.4 Stresses and strains at the limit load of the liner for different initial imperfection amplitudes, relative to initial imperfection amplitude 0.1mm

Figure 4.12 illustrates that the load carrying capacity of the outer pipe is higher than the load carrying capacity of the liner, and is not largely inuenced by the imperfection amplitude of the prescribed liner imperfection, although it decreases slightly.

Figure 4.12 Stress-strain response of conned liner and the corresponding conning outer pipe for different initial imperfection amplitudes prescribed to the liner 63 Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

4.3

Comparing Numerical Results of Lined Pipe with Single Walled Liner

In this section, the numerical results of the conned liner as being part of the lined pipe are compared with those of the single walled liner as discussed in section 3.3. The stress-strain curves resulting for the conned liner and single walled liner with an imposed initial sinusoidal imperfection with amplitudes of 0.1mm and 0.5mm are shown in Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13 Stress-strain response of conned liner and single walled liner with a sinusoidal imperfection having an amplitude of 0.1mm and 0.5mm The critical half wavelengths as well as the stresses and strains at the limit load are included in Table 4.5 and Table 4.6. Table 4.5 Stresses and strains at limit load compared for conned liner and single walled liner both with sinusoidal imperfection having an amplitude of 0.1mm

64

Chapter 4

Table 4.6 Stresses and strains at limit load compared for conned liner and single walled liner both with sinusoidal imperfection having an amplitude of 0.5mm

The conned liner has a signicantly higher load carrying capacity than the single walled liner. Connement of the liner in the outer pipe restricts the liner from wrinkling in outward direction, resulting in wrinkling of the liner at higher stresses and strains and thus a higher limit load.

4.4

Numerical Parameter Study

In this section, the inuence of several parameters on the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner under axial compression is investigated. The conned liner with the original mesh and an initial sinusoidal imperfection consisting of one half wave with an amplitude of 0.1mm is taken as the base case. The inuence of the following geometric parameters on the liner wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner will be studied: - Half wavelength over radius-ratio (Lhw/R)liner, - Diameter over thickness-ratio (D/t)liner, and - Thickness ratio liner over outer tliner/touter. Additionally, the inuence of material parameters on the liner wrinkling behaviour will be studied. To allow for variation of the liner material parameters, these models use the alternative Ramberg-Osgood t for the liner material as discussed in sections 3.2 and 3.5. For the outer pipe material the representative stress-strain response as presented in section 2.3 is used. The inuence of material hardening of the outer pipe is studied by varying the ultimate tensile stress outer,ult . The resulting material curves for variation of outer,yield and outer,ult are given in Figure 4.14 and Figure 4.15. The resulting material curves for variation of outer,ult in Figure 4.15 do not show a signicant stress deviation in the strain range of interest. It can thus be concluded that variation of material hardening of the outer pipe will not inuence wrinkling behaviour of the liner. Therefore, this parameter will not be investigated further.

65

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

Figure 4.14 Material curves for three different cases of

Figure 4.15 Material curves for three different cases of The investigated material parameters are: - 0.2% Proof stress of the liner liner,0.2 , - Yield stress of the outer outer,yield , - Material hardening of the liner by varying the ultimate tensile stress liner,ult . Additionally, the inuence of friction on the liner wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner is studied.

4.4.1

Critical half wavelength over radius-ratio of liner

The inuence of the liners half wavelength over radius-ratio, (Lhw/R)liner, on its wrinkling behaviour is studied by varying the liner half wavelength, Lliner,hw, while keeping Rliner constant: - LC (Lhw/R)liner = 0.21, with Lliner,hw = 31.82 mm; - BC (Lhw/R)liner = 0.24, with Lliner,hw = 35.35 mm; - HC (Lhw/R)liner = 0.27, with Lliner,hw = 38.89 mm. An additional case termed as HHC (BC +20%), with a half wavelength of 42.42mm is added.

66

Chapter 4

The stress-strain response resulting for each of the four cases is illustrated in Figure 4.16. The stress and strain values at the limit load are included in Table 4.7.

Figure 4.16 Inuence of (Lhw/R)liner Table 4.7 Inuence of (Lhw/R)liner on stresses and strains at the limit load of the liner, relative to the base case values

The stress and strain at the limit load of the liner for the high case resulted to be lower than for the base case. The strain for the HHC case resulted to be higher than the base case. It can be concluded that the 35.35mm half wave is sufficiently close to the critical half wave and will be maintained during the parameter study.

4.4.2

Diameter over thickness-ratio of liner

The inuence of diameter over thickness-ratio (D/t)liner on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied by varying tliner while keeping Dliner constant and at the same time adjusting touter to keep touter/tliner constant: - LC (D/t)liner = 87.93, with tliner = 3.33mm and touter =15.89mm. - BC (D/t)liner = 97.70, with tliner = 3.00mm and touter =14.30mm; - HC (D/t)liner = 107.48, with tliner = 2.73mm and touter =13.00mm; The stress-strain response resulting for each of the three cases is illustrated in Figure 4.17. The stress and strain values at the limit load are included in Table 4.8. It can be concluded that a decrease of (D/t)liner, i.e. a relatively thicker liner, results in a signicant increase of both the stress and strain at the limit load.

67

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

Table 4.17 Inuence of (D/t)liner Table 4.8 Inuence of (D/t)liner on stresses and strains at the limit load of the liner, relative to the base case values

4.4.3

Thickness ratio liner over outer pipe

The inuence of thickness over thickness-ratio touter/tliner on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied by changing touter and keeping (D/t)liner constant: - LC touter/tliner = 4.29 ; touter = 12.87 mm - BC touter/tliner = 4.77; touter = 14.30 mm - HC touter/tliner = 5.24; touter = 15.73 mm The inuence of thickness over thickness-ratio, touter/tliner, on the liner wrinkling behaviour is given in Figure 4.18 and Table 4.9. Table 4.9 Inuence of touter/tliner on stresses and strains at the limit load of the liner, relative to the base case values

68

Chapter 4

Figure 4.18 Inuence of From Table 4.9 it can be concluded that an increase in liner, results in an increase of the strain at limit load. , i.e. a thicker outer pipe conning the same

4.4.4

Hardening of the liner by varying the ultimate tensile stress

The inuence of the material hardening is studied by varying the ultimate tensile stress liner,ult: - LC liner,ult = 511 MPa; - BC liner,ult = 568 MPa; - HC liner,ult = 624 MPa. The inuence of the liner material hardening on the liner wrinkling behaviour is given in Figure 4.19 and Table 4.10.

Figure 4.19 Inuence of liner,ult

69

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

Table 4.10 Inuence of liner,ult on stresses and strains at the limit load of the liner, relative to the base case values

Based on the resulting limit loads and strains at limit load in Table 4.10, it can be concluded that a decrease of the ultimate stress, i.e. reduced material hardening, results in a decrease of both the stress and strain at limit load.

4.4.5

0.2% Proof stress of liner

The inuence of the 0.2% proof stress, liner,0.2 , on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied for the following cases: - LC liner,0.2 = 328 MPa; - BC liner,0.2 = 364 MPa; - HC liner,0.2 = 400 MPa; The inuence of the 0.2% proof stress on the liner wrinkling behaviour is given in Figure 4.20 and Table 4.11. It can be concluded that a decrease of the 0.2% proof stress results in a decrease of both stress and strain at limit load. The inuence on the stress at limit load is larger than on the strain.

Figure 4.20 Inuence of liner,0.2 Table 4.11 Inuence of liner,0.2 on stresses and strains at limit load, relative to the base case values

70

Chapter 4

4.4.6

Yield stress of outer pipe

The inuence of the yield stress of the outer pipe, outer, yield , on the wrinkling behaviour of the liner is studied for the following cases: - LC outer, yield = 451 MPa - BC outer, yield = 501 MPa - HC outer, yield = 551 MPa The outer pipe material curves used are given in Figure 3.23. The inuence of the outer pipes yield stress on the liner wrinkling behaviour for these cases is shown in Figure 4.21 and Table 4.12.

Figure 4.21 Inuence of outer, yield Table 4.12 Inuence of outer, yield on stresses and strains at the limit load of the liner, relative to the base case values

Based on the resulting limit loads and strains at limit load in Table 4.12, it can be concluded that the yield stress of the outer pipe has a negligible inuence on the limit load of the liner.

4.4.7

Friction coefficient

The inuence of friction is studied by prescribing a friction coefficient ( ) for the contact between the liner and the outer pipe. The following three cases are dened: - BC = 0 ; - HC = 0.3; - HHC = 0.7.

71

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

The inuence of the friction coefficient on the liner wrinkling behaviour is given in Figure 4.22 and Table 4.13.

Figure 4.22 Inuence of friction coefficient Table 4.13 Inuence of friction coefficient on stresses and strains at the limit load of the liner, relative to the base case values

The decrease in strain at limit load of the liner due to friction is caused by a different shape of the stressstrain response. As a consequence, comparison of the absolute strains as included in Table 4.13 is not valid. From the qualitative representation of Figure 4.22 it can be concluded that the main inuence of friction does not show from the stress and strain at limit load of the liner, but does have a signicant inuence on the load carrying capacity of the liner after passing the limit load.

4.5 Conclusions
In this chapter, the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner as part of the lined pipe under axial compression has been discussed based on a numerical analysis. The critical half wavelength of the conned liner was determined with a nonlinear numerical analysis and resulted to be equal to the critical half wavelength of the single walled liner under axial compression. Post buckling of the conned liner was followed by introducing a small initial imperfection consisting of one sinusoidal half wave. Variation of the initial imperfection amplitude showed that an increase in initial imperfection amplitude caused a decrease in stress and strain at limit load for the liner. The load carrying

72

Chapter 4

capacity of the outer pipe is not signicantly inuenced by the imperfection amplitude of the prescribed liner imperfection. The mesh sensitivity of the nonlinear numerical model was investigated. From this sensitivity analysis it resulted that the mesh used for modelling the single walled liner, i.e. the original mesh, is sufficiently ne for modelling wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner under axial compression. Connement of the liner results in a signicant increase of both the stress and strain at limit load compared to the single walled liner under axial compression. The inuence of several geometric and material parameters on the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner was examined in a parameter study. The relative difference of the stress and strain at limit load for the low (-10%) and high case (+10%) with respect to the base case are illustrated in Figure 4.23 and Figure 4.24, respectively. With respect to reeling, the inuence of the parameters on the strain at limit load, further referred to as the strain wrinkling capacity of the liner, is of most interest.

Figure 4.23 Inuence of investigated parameters on stress at limit load

Figure 4.24 Inuence of investigated parameters on strain at limit load

73

Axial Compression of Lined Pipe

From Figure 4.24 it is concluded that increasing the liner thickness, i.e. decreasing (D/t)liner is the most effective way to increase the strain wrinkling capacity of the liner. This has a positive inuence on the stress wrinkling capacity as well. Increasing the liners ultimate tensile stress also has a positive inuence on the strain wrinkling capacity as well as on the stress wrinkling capacity. Increasing the 0.2% proof stress of the liner results in the largest increase in the stress capacity but has a negligible inuence on the strain capacity. The half wavelength over radius-ratio is not a parameter of practical value. The inuence of friction is not included in the above gures, because comparison of the absolute strains was considered invalid due to different shapes of the stress-strain responses. It was concluded that friction has a signicant inuence on the load carrying capacity of the liner after passing the limit load, but not on the limit load. From the parameter study it can be concluded that increasing the liner thickness is the most effective way to increase the reeling capacity of the liner.

74

Chapter 4

5.

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

5.1 Introduction
In this chapter the mechanical behaviour of the single walled liner and the single walled outer pipe in pure bending will be discussed. Many researches on the wrinkling behaviour of single walled cylinders in pure bending can be found, even on the plastic wrinkling behaviour of single walled cylinders. Elastic-plastic cylinders in pure bending are known to exhibit two different failure modes [Hilberink, 2010a; Reddy, 1979; Kyriakides and Shaw, 1987]:
-  Thick elastic-plastic cylinders ( smaller than about 40 for steel) exhibit a moment maximum due to uniform ovalisation, after which ovalisation localises into a buckle. This is generally referred to as the natural limit load. -  Thinner elastic-plastic cylinders exhibit wrinkling and shell-type wrinkling leading to localized collapse, which can precede the natural limit load as described for the thick cylinders above. In these cases wavy deformations at the compression side of the cylinder develop, which grow under increasing bending moment and curvature and then localise in a local kink. This in contrast with thin elastic cylinders ( larger than about 120 for steel) that may wrinkle in the elastic region and develop wrinkles and shell-type wrinkling even earlier, which can evolve into axisymmetric or even diamond shaped shell wrinkling modes. Depending on the diameter-to-thickness ratio of the pipe either one of these mechanisms will occur, or the two mechanisms will interact [Corona, 1988; Kyriakides, 1992; Corona, 2006], resulting in nal failure of the cylinder having a specic shape of local buckling as was illustrated in section 1.6, Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7. The rst failure mode due to ovalisation is known as the Brazier effect, called after Brazier, who investigated the problem of innitely long elastic cylinders in pure bending in 1926 [Brazier, 1926]. A more precise formulation was given by Reissner [Reissner, 1959; Reissner, 1963]. In practice, for thin cylinders, this limit load instability is often preceded by shell bifurcation-type instabilities characterised by circumferential and axial waves [Fabian 1977]. Based on experimental data, several empirical equations have been developed in the past to determine the critical wrinkling strain of pipes in bending as well as the corresponding ovalisation [Murphey, 1985; Gresnigt, 1986; Det Norske Veritas, 2000]. Many attempts have been made to calculate these phenomena analytically. The non-linear momentcurvature response of long elastic-plastic tubes undergoing uniform ovalisation using J2-deformation theory and assuming the cross-section to deform elliptically was calculated by Ades [Ades, 1957]. A more

75

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

accurate analysis was performed by Gellin [Gellin, 1979], which was extended by Shaw and Kyriakides [Shaw, 1985] by adopting a more complete set of kinematics and incremental plasticity. Nogueira and Lanan [Nogueira, 2001] developed a model using basic mechanics, particularly suited for -ratios less than 40. Numerical results were compared with experimental results by Ju and Kyriakides [Ju, 1991; Kyriakides, 1991], with the objective to identify and understand the role of the major instabilities which affect the response of long elastic-plastic shells in pure bending. Despite the excellent agreement between the experimental critical bending strains of Kyriakides and Ju, the experimental values for the wavelength of the wrinkling mode were overestimated by the predictions [Peek, 2002; Corona, 2006]. A set of new bending experiments was conducted [Corona, 2006], showing results in line with the previous ones. However, when accounting for plastic anisotropy, the calculated tube responses were found to be in excellent agreement with the measured ones, just as the predicted curvatures and wavelengths. A very comprehensive description of the mechanical behaviour of elastic-plastic cylinders with intermediate -values ( in between about 40 to 120 for steel) in pure bending was given by Corona [Corona, 2006]. In line with Bardis description used for axial compression, this study is used as a guide to explain the cascade of events during pure bending. Figure 5.1 shows a typical moment-curvature response ( ) resulting from a numerical model of a single walled cylinder in pure bending. Initially, the cylinder ovalises uniformly following the ovalisation response ( ) as illustrated in Figure 5.2. From the plastic bifurcation point indicated in Figure 5.1, the cylinder response deviates from the ovalisation response and periodic axial wrinkles grow very gradually. The growth of the wrinkles accelerates and simultaneously the deformations start to localise in the neighbourhood of midspan. Wrinkles grow at higher rate after passing the maximum moment, leading to an inward kink. Away from midspan unloading occurs, leading to a decrease in ovalisation.

Figure 5.1 Typical moment-curvature response of an elastic-plastic cylinder with intermediate pure bending

-value in

76

Chapter 5

Figure 5.2 Typical ovalisation response at increasing curvature of an elastic-plastic cylinder with intermediate -value in pure bending The bending moment appears to be an insensitive variable to describe critical bending behaviour, due to the broad constant moment plateau around the maximum moment carrying capacity of the cylinder. However, since the maximum moment can be better dened than the bifurcation point, the wrinkling behaviour of the single walled liner and the single walled outer pipe in pure bending are evaluated based on the moment and curvature at maximum moment.

5.2
5.2.1

Numerical Uniform Ovalisation Model of Single Walled Liner

Model description

As described in the introduction, the cross section of a cylinder subjected to bending progressively ovalises leading to a limit load instability called the natural limit load. This phenomenon is known as the Brazier effect [Brazier, 1926]. In this subsection, the ovalisation solution for the single walled liner is obtained from a non-linear inelastic ovalisation analysis. For this analysis, a model having unit length with two elements in axial direction is used, not allowing for wrinkling development due to the reduced length. The geometry of the uniform ovalisation model of the liner is shown in Figure 5.3. Only one quarter of the section is modelled, with symmetric boundary conditions in the plane of bending and at midspan ( ) as illustrated in Figure 5.4, restricting movement of the cylinder in transversal and axial direction, respectively. The nodes at the free end of the cylinder are constrained to two reference points at the centre of this cylinder end, at , by means of kinematic couplings as shown in Figure 5.5. The nodes at the free end are divided into two groups. The rst node set consists of the nodes at the upper and lower corner of the free end with the plane of bending. These nodes are coupled to the reference point in all directions except for the vertical direction as illustrated in Figure 5.5 a). The second node set includes all other nodes at the free end, which are coupled to the same reference point in axial direction and rotations in the other two directions as illustrated in Figure 5.5 b). The reference point at the centre of the free end is restricted in all degrees of freedom, except for axial translation and a prescribed rotation around the x-axis. Additionally, a distributed coupling is used between a second reference point in the centre of the

77

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

free end of the cylinder and the node surface of the free end. This second reference point is restricted from moving in vertical direction. With these conditions, the free body motions are eliminated, while the cylinder is free to ovalise when a rotation is applied to the rst reference point at the free end.

Figure 5.3 Geometry of uniform ovalisation model of single walled liner

Figure 5.4 Boundary conditions in uniform ovalisation model of single walled liner, full and zoomed in

Figure 5.5 a) First node set and b) second node set with kinematic couplings in uniform ovalisation model of single walled liner zoomed in 78 Chapter 5

The mesh consists of three layers of C3D8R solid elements in thickness direction, 120 in circumferential direction and two in axial direction. The suitability of the mesh will be discussed by means of a mesh sensitivity analysis. The uniform ovalisation model of the liner has a length of 1mm. The material properties of the liner are dened according to the representative nominal isotropic stress-strain curve that resulted from the tensile tests as included in section 2.3.

5.2.2

Sensitivity for applied mesh

Before discussing the uniform ovalisation behaviour of the liner in pure bending, the sensitivity of the numerical model for the applied mesh will be evaluated. This evaluation is based on the moments, curvatures and strains at maximum moment, since the maximum moment can be better dened than the bifurcation point. First of all, the number of elements in circumferential direction is increased from 120 to 240 elements. The mesh consisting of three elements in thickness direction and 120 in circumferential direction is based on the mesh applied for axial compression. The results are presented in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.6. From comparison it results that the number of elements in circumferential direction only has a negligible inuence on the resulting moment-curvature response. The number of 120 elements in circumferential direction is judged to be sufficient for simulating the failure mode due to uniform ovalisation. Table 5.1 Inuence of mesh renement on moment and curvature at maximum moment, relative to solid mesh with 120 elements in circumferential direction and 3 elements in thickness direction

Figure 5 .6 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of meshes with 120 and 240 elements in circumferential direction and three elements in thickness direction

79

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

Secondly, the number of solid elements (C3D8R) in thickness direction is increased from three to seven, and additionally the liner is modelled with four node shell elements (S4R) with reduced integration and a large-strain formulation. In Figure 5.7 and Table 5.2 the moment-curvature responses of the models are compared. From this gure it shows that the number of solid element layers in thickness direction of the liner and the type of element, i.e. shell or solid, only has a small inuence on the ovalisation behaviour of the single walled liner. This is conrmed by the values in Table 5.2. This seems to be in contrast with the results from axial compression as discussed in section 3.3. However, the inuence of the mesh sensitivity in axial direction is not taken into account in the uniform ovalisation model. Table 5.2 Inuence of element type and number of elements over liner thickness on moment and curvature at maximum moment, relative to solid mesh with 120 elements in circumferential direction and seven elements in thickness direction

Figure 5.7 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of meshes with 120 circumferential S4R and C3D8R elements with respectively three or seven elements in thickness direction The mesh with 120 elements in circumferential direction and three elements in thickness direction gives sufficiently accurate results in combination with an acceptable number of elements and thus acceptable computation time.

5.2.3

Mechanical behaviour of liner during uniform ovalisation

The ovalisation behaviour of the single walled liner model is presented with the moment-curvature response and the ovalisation-curvature response in Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9, respectively.

80

Chapter 5

Figure 5.8 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response

Figure 5.9 Ovalisation-curvature, ovalisation-strain response

Comparing the two responses shows that the increase in uniform ovalisation is largest at curvatures corresponding with the maximum moment.

5.3
5.3.1

Numerical Model of Full Length Single Walled Liner in Pure Bending

Model description

To allow for wrinkling the single walled liner is modelled with a total length of 1600mm, the constant moment length in the full scale bend test rig as will be described in Chapter 6. The geometry of the liner model used for investigation of the wrinkling behaviour of the single walled liner in pure bending is given in Figure 5.10. In order to reduce calculation times, only half of the liner is modelled with symmetric boundary conditions applied in the plane of bending. It was decided not to use a symmetry plane at midspan, but instead model the complete pipe length, in order to avoid any inuence of boundary conditions on the occurring mode shape. These boundary conditions prevent the liner from moving in transversal direction. The nodes at midspan are xed in axial direction, as shown in Figure 5.10, thus eliminating the translation in this direction. The full length single walled liner model is analysed for two different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends. The boundary conditions at the cylinder ends for the rst case correspond with those applied at the free cylinder end of the uniform ovalisation model as described in section 5.2. For the second case, all nodes at the cylinder ends are fully constrained to a reference point at the centre of the respective cylinder end by means of a kinematic coupling as illustrated in Figure 5.11. The constraints fully restrict ovalisation at the end of the cylinder. All coupling constraints are specied in a local cylindrical coordinate system. The reference point at each end of the cylinder is constrained in vertical and transversal direction, eliminating the free body motion in these directions. Bending is introduced by applying a rotation to both reference points. The bending moment and rotation are monitored at the reference points.

81

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

Figure 5.10 Geometry, applied rotation and symmetric boundary conditions in the plane of bending and at midspan

Regio

n3

Reg

ion

1
Reg ion Reg 2 ion 3 4
Reg ion 5

Reg

ion

Figure 5.11 Geometry including mesh, reference points and kinematic couplings The mesh consists of three elements in thickness direction, 120 in circumferential direction and ve mesh regions in axial direction with lengths and number of elements as included in Table 5.3 and shown in Figure 5.11. In axial direction, the mesh is rened in region 3 around midspan. The suitability of this mesh, referred to as the original mesh, will be discussed during the mesh sensitivity analysis in section 5.3.3.

82

Chapter 5

The material of the liner is dened according to the representative nominal isotropic stress-strain curve as included in section 2.3. Table 5.3 Mesh regions of the original mesh

To follow the wrinkling response of the cylinder, the introduction of a geometric imperfection was not needed. The plastic material denition and the applied bending load introduced the initiation of liner wrinkling at midspan.

5.3.2

Boundary conditions

As discussed in section 5.3.1 the full length single walled liner model is analysed for two different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends, i.e. allowing for ovalisation and fully restricting ovalisation. In addition to the moment-curvature and ovalisation responses, the axial strains at the inside of the liner along the compression side are shown, giving a good representation of the deformed shape of the liner. The moment-curvature responses of the two models, with the different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends using the original mesh, are shown in Figure 5.12, together with the moment-curvature response of the uniform ovalisation model from section 5.2.3.

Figure 5.12 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of single walled liners using the original mesh with ovalisation restricted and allowed for at the liner ends, respectively From Figure 5.12 it shows that the moment-curvature response of the full length liner that is allowed to ovalise at the ends follows the response of the ovalisation model until the plastic bifurcation point is reached. Plastic bifurcation occurs suddenly after passing the maximum moment. The axial strains along the compression side at the inside of the liner at a curvature of of the two models, with the different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends using the original mesh, are shown in Figure 5.13.

83

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

The liner with ovalisation allowed for at the ends does not wrinkle around midspan, but at the ends. This explains the relatively late occurrence of bifurcation. The liner with ovalisation restricted at the ends wrinkles around midspan, due to the fact that ovalisation is largest at midspan.

Figure 5.13 Axial strains along the liner at curvature level of single walled liners using the original mesh, with ovalisation restricted and allowed for at the liner ends respectively (full and detail of axial strain range)

Figure 5.14 Ovalisation-curvature response at midspan for the full length liners with the original mesh, having different constraints at the liner ends, compared with the ovalisation model For the full length liner model with ovalisation restricted at the ends it shows from Figure 5.12 that the moment-curvature response exceeds the response of the uniform ovalisation model at maximum moment. The ovalisation-curvature response of the two models, with the different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends using the original mesh in Figure 5.14, shows that the liner allowing for ovalisation at the liner ends follows the uniform ovalisation solution until the bifurcation point is reached. From there the ovalisation at the liner ends exceeds the ovalisation at midspan. For the liner with ovalisation restricted at the ends, ovalisation at the ends stays zero as prescribed, while the ovalisation at midspan stays below the uniform ovalisation. Restricting ovalisation at the liner ends results in extra resistance against ovalisation over the full length, explaining the increased moment capacity in Figure 5.12.

84

Chapter 5

The sudden drop after the bifurcation point for the two models, with the different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends using the original mesh, in Figure 5.12 most likely refers to the presence of a snap back which could have been traced when arc-length control would have been used instead of the currently used standard Newton-Raphson solution method. Based on the fact that liner wrinkling occurred at midspan during the full scale bend tests as will be described in Chapter 6, the behaviour of the liners with ovalisation restricted at the ends will be discussed in the remaining of this section.

5.3.3

Sensitivity for applied mesh

In this section the sensitivity of the numerical model of the single walled liner for the applied mesh will be evaluated. The section begins with an evaluation of the sensitivity for the number of elements in axial direction, followed by an investigation of the validity of using three elements in thickness direction. For evaluation of the sensitivity for the number of elements in axial direction three meshes are applied, each using a different number of elements, as included in Table 5.4, in axial direction along the region illustrated in Figure 5.11. All three meshes have three elements in thickness direction and 120 in circumferential direction. Table 5.4 Regions of the three meshes applied

From Figure 5.15 it shows that the moment-curvatures of the three different meshes are similar until bifurcation. The maximum moment capacities with corresponding strains and curvatures are included in Table 5.5. The model using the coarse mesh shows divergence when reaching the maximum moment. Therefore, a second model with a small viscous damping factor of was run that does continue after bifurcation. The model with the coarse mesh reaches its maximum moment capacity at a somewhat higher curvature than the other two meshes, and as a result acts stiffer during post buckling.

85

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

Figure 5.15 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response for three different meshes with 120 elements in circumferential direction, three elements in thickness direction and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends Table 5.5 Inuence of mesh renement on maximum moment and curvature at maximum moment, relative to the original mesh for the models with ovalisation restricted at the liner ends

The axial strains at a curvature of in Figure 5.16 show a negative axial strain for the coarse mesh, i.e. an outward wrinkle, at midspan and a positive axial strain for the other two meshes, i.e. an inward wrinkle at midspan. Additionally, the absolute axial strain values for the coarse mesh are lower than for the other two meshes at . The moment-curvature responses in Figure 5.15 show that the mode shape of the original and rened mesh result in a lower moment-curvature path, i.e. a lower dissipated energy level, than the coarse mesh and is therefore more likely to occur during real tests. From 5.5 it can be concluded that the solution is not mesh dependent, since both the coarse and rened mesh result in higher maximum moment capacities occurring at larger curvatures than the original mesh. The results of the rened and original mesh are sufficiently close to conclude that the number of elements in axial direction of the original mesh is suitable for modelling wrinkling behaviour of the liner in pure bending.

86

Chapter 5

Figure 5.16 Axial strains at curvature level for three different meshes with 120 elements in circumferential direction, three elements in thickness direction and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends (full and detail of axial strain range)

Figure 5.17 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response for full length single walled liner models in pure bending using the original mesh with respectively three solid elements (C3D8R) and shell elements (S4R) in thickness direction of the liner The adequacy of using three elements in thickness direction is examined by comparing the momentcurvature responses of two full length single walled liner models both using the original mesh, one with three solid elements (C3D8R) in thickness direction, the other consisting of shell elements (S4R). The resulting moment-curvature responses are shown in Figure 5.17. The response of the model using three solid elements over the liner thickness is sufficiently close to the response of the model using shell elements to conclude that the number of three solid elements in thickness direction is suitable for modelling the wrinkling behaviour of the liner in pure bending. In the remaining of this chapter, the behaviour of the liner using the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the ends will be discussed.

87

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

5.3.4

Mechanical behaviour of full length single walled liner in pure bending

The wrinkling behaviour is described, following the solution of the liner with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends. The moment-curvature response of the liner in pure bending is given in Figure 5.18. The ovalisation response of the liner at midspan and at the liner ends is shown in Figure 5.19. The bifurcation point occurs before the natural limit load due to ovalisation is reached. As a result, the bifurcation point and the maximum moment are the same for the liner. Figure 5.20 includes the axial strain along the liner in pure bending. Initially the liner ovalises uniformly along the length as far as the restricting constraints at the liner ends permit. From the bifurcation point on, the moment capacity of the liner decreases instantly. This is accompanied with a sudden increase of ovalisation at midspan, due to the development of a wrinkle. The growth of the wrinkles accelerates and simultaneously the deformations start to localise at midspan reected by the increasing axial strain in Figure 5.20. The localisation at midspan leads to an inward kink as illustrated in Figure 5.21.

Figure 5.18 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of full length liner using the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends

Figure 5.19 Ovalisation-curvature response at midspan for the full length liner with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends

88

Chapter 5

Figure 5.20 Axial strains along the liner with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends in pure bending at increasing curvature and bending strain

Figure 5.21 Axial stresses of deformed liner with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends in pure bending at curvature level

5.4

Verication of Numerical Results for Single Walled Liner in Pure Bending

The plastic bifurcation point of the single walled liner in pure bending is determined with an analyticalempirical equation [Gresnigt, 1986] and a numerical model [Pappa, 2011] based on non-associative ow theory. With the resulting moment and curvature values, the values obtained with the numerical model as described in section 5.3 will be veried. The bifurcation point for the numerical model of the single walled liner in pure bending from section 5.3 is assumed to coincide with the maximum moment capacity, after which the moment capacity of the liner suddenly drops.

5.4.1

Design equations

As mentioned in the introduction, several design equations have been developed in the past to determine the critical wrinkling strain of pipes in pure bending. The commonly used offshore standards [API, 2009; DNV, 2000] only provide design equations that are not suitable for relatively thin elastic-plastic cylinders such as the liner. The following equation as developed by Gresnigt [Gresnigt, 1986] and referred to in several European Standards [NNI, 2009; NNI, 2000] is used for predicting the critical wrinkling strain of the liner at the plastic bifurcation point:

89

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

For the single walled liner with the characteristics as included in Table 2.6, equation 5.1 results in the following strain and curvature at the plastic bifurcation point:

5.4.2

Numerical results based on non-associative ow theory

With the program NATUB of the University of Thessaly [Pappa, 2011], the plastic bifurcation point of the liner in pure bending is detected and the corresponding moment and curvature are calculated. The program uses a large-strain non-associative plasticity constitutive model based on deformation theory, which is implemented in a special-purpose nite element formulation. For the single walled liner with the characteristics as included in Table 2.6, the following moment, bending strain and curvature are calculated at the plastic bifurcation point:

5.4.3

Verication of numerical results

The critical moments and strains at the plastic bifurcation point of the liner in pure bending as obtained from the empirical equation (Gresnigt), the NATUB numerical model ( ) and the full length numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends ( ) from section 5.3.4 are included in Table 5.6 and shown in Figure 5.22.

Figure 5.22 Moment-curvature response of liner in pure bending including critical moment and curvature values at plastic bifurcation point derived with different methods

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Table 5.6 Verication of critical moment and curvature values at plastic bifurcation point of liner in pure bending

The analytical-design equation underestimates the critical curvature from the numerical model. The formula used is a design formula, meaning that the formula matching the test results is divided by a safety factor. The original test results that were used to determine the safety factor in these formulas gave larger critical strains. The fact that the critical curvature value from the design equation overestimates the numerical results, conrms that the design equation gives safe values for these results. The NATUB numerical model results in bifurcation at slightly lower curvature than the full length liner model with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends. This was expected based on the fact that the restricting boundary conditions at the cylinder ends of the full length numerical model result in extra resistance against ovalisation over the full length of the single walled liner as was concluded in section 5.3.2, and later bifurcation. The prevailing mode shapes of the NATUB numerical model and the full length numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends correspond and the bifurcation points can thus be compared. Contrary, the bifurcation points of the full length numerical model allowing ovalisation at the cylinder ends and the NATUB numerical model cannot be compared since the prevailing mode shapes do not correspond, since the numerical model allowing ovalisation at the cylinder ends buckles at the ends instead of midspan.

5.5

Numerical Parameter Study for Single Walled Liner

In this section, the inuence of several geometric and material parameters on the wrinkling behaviour of the single walled liner in pure bending is investigated. The single walled liner model with the original mesh is used, consisting of three elements in thickness direction, 120 in circumference and ve mesh regions in axial direction with lengths and number of elements as included in Table 5.3 and shown in Figure 5.11. In axial direction, the mesh is rened in region 3 around midspan. The evaluation of the different parameters is based on the moments and curvatures at maximum moment capacity, since the maximum moment can better be dened than the bifurcation point. The inuence of the following geometric parameter on the liner wrinkling behaviour will be studied: - Diameter over thickness-ratio . Additionally, the inuence of material parameters on the liner wrinkling behaviour will be studied. To allow for variation of the liner material parameters, these models use the alternative Ramberg-Osgood t for the liner material as discussed in sections 3.2 and 3.5.

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Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

The investigated material parameters are: - 0.2% Proof stress of the liner , - Material hardening of the liner by varying the ultimate tensile stress

5.5.1

Diameter over thickness-ratio

on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied by

The inuence of the diameter over thickness-ratio varying while keeping constant: - LC , with ; - BC , with ; - HC , with .

The moment-curvature response resulting for each of the three cases is illustrated in Figure 5.23. The maximum moment and belonging curvature values are included in Table 5.7. It can be concluded that a decrease , i.e. a relatively thicker liner, results in an increase of both the maximum moment and belonging curvature.

Figure 5.23 Inuence of Table 5.7 Inuence of base case values on moments and curvatures at maximum moment capacity, relative to the

5.5.2

Hardening of the liner by varying the ultimate tensile stress

:

The inuence of material hardening is studied by varying the ultimate tensile stress - LC ; - BC ; - HC . The liner material curves used are given in Figure 3.23.

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The inuence of material hardening by means of varying the ultimate tensile stress on the liner wrinkling behaviour is shown in Figure 5.24 and Table 3.12. It can be concluded that a decrease of the ultimate stress, i.e. reduced material hardening, results in a decrease of both the maximum moment and belonging curvature.

Figure 5.24 Inuence of Table 5.8 Inuence of base case values on moments and curvatures at maximum moment capacity, relative to the

5.5.3

0.2% Proof stress

The inuence of the 0.2% proof stress, , on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied for the following cases: - LC ; - BC ; - HC ; The liner material curves used are given in Figure 3.22. The inuence of the 0.2% proof stress on the liner wrinkling behaviour is shown in Figure 5.25 and Table 5.9. It can be concluded that an increase of the 0.2% proof stress results in an increase of both the maximum moment and belonging curvature. The inuence on the maximum moment is larger than on the belonging curvature.

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Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

Figure 5.25 Inuence of Table 5.9 Inuence of base case values on moments and curvatures at maximum moment capacity, relative to the

5.6
5.6.1

Numerical Uniform Ovalisation Model of Single Walled Outer Pipe

Model description

The numerical model used for investigation of the uniform ovalisation response of the outer pipe is similar with the liner model as described in section 5.2.1, with the geometric characteristics of the outer pipe as included in Table 2.4. The model used to obtain the uniform ovalisation solution for the single walled outer pipe has unit length with two elements in axial direction, not allowing for wrinkling development due to the reduced length. The material properties of the outer pipe are dened according to the representative nominal isotropic stress-strain curve that resulted from the tensile tests as included in section 2.3.2.

5.6.2

Sensitivity for applied mesh

The uniform ovalisation model of the outer pipe is given the same mesh as the liner in section 5.2.1, consisting of three layers of C3D8R solid elements in thickness direction, 120 in circumferential direction and two in axial direction. This mesh will suffice for investigating the uniform ovalisation response of the outer pipe, since the outer pipe is relatively thicker than the liner and will therefore deform less at the same curvature.

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5.6.3

Mechanical behaviour of outer pipe during uniform ovalisation

The ovalisation behaviour of the single walled outer pipe is presented with the moment-curvature response and the ovalisation-curvature response in Figure 5.26 and Figure 5.27, respectively.

Figure 5.26 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response

Figure 5.27 Ovalisation-curvature, ovalisation-strain response

Comparing the two responses shows that at increasing curvature, after passing the maximum moment, the outer pipe maximum moment capacity decreases while the uniform ovalisation rate increases.

5.7
5.7.1

Numerical Model of Full Length Single Walled Outer Pipe in Pure Bending
Model description

The outer pipe numerical model corresponds with the liner model as described in section 5.3.1, with the geometric characteristics of the outer pipe as included in Table 2.4. The applied mesh is similar with the mesh described in section 5.3.1 referred to as the original mesh. The material properties of the outer pipe are dened according to the representative nominal isotropic stress-strain curve that resulted from the tensile tests as included in section 2.3.

5.7.2

Boundary conditions

The full length single walled outer pipe model is analysed for two different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends, as described for the single walled liner model. The rst case of boundary conditions allows free ovalisation of the cylinder ends, while the second case fully restricts ovalisation at the ends of the cylinder. Bending is introduced by applying rotation to the reference points at each end of the cylinder. The bending moment and rotation are monitored at the reference points. The moment-curvature responses of the two models, with the different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends and the original mesh, are shown in Figure 5.28, together with the moment-curvature response of the ovalisation model. The moment-curvature response of the full length outer pipe allowing for ovalisation at the outer pipe ends follows the response of the ovalisation model until the plastic bifurcation

95

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

point is reached. The moment-curvature response of the full length outer pipe with ovalisation restricted at the ends exceeds the response of the ovalisation model somewhat.

Figure 5.28 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of single walled outer pipes using the original mesh, with ovalisation restricted and allowed for at the liner ends respectively The ovalisation response of the two models, as depicted in Figure 5.29, shows that the outer pipe that is allowed to ovalise at the ends follows the ovalisation model until the bifurcation point is reached. From there ovalisation at the ends exceeds the ovalisation at midspan resulting in buckling of the outer pipe at the ends. The outer pipe with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends shows larger ovalisation at midspan. This is in contrast with what was found for the liner, which was given extra resistance against ovalisation over the full length due to the constraints restricting ovalisation at the cylinder ends. The axial strains along the inside of the outer pipe at a curvature of are given in Figure 5.30. The outer pipe with ovalisation allowed for at the ends does not buckle around midspan, but at the ends. This explains the late occurrence of the bifurcation point. The outer pipe with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends buckles around midspan as expected due to the fact that ovalisation is largest at midspan.

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Figure 5.29 Ovalisation-curvature response at midspan for the full length outer pipes with the original mesh, having different constraints at the liner ends, compared with the ovalisation model

Figure 5.30 Axial strains at curvature level of single walled outer pipes using the original mesh, with ovalisation restricted and allowed at the outer pipe ends respectively

5.7.3

Sensitivity for applied mesh

In this section the sensitivity of the numerical model of the single walled outer pipe for the applied mesh, i.e. the number of elements in axial direction, will be evaluated. The three different meshes applied, are the same as those used for the full length single walled liner model. Each mesh consists of three elements in thickness direction, 120 in circumferential direction and a different number of elements in axial direction, as included in Table 5.4. The moment-curvature responses of the models with ovalisation restricted at the outer pipe ends, as shown in Figure 5.31, are similar for the three different meshes. The maximum moment capacities are included in Table 5.10. It can be concluded that the mesh has negligible inuence on the maximum moment and no inuence on the curvature at the maximum moment capacity. It can thus be concluded that the solution is not mesh dependent.

97

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

Table 5.10 Inuence of mesh renement on maximum moment and curvature at maximum moment, relative to the original mesh for the models with ovalisation restricted at the outer pipe ends

Figure 5 . 3 1 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response for three different meshes with 120 elements in circumferential direction, three elements in thickness direction and ovalisation restricted at the outer pipe ends The axial strains at a curvature of as illustrated in Figure 5.32 show that the mesh has no inuence on the resulting axial strains and thus no inuence on the resulting deformations. In the remainder of this chapter, the behaviour of the outer pipe using the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the ends will be discussed.

Figure 5.32 Axial strains at curvature level for three different meshes with 120 elements in circumferential direction, three elements in thickness direction and ovalisation restricted at the outer pipe ends

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5.7.4

Mechanical behaviour of full length single walled outer pipe in pure bending

The behaviour of the single walled outer pipe in pure bending is described, following the solution of the outer pipe with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends. The moment-curvature response of the outer pipe in pure bending is shown in Figure 5.33, together with the moment-curvature response of the ovalisation model. The ovalisation response of the outer pipe at midspan and at the outer pipe ends is given in Figure 5.34. The single walled outer pipe with ovalisation restricted at the ends, reaches its maximum moment before the natural limit load of the uniform ovalisation solution. Figure 5.35 illustrates the axial strain along the outer pipe in pure bending at increasing curvatures. The different slope of the axial strain at both ends of the outer pipe in Figure 5.35 is caused by boundary effects.

Figure 5.33 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of full length outer pipe using the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends

Figure 5.34 Ovalisation-curvature response at midspan for the full length outer pipe with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends Initially the outer pipe ovalises uniformly along the length, as far as the restricting constraints at the liner ends permit. From the maximum moment on, the moment capacity of the outer pipe decreases. This is

99

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

accompanied with an increase of ovalisation at midspan. The single walled outer pipe fails due to localisation of ovalisation at midspan as illustrated with the deformed shape in Figure 5.36.

Figure 5.35 Axial strains along the outer pipe with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the outer pipe ends in pure bending at increasing curvature and bending strain

Figure 5.36 Deformed outer pipe with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the outer pipe ends in pure bending at curvature level

5.8

Benchmark Results for Single Walled Outer Pipe

The plastic bifurcation point of the single walled outer pipe in pure bending is detected from several empirical equations. With the resulting moment and curvature values, the values obtained with the numerical model as described in section 5.7 will be veried. The bifurcation point for the numerical model could not be determined exactly since the moment-curvature response of the full length models exceeds that of the ovalisation model. Therefore, the values at maximum moment capacity are taken.

5.8.1

Design equations

As mentioned in the introduction, several empirical equations have been developed in the past to determine the critical wrinkling strain of pipes in pure bending.

100

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Murphey and Langner [1985; API, 2009] developed the following equation:

The following equation is developed by Gresnigt [1986] and referred to in several European Standards [NNI, 2009; NNI, 2000]:

The DNV Offshore Standard OS-F101 [DNV, 2000] uses the following equation for displacement controlled conditions:

The above equations result in the critical strains and curvatures for the single walled outer pipe as included in Table 5.11. Table 5.11 Critical bending strains and curvatures for the single walled outer pipe in pure bending according to design equations

5.8.2

Numerical results compared with benchmark results for single walled outer pipe

The critical curvatures and bending strains as obtained from the design equations together with the maximum moment and corresponding curvature and bending strain resulting from the full length numerical model as described in section 5.7 ( ) are included in Table 5.12. For the numerical model, the critical strain could not be determined exactly since the moment-curvature response of the full length models exceeds that of the ovalisation model. Therefore, the values at the maximum moment capacity are taken.

101

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

Table 5.12 Verication of maximum moment and corresponding curvature and bending strain of numerical model with critical moment and curvatures of design equations

Figure 5.37 Comparing analytical results with numerical moment-curvature response Equation 5.4 corresponds best with the numerical results, although all three design equations underestimate the critical curvature from the numerical model. First of all, the underestimation of the critical curvature can be explained by the fact that the numerical curvature corresponds with the maximum moment capacity while the values from the design equations are the critical curvatures at bifurcation. Secondly, the formulas used are design equations, meaning that the equations matching the test results are divided by a safety factor. The original test results that were used to determine the safety factor in these equations gave larger critical bending strains. The fact that the critical curvature values from the design equations overestimate the numerical results conrms that the design equations give safe values for these results.

5.9

Numerical Results Single Walled Liner and Outer Pipe Compared

In this section, the numerical results of the full length single walled liner in pure bending are compared with those obtained for the single walled outer pipe. The moment-curvature responses of the single walled liner and single walled outer pipe are shown in Figure 5.38. The maximum moment and belonging curvature values are included in Table 5.13.

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Table 5.13 Maximum moment, strain and curvature at maximum moment compared for single walled liner and single walled outer pipe with ovalisation restricted at the pipe ends

Figure 5.38 Comparing numerical moment-curvature response of single walled liner and single walled outer pipe

Figure 5.39 Axial strains at curvature level pipe with ovalisation restricted at the pipe ends

of single walled liner and single walled outer

It can be concluded that the single walled liner reaches its maximum moment capacity at a signicantly lower curvature than the single walled outer pipe. The maximum moment capacity of the single walled liner is smaller than of the single walled outer pipe. From the discussions on the numerical results of the single walled liner model in pure bending in section 5.3, it appeared that the single walled liner reaches the bifurcation point before the natural limit load. The outer pipe bifurcates after it has passed its maxi-

103

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

mum moment as discussed in section 5.7. The wrinkling failure mode exhibited by the liner as described in section 5.3.4, corresponds with the failure mode described for thinner elastic-plastic cylinders in section 1.6. The outer pipe buckling failure mode due to localisation of ovalisation as described in section 5.7.4 corresponds with the description of thick elastic-plastic cylinders in section 1.6. The axial strains present in the liner just after it passed the maximum moment capacity are compared with the axial strains present in the single walled outer pipe at the same curvature of in Figure 5.39. From this gure it can be concluded that the outer pipe is still in the uniform ovalisation phase, while localised wrinkles are already present in the liner. For the liner it showed that restricting ovalisation at the liner ends resulted in increased resistance against ovalisation over the full length of the liner. Restricting ovalisation for the outer pipe resulted in localised ovalisation at midspan. For the liner conned in the outer pipe it will show in section 7.3 that the inuence of the connement prevails over the applied constraints at the ends of the liner.

5.10 Conclusions
In this chapter, the behaviour of the full length single walled liner and single walled outer pipe in pure bending have been studied. The natural limit load due to uniform ovalisation was investigated with a model having unit length, not allowing wrinkle development due to a reduced length. From the mesh sensitivity analysis it resulted that the mesh with 120 elements in circumferential direction suffices. Full length models of the single walled liner and single walled outer pipe were used to determine the behaviour when allowing wrinkle development. Two different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends were investigated, i.e. allowing for ovalisation and fully restricting ovalisation. For the single walled liner, restricting ovalisation at the cylinder ends resulted in increased resistance against ovalisation over the full length. The ovalisation at midspan of the outer pipe with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends exceeds the uniform ovalisation solution. The mesh sensitivity of the full length single walled liner and single walled outer pipe models were investigated. The sensitivity for the number of elements in axial direction was evaluated based on three different meshes. For the single walled liner, it was concluded that the solution is not mesh dependent, since both the coarse and rened mesh result in higher maximum moment capacities occurring at larger curvatures than the original mesh. For the single walled outer pipe it was concluded that the solution is not mesh dependent because the mesh has negligible inuence on the maximum moment and no inuence on the curvature at the maximum moment capacity. For the single walled liner the adequacy of using three elements in thickness direction was examined by comparing the moment-curvature responses of two full length single walled liner models both using the original mesh, one with three solid elements (C3D8R) in thickness direction, the other consisting of shell elements (S4R). The response of the model using three solid elements over the liner thickness was sufficiently close to the response of the model using shell ele-

104

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ments to conclude that the number of three solid elements in thickness direction is suitable for modelling the wrinkling behaviour of the liner in pure bending. The original mesh with three elements in thickness direction is suitable for modelling the wrinkling behaviour of the single walled liner and single walled outer pipe in pure bending. The critical moment and curvature at the plastic bifurcation point of the liner in pure bending determined with the design equation given in section 5.4.1 underestimates the critical curvature from the full length numerical model. The design equations result in safe values. Comparison of the critical moment and curvature at the plastic bifurcation point of the liner in pure bending determined with the in-house program NATUB of the University of Thessaly conrms the results obtained with the full length single walled liner model in pure bending. The inuence of several geometric and material parameters on the wrinkling behaviour of the single walled liner in pure bending was examined. The relative difference of the maximum moment and corresponding curvature for the low (-10%) and high case (+10%) with respect to the base case are illustrated in Figure 5.40 and Figure 5.41 respectively. With respect to reeling, the inuence of the parameters on the curvature at maximum moment, further referred to as curvature capacity of the liner, is of most interest. From Figure 5.41 it is concluded that increasing the liner thickness is the most effective way to increase the curvature capacity of the liner. This has a positive inuence on the moment capacity as well. Increasing the ultimate tensile stress of the liner material has a minor positive inuence on the curvature wrinkling capacity but a negligible inuence on the moment capacity. Increasing the 0.2% proof stress results in a signicant increase in moment capacity but has minor inuence on the curvature capacity. From the parameter study it can be concluded that increasing liner thickness is the most effective way to increase the curvature capacity of the liner, i.e. the reeling capacity.

Figure 5.40 Inuence of investigated parameters on maximum moment capacity

105

Pure Bending of Single Walled Pipe

Figure 5.41 Inuence of investigated parameters on curvature at maximum moment capacity The numerical results of the full length single walled liner in pure bending are compared with those of the single walled outer pipe. It was concluded that the single walled liner reaches its maximum moment capacity at a signicantly lower curvature than the single walled outer pipe. The maximum moment capacity of the single walled liner is smaller than of the single walled outer pipe. The single walled liner in pure bending exhibits the wrinkling failure mode common for thinner elastic-plastic cylinders, while the outer pipe exhibits the buckling failure mode due to localisation of ovalisation common for thick elasticplastic cylinders. Regarding the radial deformations it showed that the outer pipe is still in the uniform ovalisation phase at the curvature at which localised wrinkles are already present in the liner.

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6.

Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests on Lined Pipe

6.1 Introduction
Four point bend tests have been carried out on 6m long TFPs. The aim of the bend tests is twofold, namely comparing the numerical outcomes with the test results, and investigating the inuence of the respective pretreatments and testing conditions. An extensive description of the tests and representation of all test results can be found in [Kolstein, 2010]. Comparison of test and numerical results will be discussed in section 7.5. This chapter focuses purely on the test results. Before concluding anything based on the test results regarding the inuence of pretreatments and testing conditions, it must be mentioned that for each variable only one sample is tested. The test results are well suited to indicate trends and qualitative observations, however the number of specimens is too small in a statistical sense to draw rm quantitative conclusions.

6.2 Experiments
6.2.1 Set up and procedure full scale four point bend tests
The four point bend test rig is depicted in Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2. Bending is applied by controlling the vertical upward displacement of the two hydraulic cylinders in frames and synchronically, while the pipe is vertically restrained at and . Each cylinder has a capacity of 800kN and a maximum stroke of 1500mm. The distance between the two hinges at the oor at and is 2600mm. At the onset of liner wrinkling the curvature is such that the tensile straps at and as well as those at and are approximately perpendicular to the pipe. Each cylinder is equipped with a load cell and an actuator to monitor the forces and displacements continuously. Metal straps are used at and as well as and to ensure even load introduction, thus avoiding local stress concentrations. The straps at and are 200mm wide and 10mm thick. The inner straps at and are 200mm wide and 4mm thick, while the outer ones are 200mm wide and 8mm thick. The centre-to-centre distance between the metal strap attached to the cylinder and the outer strap attached to the ground amounts 1600mm, indicated with in Figure 6.2. In the middle section, between the tensile straps, where the bending moment is constant, the outer pipe is equipped with the following measuring equipment: -  Strain gauges symmetrically placed around midspan at the top, i.e. compression side, of the pipes without a girth weld of which thirteen with a relative centre-to-centre distance of 100mm, one at midspan and one additional at either side at a relative distance of 50mm. Five strain gauges are placed on the bottom, i.e. tension side, equally spaced at 100mm from each other. - A curvature meter with a total length of 1200mm. -  Four ovalisation meters placed symmetrically around midspan at 100mm and 500mm distance, respectively.

107

Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests on Lined Pipe

Calibration reports and specications of the above equipment can be found in [Kolstein, 2010].

2600

Figure 6.1 Four point bend test rig

Figure 6.2 Schematic representation of the four point bend test rig

Laser trolley

Laser trolley inside the pipe with wrinkles at the top of the liner

Figure 6.3 Laser trolley scans the inside surface of the liner A laser trolley is put through the pipe to scan the inside surface of the liner as illustrated in Figure 6.3. The laser trolley is described in detail by Focke [2007]. Two different types of scans were made, a full scan and a longitudinal scan. During a full scan, the laser makes a complete scan of 3600 along a dened longitudinal region at a predened interval, in this case every 20mm. From the starting location at 9 oclock dened as 00, the laser rotates counter clockwise with 900 at the compression side, and 2700 at the tension side of the pipe. After a full rotation the laser trolley moves further along the pipe and starts a new rotation. During a longitudinal scan the laser trolley makes a longitudinal scan of the compression side of the liner at the 900 position, i.e. vertically upward, with a longitudinal interval of 10mm.

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Before the start of the test, a full scan is made to determine the initial geometrical imperfections of the pipe at the inside of the liner. The rst load step of the testing procedure is used for the test rig and pipe to set. Both cylinders are displaced until the curvature meter measures a relative displacement of 1mm at midspan and are then released until 0mm displacement at midspan. At this point, all measurements are set to zero. This is the starting point of the test, from where the relative displacement at midspan is increased in steps of 2mm. After every step a longitudinal scan is made to detect the onset of liner wrinkling. Once the longitudinal scan shows some wrinkling initiation, a full scan is made. From this moment on, the curvature increase is reduced to 1mm per step instead of 2mm, after which a longitudinal scan is performed. With every 5mm curvature increase after the onset of wrinkling an additional full scan is made. This procedure is repeated until a total of 30mm relative displacement at midspan is reached, after which another full scan is made. Subsequently the cylinder loads are decreased to zero with 0.2mm/s. After complete load release a nal full scan is performed.

6.2.2

Test conditions

To determine the inuence of temperature and internal pressure on the mechanical behaviour of TFP in pure bending, bend tests were performed for the following three test conditions: - The base case; at room temperature, without internal pressure; - Heated at 1500C, without internal pressure, and - At room temperature, with an internal pressure of 20 bar.

Figure 6.4 Test setup of heated TFP

Figure 6.5 Test setup of TFP with internal pressure

To heat the respective TFPs to 1500C, heating blankets were used as illustrated in Figure 6.4. The temperature of the TFP was measured and adjusted, using four thermocouples, and adjusted. End plates were bolted on anges that were welded to the ends of the TFPs that were tested at an internal pressure of 20 bar, as illustrated in Figure 6.5. Water was used to obtain the required internal pressure, which was monitored with a standard manometer.

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Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests on Lined Pipe

6.2.3 Scope
An overview of the tested TFPs including the relevant characteristics, pretreatments and testing conditions is included in Table 6.1. Besides the testing conditions as discussed in the previous section, the following pipe characteristics were varied: - Seamless versus longitudinal electrical resistance welded (ERW) outer pipe; - Coating simulation before testing; - Wall thickness of the outer pipe; - Girth weld, both overlay and seal weld as illustrated in Figure 6.6 and Figure 6.7. An overview of all the actually measured pipe characteristics can be found in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2. Table 6.1 Overview of bent TFPs

Figure 6.6. Overlay weld

Figure 6.7 Seal weld

6.2.4

Data processing

As described in section 6.2.1, the following measurements are available for each four point bend test: - Cylinder loads; - Cylinder displacements; - Strains in outer pipe at tension and compression side; - Relative vertical displacement at midspan; - Increase in outer pipe diameter; - Longitudinal scans, and - Full scans of the internal surface of the liner. In order to interpret the test results, the measured data needs to be converted to commonly used units.

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Curvature
From the relative vertical displacement at midspan, measured with the curvature meter, the bending curvature ( ) can be calculated as follows: Global bending radius

Global bending curvature

Moment
From the measured cylinder loads and displacements, the bending moment ( ) is calculated according to Equation 6.3 to Equation 6.5 and illustrated in Figure 6.8. Moment arm

Global bending moment

Figure 6.8. Four point bend test rig scheme for bending moment calculation

111

Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests on Lined Pipe

Figure 6.9 Typical moment-curvature response during bend test With the calculated global bending moment and global bending curvature, a moment-curvature diagram as given in Figure 6.9 is generated. The moment-curvature diagram gives a good representation of the global bending behaviour. The displacements in the cylinders were increased in small equal steps. In between these displacement steps some relaxation of the pipe occurred, which is reected by the small decreases in moment.

Bending strain
The local axial bending strains ( ) in the outer pipe at the tension and compression side, measured with strain gauges, are represented in two different plots. The rst representation is the strain-curvature diagram for each strain gauge separately, as given in Figure 6.10. An average tensile and compressive strain can be calculated from all the measured strains at the tension and compression side respectively, based on the assumption that the bending moment over the middle section is approximately constant. The second representation includes the local strains along the pipe length at discrete curvature levels, as shown in Figure 6.11. With this representation, the responses of different pipes can best be compared.

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Figure 6 . 1 0 An example of a strain-curvature response of the TFP having a ERW outer pipe with a nominal thickness of 14.3mm during the bend test and calculated average tensile and compressive strains

Figure 6.11 Tensile and compressive axial strain response along the length of a TFP having a ERW outer pipe with a nominal thickness of 14.3mm at a curvature level

The average strain-curvature diagrams represent the global bending behaviour, while the local strains along the length give insight in the local bending behaviour.

Ovalisation
Ovalisation ( ) of the pipe during bending is calculated according to the formula in Equation 6.8 [DNV, 2000] based on the increase in horizontal diameter of the pipe measured by the ovalisation meters. It is assumed that the change in circumferential length of the outer pipe, as calculated according to Equation 6.6, is negligible for the applied curvatures. This was conrmed with the numerical models. The vertical diameter of the outer pipe can be determined when approximating the bent pipe section as an ellipse according to Equation 6.7. Initial outer circumference

Vertical outer radius after bending Ovalisation including out-of- roundness tolerance of fabrication

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Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests on Lined Pipe

The ovalisation is represented in two different plots, both plots giving insight in the local bending behaviour. The rst representation is the ovalisation-curvature diagram as given in Figure 6.12. The shifts in the measured data are due to new starts during the measurements. Friction in the ovalisation meters is the main reason for the irregularities in the ovalisation measured. The second representation is the ovalisation response along the pipe length at discrete curvature levels, as shown in Figure 6.13. With this representation, the responses of different pipes can best be compared.

Figure 6.12 Typical ovalisation-curvature response during bend test

Figure 6.13 Typical ovalisation response along the pipe length during bend test

Liner wrinkles
The local liner wrinkling behaviour is investigated from the laser scans. With the full scan laser data, a plot of the inner surface of the liner is generated, indicating the location of wrinkles at the compression side. This plot can be used for determination of the mode shape in which liner wrinkling occurs. No absolute wrinkle heights can be taken from this plot directly, because of the algorithm used for processing the data. For each scanned section, the weighted midpoint was calculated. The weighted midpoints of all subsequent sections were placed in line. Compared to a perfectly round section, the weighted midpoint of a section with a large wrinkle at the compression side has moved towards the tension side as illustrated in Figure 6.14. When placing the weighted midpoints of these two sections in line, an elevation occurs in the full scan plot at the tension side in the section with the wrinkle at the compression side. The absence of any elevation of the liner at the tension side after the bend test was conrmed by cutting the TFPs in longitudinal direction. The full scan plot represents the distance between the initial inner radius of the liner and the scanned inner radius.

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Figure 6.14 Process of generating full scan plot from scanned sections An example of a complete full scan, with the compression side located at 90 0 and the tension side at 2700, is given in Figure 6.15, together with a picture of the wrinkles 900 at midspan. In the remaining of this chapter, the presented full scan plots will only include the compression side, from 00 to 1800. Midspan is located around .

Figure 6.15 Full scan plot of the complete circumference along the length of TFP N01KA at a curvature level

Figure 6.16 Picture along the length of TFP N01KA cut through in longitudinal direction at 900 after the four point bend test

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To determine the exact wrinkle height, the longitudinal scans can be used, as shown in Figure 6.17, provided that the highest wrinkle occurs at 900. The accuracy of the line scans is double the accuracy of the full scans; a measuring interval of 10mm compared to 20mm was used. In case the highest wrinkle occurs aside the 900 and is not scanned in the longitudinal scan, the wrinkle height can be approximated by adding the elevations at the tension and compression side from the full scan.

Figure 6.17. Longitudinal scan at compression side at increasing curvature levels for TFP N01KA, without coating The wrinkle height ( ) and wavelength ( ) are determined from the line scans as illustrated in Figure 6.18, in agreement with the procedure as described by Focke [2007]. The beginning and end of a wrinkle are dened as the two adjacent longitudinal locations where the slope of the liner pipe wrinkle changes sign. The scanned data of the maximum wrinkle was tted with a sixth grade polynomial from which the wrinkle top was determined. Comparison with hand measurements showed that this interpolation of the scanned data gives a good approximation of the wrinkle top. Small shifts in the longitudinal position of subsequent scans were eliminated by aligning the wrinkle tops in longitudinal direction. When the wrinkle had not developed sufficiently, a recognisable valley was taken for alignment. After alignment, the initial scan was subtracted from each subsequent scan to eliminate initial imperfections. The wrinkle length was dened as the longitudinal distance between the two adjacent locations where the slope of the liner pipe wrinkle changes sign. The wrinkle height is dened as the distance between the top of the wrinkle and the crossing of the vertical from the top of the wrinkle with the line between the beginning and end of the wrinkle.

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Figure 6.18 Denition of wrinkle height and wavelength

6.2.5

Results TFPs without coating simulation

Three TFPs that were not given a coating simulation are subjected to the four point bend test. The results of these pipes will be used for comparison with the numerical models in section 7.5. In this section the inuence of the pipe characteristics as summarised in Table 6.2 will be investigated. Furthermore, the inuence of a longitudinal weld at the neutral line (at 3 oclock) will be investigated by comparing pipes N01KA and P01KA. The inuence of the outer pipe thickness is investigated by comparing pipes P01KA and T13KB. When interpreting the bend test results, the outcomes of the tensile tests and residual compressive stress tests should be taken into account for a complete conclusion. Table 6.2 Overview of bent TFPs without preliminary coating simulation

Longitudinal weld at the neutral line

To investigate the inuence of a longitudinal weld at the neutral line on the bending behaviour of TFP, the experimental results of pipes N01KA and P01KA are compared. Figure 6.19 includes the global momentcurvature responses of TFPs N01KA and P01KA. TFP P01KA with an ERW outer pipe and N01KA with a seamless outer pipe, show approximately the same stiffness and strength during bending. The fact that the N01KA curve lies slightly higher might be caused by the somewhat stronger outer pipe material.

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Figure 6.19. Moment-curvature diagram TFPs with a 14.3mm outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation, ERW (N01KA) and seamless (P01KA) From the ovalisation developments along the two TFPs in Figure 6.20, it can be seen that TFP N01KA rst started to decrease in horizontal diameter. At increasing curvature however, ovalisation of this pipe increased much faster than of P01KA. At the maximum curvature of , ovalisation has localized near midspan for both TFPs and the maximum values are close.

Figure 6.20. Ovalisation along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with a 14.3mm outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation, ERW (N01KA) and seamless (P01KA) From the average strains at increasing curvature levels of the two TFPs in Figure 6.21 it shows that the strains followed the calculated elastic values until the TFP started to deform plastically. The average strains of the two TFPs lay close, P01KA showing somewhat higher compressive strains than N01KA. Furthermore it shows for both pipes that the average compressive strains are lower than the tensile strains. This might be caused by a combination of the difference in tensile and compressive material response, and an inuence of the boundary conditions as discussed by Guarracino [2009]. The material behaviour under compression has not been determined.

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Figure 6.21. Curvature strain diagram for TFPs with a 14.3mm outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation, ERW (N01KA) and seamless (P01KA) The strains along both outer pipes at the highest curvature level of in Figure 6.22 show that the resulting strain values correspond for the two TFPs, although the longitudinal locations, at which the maximum strains occurred, do not correspond. The maximum strain for P01KA occurred at midspan, while it occurred right from midspan for N01KA.

Figure 6.22. Local strains along the pipe length at the nal curvature level of for TFPs with a 14.3mm outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation, ERW (N01KA) and seamless (P01KA) The full scans as shown in Figure 6.23 and Figure 6.24 show similar mode shapes for both TFPs, one main wrinkle at 900 with an accompanying wrinkle somewhat higher at the circumference of the liner, and somewhat further along the liner length another wrinkle that starts to develop at 900. Besides the local wrinkles, the full scans show increasing ovalisation of the TFPs towards midspan, elevation at 900 and inclination at 00 and 1800.

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Figure 6.23. Full scan at compression side of TFP N01KA with a 14.3mm thick ERW outer pipe, without coating simulation at a curvature level

Figure 6.24. Full scan at compression side of TFP P01KA with a 14.3mm thick seamless outer pipe, without coating simulation at a curvature level The wrinkle height and wavelength development for both TFPs with increasing curvature, as determined from the line scans, are given in Figure 6.25 and Figure 6.26 respectively. From the wrinkle height in Figure 6.25 it can be concluded that wrinkling initiation for both TFPs occurred around . Until a certain curvature, the wrinkle in TFP N01KA is higher than the one in P01KA, but at the same time less wide. After that, the wrinkle in N01KA suddenly increases signicantly in width, overhauling the width of the wrinkle in P01KA.

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Figure 6.25. Height of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with a 14.3mm outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation, ERW (N01KA) and seamless (P01KA)

Figure 6.26. Wavelength of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with a 14.3mm outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation, ERW (N01KA) and seamless (P01KA)

Based on comparison of the pure bend test results of two geometrically similar TFPs, one seamless and one ERW, it can be concluded that a longitudinal weld at the neutral bending line does not have a signicant inuence.

Outer pipe thickness

To investigate the inuence of the outer pipe thickness on the bending behaviour of TFP, the experimental results of pipes P01KA and T13KB are compared. With exception of the outer pipe thickness, the material characteristics and residual compressive stress of both pipes correspond reasonably well. Figure 6.27 includes the global moment-curvature diagram of both TFPs, from which it can be concluded that the TFP T13KB with the thicker 17.5mm outer pipe acted signicantly stronger than P01KA with a 14.3mm thick outer pipe.

Figure 6.27. Moment-curvature diagram seamless TFPs with a 14.3mm (P01KA) and 17.5mm (T13KB) outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation

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Figure 6.28. Ovalisation along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels for seamless TFPs with a 14.3mm (P01KA) and 17.5mm (T13KB) outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation The ovalisation developments along the two pipes are compared in Figure 6.28, representing the ovalisation along the pipes at increasing curvature levels. In the beginning T13KB ovalised less than P01KA. But at increasing curvature however, ovalisation of T13KB exceeds that of P01KA signicantly, contrary to what would be expected for a thicker outer pipe. However, the ovalisation measurements of P01KA showed signicant irregularities. It can be concluded for both TFPs that ovalisation localised around midspan at higher curvatures. From the average strains at increasing curvature levels of the two TFPs in Figure 6.29 it shows that the average tensile strains of both pipes correspond, while the average compressive strain of P01KA exceeds that of T13KB as expected based on its smaller thickness. The calculated elastic global strains are independent of the TFPs thickness and are therefore the same for both pipes.

Figure 6.29. Curvature strain diagram for seamless TFPs with a 14.3mm (P01KA) and 17.5mm (T13KB) outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation

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The strains along both outer pipes at the highest curvature level of in Figure 6.30 show that the tensile strains correspond in average. The compressive strain of P01KA localises at midspan, while it uctuates along the length of T13KB. The maximum compressive strain of P01KA exceeds that of T13KB.

Figure 6.30. Local strains along the pipe length at the nal curvature level of for seamless TFPs with a 14.3mm (P01KA) and 17.5mm (T13KB) outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation

Figure 6.31. Full scan at compression side of TFP P01KA with a 14.3mm thick ERW outer pipe, without coating simulation at a curvature level

Figure 6.32. Full scan at compression side of TFP T13KB with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, without coating simulation at a curvature level

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Figure 6.33. Height of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for seamless TFPs with a 14.3mm (P01KA) and 17.5mm (T13KB) outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation

Figure 6.34. Wavelength of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for seamless TFPs 14.3mm (P01KA) and 17.5mm (T13KB) outer pipe nominal thickness, without coating simulation

The full scans in Figure 6.31 and Figure 6.32 show completely different mode shapes. The liner in TFP T13KB at 900 is elevated along the complete length of the pipe with some small wrinkles, while the wrinkles and ovalisation in TFP P01KA, have localised around midspan. The wrinkle height and wavelength development for both TFPs with increasing curvature, as determined from the line scans, are given in Figure 6.33 and Figure 6.34 respectively. From these gures, it can be concluded that liner wrinkling initiation in T13KB occurs at a larger curvature than P01KA and that both the development of wrinkle height and width stay behind compared to P01KA. Based on comparison of the pure bend test results of two seamless TFPs with a 14.3mm and a 17.5mm outer pipe thickness, it can be concluded that an increase in the outer pipe thickness results in liner wrinkling at a larger curvature.

6.2.6

Results TFPs with coating simulation

In addition to T13KB, the seamless TFP with the 17.5mm thick outer pipe that was not given a coating simulation, ve TFPs with a 17.5mm thick outer pipe were given a coating simulation prior to bending. The test results are used for investigating the inuence of the characteristics, pretreatments and testing conditions as included in Table 6.3.

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Table 6.3 Overview of bent TFPs with a 17.5mm thick outer pipe

Coating simulation
The inuence of a coating cycle on the bending behaviour of TFP is determined by comparing TFPs T13KB and T12KA. Figure 6.35 includes the global moment-curvature diagram of both TFPs.

Figure 6.35. Moment-curvature diagram TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness, with (T12KA) and without coating simulation (T13KB)

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Figure 6.36. Measured stress-strain curves for outer pipes of TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness, with (T12KA) and without coating simulation (T13KB) Table 6.4 Characteristic values moment curvature and stress-strain responses TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness, with and without coating simulation

In order to be able to draw any conclusions from the moment-curvature diagrams shown in Figure 6.35, the differences in tensile test data of the two outer pipes should be taken into account. From Table 6.4 and Figure 6.36 it shows that the outer pipe of T13KB acts stronger than T12KA. Additionally, T13KB has a higher contact stress between liner and outer pipe measured during the residual compressive stress test. After combining the moment-curvature diagrams and the stress-strain responses of TFPs T12KA and T13KB, it can be concluded that the difference in moment-curvature response is mainly caused by the difference in stress-strain response of the outer pipe materials of the two TFPs. The lower material strength of T12KA might be caused by the low temperature of the coating simulation cycle, however further research is required. Figure 6.37 represents the ovalisation development along the TFPs at increasing curvature levels. At the maximum curvature of ovalisation has localised near midspan for both pipes, although ovalisation of T13KB occurred more uniformly along the length of the pipe, while it localised more excessively around midspan for T12KA. This results in the maximum ovalisation value of T12KA exceeding that of T13KB.

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Figure 6.37. Ovalisation along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness, with (T12KA) and without coating simulation (T13KB)

Figure 6.38. Local strains along the pipe length at the nal curvature level of for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness, with (T12KA) and without coating simulation (T13KB) The strains along both outer pipes at the highest curvature level of in Figure 6.38 show that the resulting strain values are close for the two TFPs, although the longitudinal locations at which the maximum strains occurred do not correspond. The compressive strain of T12KA localises at midspan, while it uctuates along the length of T13KB. The maximum compressive strain of T12KA exceeds that of T13KB somewhat. The full scans as shown in Figure 6.39 and Figure 6.40 show different mode shapes for both TFPs; T13KB shows small wrinkles along the length of the TFP, while T12KA shows one main wrinkle at 900 with accompanying wrinkles somewhat higher at the circumference of the liner. Besides the local wrinkles in T12KA, the full scan shows increasing ovalisation of the TFP towards midspan; elevation at 900 and inclination at 00 and 1800.

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Figure 6.39. Full scan at compression side of TFP T13KB with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, without coating simulation at a curvature level

Figure 6 . 40 . Full scan at compression side of TFP T12KA with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, with coating simulation at a curvature level The wrinkle height and wavelength development for both TFPs with increasing curvature, as determined from the line scans, are given in Figure 6.41 and Figure 6.42, respectively. Liner wrinkling initiation in T13KB occurs at a higher curvature than in T12KA and the development of the wrinkle height stays behind compared to T12KA, while the wrinkle widths are comparable. The peaks in wrinkle width of T12KA are caused by some deviations in the start and end point of the wrinkle due to some changes in the liner ramp near the start and end point.

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Figure 6.41. Height of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness, with (T12KA) and without coating simulation (T13KB)

Figure 6.42. Wavelength of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness, with (T12KA) and without coating simulation (T13KB)

Comparison of the pure bend test results of two seamless TFPs with a 17.5mm thick outer pipe, one of which was given a coating simulation cycle, indicates that a coating simulation cycle might have a negative effect on the rigidity of the TFP during bending and results in earlier liner wrinkling. However, further research into the inuence of coating cycles on the material behaviour of the outer pipe and the radial contact stress between the liner and outer pipe is required.

Test temperature
TFP T12KB was tested at an elevated temperature of 1500C. The moment-curvature response of this pipe differs signicantly from the other TFPs tested.

Figure 6.43. Moment-curvature diagram TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested at room (T12KA) and elevated temperature (T12KB)

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As Figure 6.43 shows, the moment curvature response becomes nonlinear at a lower curvature and moment, after which the moment continues to increase with increasing curvature levels. This in contrast with TFP T12KA which reaches plasticity at a larger curvature but than continues at an approximately constant moment capacity plateau. No material test data are available for TFP T12KB. From the ovalisation developments along the two pipes depicted in Figure 6.44, the ovalisation in TFP T12KB seemed to develop more uniformly along the length of the pipe at low curvatures. With increasing curvature levels however, ovalisation of TFP T12KB localised towards the outer ovalisation meters while it localised near midspan for T12KA.

Figure 6.44. Ovalisation along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested at room (T12KA) and elevated temperature (T12KB)

Figure 6.45. Local strains along the pipe length at the nal curvature level of for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested at room (T12KA) and elevated temperature (T12KB) The strains along both outer pipes at the highest curvature level in Figure 6.45 along T12KB are non-uniform neither at the compression side, nor at the tension side. The strains at the compression side of T12KB localise towards the boundaries of the constant moment area. The strain gauges at the left side of the

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plot failed and show therefore tensile values. For TFP T12KA, the strains localise around midspan at the compression side. The maximum strains are comparable for the two TFPs at the highest curvature level. The only scans available for TFP T12KB, which was tested at an elevated temperature of 1500C, were made after unloading because the laser scanner could not withstand the heat. Therefore, the full scans after unloading are compared for T12KA and T12KB as shown in Figure 6.46 and Figure 6.47, respectively. Although the location of the wrinkles does not correspond for the two TFPs, the mode shapes do correspond. Both TFPs show a mode shape with one main wrinkle at 900, with accompanying side wrinkles somewhat higher at the circumference of the TFP together forming part of an X-shape.

Figure 6.46. Full scan at compression side of TFP T12KA with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, with coating simulation tested at room temperature after unloading

Figure 6.47. Full scan at compression side of TFP T12KB with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, with coating simulation tested at elevated temperature after unloading The wrinkle data of TFP T12KB was taken from the full scan after unloading, because no line scan data was available due to the fact that the laser scanner could not withstand the elevated test temperature. From Figure 6.48 and Figure 6.49 it can be concluded that the nal wrinkle height and width of the largest wrinkle in T12KB exceeds that of the wrinkle in T12KA.

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Figure 6.48. Height of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested at room (T12KA) and elevated temperature (T12KB)

Figure 6.49. Wavelength of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested at room (T12KA) and elevated temperature (T12KB)

Comparison of the pure bend test results of two seamless TFPs with a 17.5mm outer pipe thickness, one of which was tested at an elevated temperature of 1500C, indicates that an elevated temperature during bending has a negative effect on the rigidity of the TFP during bending and results in earlier liner wrinkling.

Internal pressure
From the moment-curvature diagrams in Figure 6.50 it shows that the TFP T13KA that was tested with an internal pressure of 20 bar, has a higher moment capacity than TFP T12KA without internal pressure. Since no tensile test data is available for TFP T13KA, the inuence of material stiffness and strength on the difference in moment capacity of the two TFPs cannot be determined.

Figure 6.50. Moment-curvature diagram TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested with (T12KA) and without (T13KA) internal pressure

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From Figure 6.51 it can be seen that ovalisation localises around midspan for both TFPs, although the degree with which ovalisation in T12KA localises exceeds that of T13KA.

Figure 6.51. Ovalisation along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested with (T12KA) and without (T13KA) internal pressure The strains along both outer pipes at the highest curvature level in Figure 6.52 show that for TFP T12KA the maximum compressive strain occurs at midspan, while it occurs somewhat aside midspan for T13KA. The maximum compressive strain levels correspond.

Figure 6.52. Local strains along the pipe length at the nal curvature level of for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested with (T12KA) and without (T13KA) internal pressure The full scans at maximum curvature are compared for T12KA and T13KA as shown in Figure 6.53 and Figure 6.54, respectively. The wrinkling pattern of T12KA has localised at this curvature, with one main wrinkle at 900 and accompanying side wrinkles somewhat higher at the circumference of the TFP together forming part of an X-shape. However, in the full scan of T13KA no wrinkles have developed.

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Figure 6.53. Full scan at compression side of TFP T12KA with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, with coating simulation tested without internal pressure at a curvature level

Figure 6.54. Full scan at compression side of TFP T13KA with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, with coating simulation tested with internal pressure at a curvature level

Figure 6.55. Height of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested with (T12KA) and without (T13KA) internal pressure

Figure 6.56. Wavelength of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, tested with (T12KA) and without (T13KA) internal pressure

For TFP T13KA, which was tested with internal pressure, line scans were made less frequently because this required the water to be taken out before the laser scanner could enter the TFP. From Figure 6.55 and

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Figure 6.56 it shows that wrinkling initiation occurred at a larger curvature for T13KA than for T12KA and that the wrinkle in TFP T13KA is shallower but wider than the wrinkle in T12KA. The above discussion indicates that an internal pressure during bending has a positive effect on the rigidity of the TFP during bending; applying an internal pressure results in liner wrinkling initiation at a larger curvature and shallower but wider wrinkles.

Circumferential weld
From the moment-curvature diagrams in Figure 6.57 it can be concluded that the moment-curvature responses for the three TFPs correspond. No material test data is available for the TFPs with circumferential welds, T14KB-T14KC and T15KA-T15KB.

Figure 6.57. Moment-curvature diagram for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, with (T14KB-T14KC overlay, T15KA-T15KB seal) and without (T12KA) a circumferential weld at midspan

Figure 6.58. Ovalisation along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, with (T14KB-T14KC overlay, T15KA-T15KB seal) and without (T12KA) a circumferential weld at midspan

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Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests on Lined Pipe

From the ovalisation developments along the three pipes in Figure 6.58, it can be seen that maximum ovalisation of TFP T12KA and T15KA-T15KB are of the same magnitude, while T14KB-T14KC appears to ovalise less at the locations of the ovalisation meters. For the two TFPs with a circumferential weld at midspan, ovalisation changes signicantly around midspan, while it stays more constant around midspan for T12KA without a circumferential weld. The strains along both outer pipes at the highest curvature level in Figure 6.59 show that for TFP T12KA without a circumferential weld at midspan, the maximum compressive strain occurs at midspan, while for the TFPs with a circumferential weld at midspan the maximum compressive strain occurs aside of midspan. The maximum strain levels of the three TFPs at maximum curvature correspond. For TFP T12KA without a circumferential weld the strain at the tension side appears to be almost constant, while it is signicantly smaller at midspan for the two TFPs with a circumferential weld at midspan, caused by the stiffer welding material. For T14KB-T14KC with the overlay weld, the highest strain occurs further away from midspan than for T15KA-T15KB with the seal weld.

Figure 6.59. Local strains along the pipe length at the nal curvature level of for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, with (T14KB-T14KC overlay, T15KA-T15KB seal) and without (T12KA) a circumferential weld at midspan The full scans at maximum curvature for T12KA, T14KB-T14KC and T15KA-T15KB are given in Figure 6.60 to Figure 6.62, respectively. For TFP T12KA without a circumferential weld, the largest wrinkle occurs at midspan, while for the TFPs with a circumferential weld at midspan wrinkling occurs aside of midspan. T14KB-T14KC with an overlay circumferential weld at midspan shows symmetric wrinkling at either side of midspan. T15KA-T15KB with a seal weld at midspan shows a far developed cluster of wrinkles at the right of midspan and two wrinkles with some small adjacent wrinkles at the left of midspan. Although the location of the wrinkles does not correspond for the three TFPs, the mode shapes do correspond reasonably well; again one main wrinkle at 900, with accompanying side wrinkles somewhat higher at the circumference of the TFP together forming part of an X-shape.

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Figure 6.60. Full scan at compression side of TFP T12KA with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, with coating simulation without circumferential weld

Figure 6.61. Full scan at compression side of TFP T14KB-T14KC with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, with coating simulation and circumferential overlay weld at midspan

Figure 6.62. Full scan at compression side of TFP T15KA-T15KB with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, with coating simulation and circumferential seal weld at midspan The wrinkle height and wavelength development of the highest wrinkle for the TFPs at increasing curvature, are shown in Figure 6.63 and Figure 6.64. The curvature at which wrinkling initiation occurs differs for the three TFPs, T15KA-T15KB with the seal weld at a signicantly higher curvature than the other two TFPs with a seal weld and without a weld. The wrinkle heights and widths correspond reasonably well, excluding the sudden decrease in wrinkle height of T14KB-T14KC, which might be caused by an extensive increase of a side wrinkle.

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Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests on Lined Pipe

Figure 6 . 6 3. Height of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, with (T14KB-T14KC overlay, T15KA-T15KB seal) and without (T12KA) a circumferential weld at midspan

Figure 6 . 6 4. Wavelength of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels for TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe nominal thickness and coating simulation, with (T14KB-T14KC overlay, T15KA-T15KB seal) and without (T12KA) a circumferential weld at midspan

Comparison of the pure bend test results of three seamless TFPs with a 17.5mm outer pipe thickness, one without a circumferential weld, and two with, respectively, a circumferential overlay weld at midspan and a circumferential seal weld at midspan, indicates that the presence of a circumferential weld has an effect on the curvature at which wrinkling initiates and the wrinkle location. Wrinkles do not occur in the inuence length of the weld. Liner wrinkling initiation occurs at higher curvature for T15KA-T15KB with a seal weld, although the nal wrinkle heights and wavelengths are comparable.

6.3 Conclusions
In this chapter, the results of the four point bend tests have been discussed. Before concluding anything, it must be mentioned that for each variable only one sample was tested. The test results are well suited to indicate trends and qualitative observations, however statistically the number of specimens is too small to draw rm quantitative conclusions. The qualitative results for the characteristics investigated are summarised in Table 6.5 and Table 6.6. An overview of all the actually measured pipe characteristics can be found in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2. From results of the bent TFPs that were not given a coating simulation cycle, it can be concluded that: -  A longitudinal weld positioned at the neutral line (3 oclock) during bending does not affect the wrinkling capacity of the liner in the TFP, and -  An increase in outer pipe thickness has a positive effect on the wrinkling capacity of the liner in the TFP.

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Table 6.5 Results of bent TFPs without preliminary coating simulation

Table 6.6 Results of bent TFPs with a 17.5mm thick outer pipe

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Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests on Lined Pipe

From a comparison of the test results of the TFPs with a 17.5mm thick outer pipe the following conclusions can be drawn: -  A coating cycle might have a negative effect on the rigidity of the TFP during bending and might result in earlier liner wrinkling. The coating cycle is expected not to inuence the material, while it will result in a loss of radial contact stress due to a higher thermal expansion coefficient of the liner than of the outer pipe. However, further research is required on the inuence of coating cycles on the material behaviour of the outer pipe and the radial contact stress between the liner and outer pipe. -  An elevated temperature during bending has a negative effect on the rigidity of the TFP during bending and results in earlier liner wrinkling. -  An internal pressure of 20 bar indicates that an internal pressure during bending has a positive effect on the rigidity of the TFP during bending. Applying an internal pressure results in liner wrinkling at a larger curvature and shallower but wider wrinkles. -  The presence of a circumferential weld has an effect on the curvature at which wrinkling initiates and on the wrinkle location. Wrinkles do not occur in the inuence length of the weld, and liner wrinkling initiation occurs at higher curvature for a TFP with a seal weld than without a weld or an overlay weld, although the nal wrinkle heights and wavelengths are comparable.

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7.

Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined pipe

7.1 Introduction
In this chapter the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe in pure bending is studied. In correspondence with Chapter 4, the base case is a snug-t lined pipe. Snug-t indicates that initially neither a radial contact stress nor a gap is present between the liner and the outer cylinder, i.e. a perfect t. Based on the results of Chapter 5 for the single walled liner and single walled outer pipe in pure bending, the two failure modes exhibited by thick elastic-plastic cylinders and thinner elastic-plastic cylinders described in section 1.6 are expected to interact in the lined pipe.
Besides the publications of this research, only a small number of publications can be found on the plastic wrinkling behaviour of conned cylinders in pure bending. In 2007 experimental results have been published by Focke [2007]. Ilstad [2006] investigated the possibility of local wrinkling for the clad layer within clad cylinders in pure bending by means of numerical models. No references describing analytical methods calculating the critical strain for conned cylinders in pure bending are known. More recently a paper concerning the structural behaviour of lined pipes was published by Vasilikis and Karamanos [2011], predicting the bending response and the buckling curvature of the liner numerically examining the inuence of prestresses resulting from the manufacturing process as well as external pressure. The mechanical behaviour of the conned liner as part of the lined pipe in pure bending shows similarities with the mechanical behaviour of the single walled liner as described in section 5.3. The description of Corona [2006] used in Chapter 5 will therefore be used as a guide to explain the behaviour of the conned liner in pure bending. Figure 7.1 shows a typical moment-curvature response ( ) resulting from a numerical model of a conned liner in pure bending, together with the moment-curvature response of the uniform ovalisation model. The bifurcation point occurs before the natural limit load due to ovalisation is reached. Initially, before the bifurcation point is reached, the liner and the outer pipe ovalise ( ) uniformly along the length as illustrated in Figure 7.2. From the bifurcation point on, contact between liner and outer pipe is lost due to the fact that the liner ovalises more than the outer pipe as illustrated in Figure 7.3. At a curvature just before the maximum moment capacity is reached, periodic wrinkles start to develop in the conned liner. At the curvature where the liner reaches its maximum moment capacity as indicated in Figure 7.1, the liner wrinkles start to localise around midspan and the moment capacity starts to decrease. As soon as the wrinkles localise, their height starts to grow. Localisation at midspan leads to an inward kink. Away from midspan unloading occurs, leading to decreasing ovalisation.

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Figure 7.1 Typical moment-curvature response of a conned elastic-plastic cylinder with intermediate -ratio in pure bending

Figure 7.2 Typical ovalisation response at increasing curvature of a conned elastic-plastic cylinder with intermediate -ratio in pure bending (ovalisation allowed at the cylinder ends)

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Figure 7.3 Contact between liner and outer pipe is lost at the compression side due to the fact that the liner ovalises more than the outer pipe, showing axial stresses

7.2
7.2.1

Numerical Uniform Ovalisation Model of Lined Pipe

Model description

As described in the introduction, the cross section of the lined pipe subjected to bending progressively ovalises leading to a limit load instability called the natural limit load. This section discusses the ovalisation behaviour of the snug-t lined pipe, with the liner conned in the outer cylinder. The lined pipe model is a combination of the single walled liner and single walled outer pipe models as discussed in section 5.3 and section 5.7, with the same geometries and meshes. The same kinematic couplings and boundary conditions as included in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 are applied. The geometry and boundary conditions of the lined pipe ovalisation model are shown in Figure 7.5 and Figure 7.6, respectively.

Figure 7.4 Geometry of lined pipe ovalisation model, full and zoomed in

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Figure 7.5 Boundary conditions of lined pipe ovalisation model, full and zoomed in For each pipe the mesh consists of three layers of C3D8R solid elements in thickness direction, 120 in circumferential direction and two in axial direction. The suitability of the mesh will be discussed during the mesh sensitivity analysis. The uniform ovalisation model of the lined pipe has a length of 1mm. The material properties of the liner and outer pipe are dened according to the representative nominal isotropic stress-strain curve that resulted from the tensile tests as included in section 2.3. Surface-to-surface with hard contact and nite sliding without friction is used for the contact denition between liner and outer pipe, with the inside surface of the outer pipe being the slave surface and the outside surface of the liner being the master surface.

7.2.2

Sensitivity for applied mesh

In this section the suitability of the mesh used for the single walled liner will be examined for the conned liner. Three elements per pipe in thickness direction are considered to be sufficient, based on the mesh study of the single walled liner. Therefore, only the suitability of the number of 120 elements in circumferential direction will be examined based on comparison with 240 elements in circumferential direction. From Table 7.1 and Figure 7.6 the number of 120 elements in circumferential direction is judged to be sufcient. The signicant increase in the total number of elements does not contribute signicantly to the accuracy of the result. The difference in the curvature at maximum moment capacity is caused by the broad constant moment plateau around the natural limit load of the conned liner. Table 7.1 Inuence of mesh renement on stress and curvature at maximum moment, relative to solid mesh with 120 elements in circumferential direction and 3 elements in thickness direction

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Figure 7.6 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of conned liner for meshes with 120 and 240 elements in circumferential direction and three elements per pipe in thickness direction

7.2.3

Mechanical behaviour of conned liner during uniform ovalisation

The ovalisation behaviour of the lined pipe is presented with the moment-curvature response and the ovalisation-curvature response. The moment-curvature responses of the lined pipe together with that of the conned liner and outer pipe are given in Figure 7.7. The moment capacity of the outer pipe is much larger than of the liner, and as a result has a much larger contribution to the total moment capacity of the lined pipe. The ovalisation of the conned liner exceeds the ovalisation of the outer pipe, as shown in Figure 7.8. This is in correspondence with the deformed shape at a curvature of as shown in Figure 7.9.

Figure 7.7 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of lined pipe

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Figure 7.8 Ovalisation-curvature, ovalisation-strain responses of conned liner and conning outer pipe

Figure 7.9 Deformed shape snug-t lined pipe at a curvature of

7.3
7.3.1

Numerical Model of Full Length Lined Pipe in Pure Bending

Model description

To allow for wrinkling the snug-t lined pipe is modelled with a total length of 1600mm, the constant moment length in the full scale bend test rig as discussed in Chapter 6. The model of the snug-t lined pipe is completely similar with the full length models of the single walled liner and single walled outer pipe as discussed in section 5.3 and section 5.7, with the same geometries and meshes. The same kinematic couplings and boundary conditions as included in Table 5.5 and Table 5.6 are applied. Figure 7.10 gives the geometry and boundary conditions of the lined pipe ovalisation model. The contact between liner and outer pipe is dened as surface-to-surface with hard contact and nite sliding without friction, with the inside surface of the outer pipe being the slave surface and the outside surface of the liner being the master surface.. Bending is introduced by applying the same rotation separately to the reference points

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at the cylinder ends of liner and outer pipe. This rotation forces the liner ends to stay parallel to the outer cylinder ends, which corresponds best with the situation in the bend test rig as discussed in Chapter 6.

Figure 7.10 Geometry, applied rotation and boundary conditions of lined pipe pure bending model The mesh applied to the lined pipe is the same as the mesh applied to the single walled liner and single walled outer pipe, consisting of three layers of C3D8R solid elements, 120 elements in circumferential direction and ve mesh regions in axial direction with lengths and numbers of elements in axial direction as given in Table 5.7. The suitability of this mesh, referred to as the original mesh, will result from the mesh sensitivity analysis further on in this chapter. The material properties of the liner and the outer pipe are dened according to the representative nominal isotropic stress-strain curves as included in section 2.3. To follow the wrinkling response of the lined pipe, the introduction of a geometric imperfection is not needed from a mechanical point of view. The plastic material denition and the applied bending load introduce the initiation of liner wrinkling. Vasilikis and Karamanos [2011] have shown that liner wrinkling is imperfection sensitive.

7.3.2

Boundary conditions

The snug-t lined pipe model is run for the two different constraints applied at the ends as described for the single walled liner in section 5.3, i.e. allowing for ovalisation and fully restricting ovalisation, respectively. The moment-curvature responses of the conned liners both having the original mesh, with different boundary conditions at the cylinder ends are shown in Figure 7.11, together with the moment-curvature response of the uniform ovalisation solution. The moment-curvature response of the full length conned liner with ovalisation restricted at the ends bifurcates earlier from the uniform ovalisation solution than the conned liner that is allowed to ovalise at the ends. This is caused by the fact that ovalisation localises earlier at midspan when ovalisation is restricted at the ends than when ovalisation is allowed at the ends, as Figure 7.12 shows.

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Figure 7.11 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of conned liner for original mesh, with ovalisation restricted and allowed for at the cylinder ends

Figure 7.12 Ovalisation-curvature, ovalisation-strain response of conned liner for original mesh, with ovalisation restricted and allowed for at the cylinder ends In addition to the moment-curvature and ovalisation responses, the axial strains along the compression side at the inside of the liner at a curvature of are shown in Figure 7.13. Considering these axial strains ( ) at the inside of the liners along the compression side, it shows that the conned liner which is allowed to ovalise at the ends develops an inward wrinkle at either side of midspan, while one inward wrinkle at midspan develops for the conned liner with ovalisation restricted at the ends. This is conrmed by the deformed lined pipes in Figure 7.14 and Figure 7.15.

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Figure 7.13 Axial strains at curvature level of conned liners having the original mesh, with ovalisation restricted and allowed at the liner ends, respectively

Figure 7.14 Axial strains in deformed lined pipe with allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends at curvature level

Figure 7.15 Axial strains in deformed lined pipe with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends at curvature level

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7.3.3

Sensitivity for applied mesh

In this section, the sensitivity of the lined pipe numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the ends for the applied mesh will be evaluated. The three different meshes as used for the single walled liner and outer pipe are applied, with the number of elements in axial direction per region as included in Table 5.8. The moment-curvature responses of the conned liners with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends, as shown in Figure 7.16, are close for the three different meshes until the maximum moment is reached. The maximum moment capacities with corresponding curvatures and strains are included in Figure 7.16, Table 7.2 and Table 7.3 for the conned liner and the outer pipe, respectively.

Figure 7.16 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of conned liner for three different meshes with 120 elements in circumferential direction, three elements in thickness direction, with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends Table 7.2 Inuence of mesh renement on maximum moment and corresponding curvature of the conned liner, relative to the rened mesh for the models with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends

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Table 7.3 Inuence of mesh renement on maximum moment and curvature at maximum moment of the outer cylinder, relative to the rened mesh for the models with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends

Considering the axial strains at a curvature of as given in Figure 7.17, it shows that the wrinkling patterns for the three different meshes correspond, with an inward wrinkle occurring at midspan as expected based on the test results. The inward wrinkle at midspan of the coarse mesh has developed less far than for the other two meshes. Based on the fact that the moment-curvature responses resulting from the three different meshes are close and the axial strains show convergence with increasing mesh renement as the detail in Figure 7.17 illustrates, it can be concluded that the solution is only slightly mesh dependent.

Figure 7.17 Axial strains at curvature level of conned liner for three different meshes with 120 elements in circumferential direction, three elements in thickness direction and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends (full and detail of axial strain range) During examining the inuence of the boundary conditions, the model with the original mesh allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends showed an outward wrinkle at midspan. Figure 7.18 shows that the model allowing for ovalisation at the ends exhibits a different failure mode for each of the three meshes; the coarse mesh develops localised wrinkles at the ends, the original mesh develops an inward wrinkle at either side of midspan and the rened mesh shows an inward wrinkle at midspan in agreement with the models with ovalisation restricted at the ends.

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Figure 7.18 Axial strains at curvature level of conned liner for three different meshes with 120 elements in circumferential direction, three elements in thickness direction, allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends From Figure 7.19, depicting the moment-curvature responses of the models allowing for ovalisation at the ends with the three different meshes applied, it can be seen that the outward wrinkle as exhibited by the original mesh has a higher dissipated energy level than the inward wrinkle of the rened mesh. The mode shape with the inward wrinkle at midspan as exhibited by the rened mesh is therefore most likely to occur. Furthermore, the coarse mesh showing localised wrinkles at the cylinder ends as illustrated in Figure 7.18 bifurcates at a lower curvature level. However since the liners in the four point bend tests wrinkled around midspan, this failure mode cannot be compared with test results.

Figure 7.19 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of conned liner for three different meshes with 120 elements in circumferential direction, three elements in thickness direction, allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends The mode shapes of the models with ovalisation restricted at the ends are consistent, all showing wrinkling around midspan in correspondence with the four point bend tests as discussed in Chapter 6. The mode shapes of the models allowing for ovalisation at the ends are not consistent.

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The numerical results in the remaining of this chapter will be based on the model with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends. The four point bend test results will still be compared with both models, i.e. allowing and restricting ovalisation at the cylinder ends.

7.3.4

Mechanical behaviour of full length conned liner in pure bending

The wrinkling behaviour is described, following the solution of the lined pipe with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends. The moment-curvature response of the conned liner in pure bending is shown in Figure 7.20, together with the moment-curvature response of the uniform ovalisation solution. The ovalisation response of the conned liner at midspan and at the liner ends is given in Figure 7.21. The bifurcation point occurs before the natural limit load due to ovalisation is reached. Figure 7.22 includes the axial strain of the conned liner in pure bending. Initially the liner and the outer pipe ovalise uniformly along the length as far as the restricting constraints at the ends permit. From the bifurcation point on, contact between liner and outer pipe is lost at the compression side because the liner ovalises more than the outer pipe. In between the bifurcation point and the maximum moment of the liner, contact between the liner and outer pipe moves along the circumference. At a curvature just before the maximum moment capacity is reached, periodic wrinkles start to develop in the conned liner, as illustrated in Figure 7.23. At the curvature where the liner reaches its maximum moment capacity, liner wrinkles start to localise around midspan and the moment capacity starts to decrease. As soon as the wrinkles localise, their height starts to grow. The localisation at midspan leads to an inward kink. The main wrinkle with accompanying wrinkles somewhat higher at the circumference of the liner away from midspan, together form an X-shape when mirroring the model in the plane of bending as illustrated in Figure 7.24.

Figure 7.20 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of full length conned liner having the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the ends

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Figure 7.21 Ovalisation-curvature response at midspan for the full length conned liner with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends

Figure 7.22 Axial strains along the conned liner with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the ends in pure bending at increasing curvature and bending strain

Figure 7.23 Deformed conned liner at compression side with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends in pure bending at curvature level , at wrinkling initiation showing a periodic wrinkle pattern showing axial stresses

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Figure 7.24 Deformed conned liner at compression side with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends in pure bending at curvature level showing a localised wrinkle pattern showing axial stresses In addition to the moment-curvature response of the conned liner, Figure 7.25 includes the responses of the conning outer pipe and the total lined pipe. The moment capacity of the outer pipe is larger than that of the liner. At the same curvature where the liner reaches its maximum moment capacity and the wrinkles start to localise around midspan, ovalisation of the outer pipe starts to increase at midspan due to the fact that the lined pipe does not act as one system any longer at this location, as illustrated in Figure 7.26. The outer pipe reaches its maximum moment capacity due to ovalisation at the same curvature as the liner reaches its maximum moment capacity as is conrmed by the values in Table 7.4 and Table 7.5. The decrease in moment capacities of both the liner and the outer pipe results in a decrease of the moment capacity of the total lined pipe.

Figure 7.25 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of lined pipe

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Figure 7.26 Ovalisation-curvature, ovalisation-strain response of conned liner and conning outer pipe

7.4

Numerical Results Lined Pipe and Single Walled Pipes Compared

In this section, the numerical results obtained for the liner and outer pipe being part of the lined pipe are compared with the single walled liner and single walled outer pipe as discussed in section 5.3 and section 5.7.

7.4.1

Numerical results conned liner and single walled liner compared

Figure 7.27 includes the moment-curvature responses of the single walled liner and the conned liner. Table 7.4 includes the maximum moment capacities with corresponding curvatures and strains as well as the wavelength ( ). In correspondence with the method used for determining the wavelength of the wrinkles from the experimental data as discussed in Chapter 6, the wavelength is dened as the longitudinal distance between the two adjacent locations where the slope of the liner pipe wrinkle changes sign. The wavelength is determined at the initiation of periodic wrinkling.

Figure 7.27 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of full length conned liner and single walled liner with ovalisation restricted at the ends

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Table 7.4 Maximum moment, strain and curvature at maximum moment and wrinkle wavelength compared for conned liner and single walled liner with ovalisation restricted at the pipe ends

The conned liner has a higher load carrying capacity than the single walled liner. Connement of the liner in the outer pipe contributes positively to the moment capacity of the liner, as well as to the curvature at which it reaches its maximum moment capacity. The latter is caused by the outer pipe restricting the liner from wrinkling in outward direction. The wavelengths for the conned and single walled liner are close, with the wavelength of the conned liner being slightly longer.

7.4.2

Numerical results conning outer pipe and single walled outer pipe compared

Figure 7.28 includes the moment-curvature responses of the single walled outer pipe and the conning outer pipe.

Figure 7.28 Moment-curvature, moment-strain response of full length conning outer pipe and single walled outer pipe with ovalisation restricted at the ends Table 7.5 Maximum moment, strain and curvature at maximum moment and wrinkle wavelength compared for conning outer pipe and single walled outer pipe with ovalisation restricted at the pipe ends

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Table 7.5 includes the maximum moment capacities with corresponding curvatures and strains. In contrast with the liner, connement of the liner in the outer pipe has a negative effect on the moment capacity of the outer pipe, as well as on the curvature at which it reaches its maximum moment capacity. The liner ovalises more than the outer pipe and exerts a contact force on the outer pipe, causing the conning outer pipe to fail at lower curvature compared to the single walled outer pipe.

7.5

Numerical and Experimental Results Lined Pipe Compared

In this section, the numerical model results will be compared with the four point bend test results of the three TFPs that were not given a coating simulation, as included in Table 7.6. A detailed discussion on the experimental results of the TFPs was given in Chapter 6. The models and experiments will be compared by means of the same characteristics as used for evaluation of the test results. Table 7.6 Overview of the bent TFPs without coating simulation

7.5.1

Lined pipe with 14.3mm thick outer pipe

The results of the numerical models with the 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness for the two different boundary conditions are compared with the experimental results of TFPs N01KA and P01KA. The comparison is started with the global behaviour, after which the local behaviour follows. Figure 7.29 includes the global moment-curvature diagram of the two tested TFPs and the two numerical models.

Figure 7.29. Moment-curvature diagram resulting from the four point bend tests on TFPs with 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with the numerical results

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The moment capacity of the two tested TFPs results to be approximately 15% higher than that of the numerical models. The main explanation is that a difference exists between the numerical input values for the material and geometric characteristics and the actual values of the tested TFPs. As represented in Table 7.7, these deviations account for a 4 to 9% difference in the resulting plastic moment. The plastic moment is calculated according to Equation 7.1 as used by Gresnigt [1986]: Table 7.7 Plastic moment based on material and geometric characteristics TFP used for base case pure bending numerical model and actual values of tested TFPs

Additionally, the following items cause smaller differences between the numerical and test results: -  Variations in geometry, e.g. diameter and wall thickness, as well as variations in material properties, e.g. yield strength, along the length of the tested TFPs; -  Deviations in the material behaviour, e.g. the strong nonlinear material behaviour of the liner pipe material; -  Inaccuracies in the bending moments determined from the four point bending test, particularly at higher curvature, when large deformation occur: The angle of the metal straps in the bend test rig with respect to the TFP changes progressively. For calculating the moment from the test results, the hydraulic cylinder forces are assumed to be perpendicular to the TFP, which can result in a slight overestimation of the moment capacity. -  Finally there may be some differences in the exact location where the force concentrates in the straps at large deformations and rotations: For calculating the moment from the test results, load introduction at the inner straps in the test rig is assumed to be located at the centre of the strap, 800mm away from midspan. Due to skewing of the straps with respect to the TFP, the load can be introduced closer to midspan, resulting in a lower moment capacity. The shape of the moment-curvature response is most important, i.e. at what curvature the maximum bending moment is reached and at what curvature it starts to decline. A decrease in the bending moment indicates the start of failure such as wrinkling of the liner or extensive ovalisation of the outer pipe. The shape of the moment-curvature response corresponds reasonably well for the test and numerical results. Because of this observation and the fact that the differences between the bending moments resulting from the tests and those resulting from the numerical models could be well explained, it was decided to be not necessary to repeat the numerical simulations. New numerical models would not have resulted in different conclusions for the objective of this research, although they would have given more condence in the possible reasons for the quantitative mismatch.

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The axial strains at the highest experimental curvature of measured with strain gauges at distinct locations, as discussed in Chapter 6, and monitored along a node path in the numerical models at the tension and compression side are given in Figure 7.30. It shows that the trends of the tested TFPs and the numerical models correspond. The tensile strain level of the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends corresponds best with the two tested TFPs, the tensile strain level of the numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the ends being somewhat higher. At the compression side, the compressive strain of the two models and TFP P01KA localises at midspan, while compressive strain in TFP N01KA localises right from midspan. The compressive strain in the two tested TFPs uctuates along the length of the pipes. The maximum values match reasonably well with that of the numerical model allowing for ovalisation. The uctuation in axial strains along the tested TFPs is caused by imperfections along the length, not present in the numerical models.

Figure 7.30. Local axial strains along the pipe length at the nal curvature level of resulting from four point bend tests on TFPs with 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with numerical model results Figure 7.31 includes the ovalisation development at increasing curvature. The ovalisation measured along the two tested TFPs is larger towards the middle. The bending moment in the pipe ends outside the inner straps is lower, due to which ovalisation and curvature in the pipe ends are lower. Under the inuence of the reduced ovalisation in the pipe ends, the ovalisation in the middle section is larger at midspan than at the ends. The ovalisation measured along the two tested TFPs is lower than that in the two numerical models. For both TFPs and the numerical models ovalisation localised around midspan at higher curvatures; for TFP N01KA and the numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the ends at lower curvatures than for TFP P01KA and the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends. The measured ovalisation values match best with that at the end of the cylinder in the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends; stabilising at the curvature where the maximum moment capacity of the lined pipe is reached.

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Figure 7.31. Ovalisation along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels resulting from four point bend tests on TFPs with 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with numerical model results The inuence of the differences between the input values for the geometric characteristics and measured values is determined by comparing the measured ovalisations with an analytical elastic ovalisation solution according to Equations 7.2 and 7.3 as used by Gresnigt [1986]:

Combining Equations 7.2 and 6.8 results in:

The geometric characteristics and resulting analytical elastic ovalisation values are included in Table 7.8. From Table 7.8 and Figure 7.34 it can be concluded that the differences in geometric characteristics do not have a signicant inuence on the analytical elastic ovalisation solution. Table 7.8 Analytical elastic ovalisation solutions for outer pipes based on material and geometric characteristics of TFP used for base case pure bending numerical model and the actual values of the tested TFPs

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Figure 7.32. Analytical elastic ovalisation solutions along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels resulting for the geometric characteristics of the pure bending numerical model and the actual values of the tested TFPs From a comparison of the analytical elastic ovalisation curve for the numerical model with the test results and numerical models in Figure 7.33, it can be concluded that the analytical elastic ovalisation solution corresponds better with the numerical results than the measurements. The ovalisation measurements show irregularities and lack behind the analytically calculated elastic ovalisation. This is mainly caused by friction in the ovalisation meters. The amount of friction is not known, because it differs for each test and also varies during a test.

Figure 7.33. Ovalisation from four point bend tests and numerical model compared with analytical elastic ovalisation solution for TFPs with 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation

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Figure 7.34. Full scan from four point bend tests showing the relative displacements at compression side of TFP N01KA with 14.3mm thick ERW outer pipe, without coating simulation at curvature level

Figure 7.35. Full scan from four point bend tests showing the relative displacements at compression side of TFP P01KA with 14.3mm thick seamless outer pipe, without coating simulation at curvature level

Figure 7.36. Mode shape from numerical model of deformed liner at compression side conned in 14.3mm thick outer pipe with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends in pure bending at curvature level showing the axial stress

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Figure 7.37. Mode shape from numerical model of deformed liner at compression side conned in 14.3mm thick outer pipe with the original mesh allowing for ovalisation at the liner ends in pure bending at curvature level showing the axial stress The mode shapes of the two tested TFPs in Figure 7.34 and Figure 7.35 both show a localised wrinkle pattern with one main wrinkle at 900 with an accompanying wrinkle somewhat higher at the circumference of the liner, and somewhat further along the liner another wrinkle that starts to develop at 900. These mode shapes match best with the resulting X-shape of the numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends, with one main wrinkle at 900, and four accompanying wrinkles somewhat higher at the circumference of the liner as shown in Figure 7.36. The numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends shows a different mode shape with two localised wrinkles at either side of midspan as given in Figure 7.37. The wrinkle height ( ) and wavelength development at increasing curvature are shown in Figure 7.38 and Figure 7.39, respectively. The denition of the wrinkle height and width in the numerical models is in correspondence with the description for the tested TFPs in Chapter 6, starting from wrinkling initiation. Wrinkling initiation in the numerical models is dened as the moment at which a periodic pattern in the contact pressure shows. A more rigorous criterion for liner wrinkling initiation is given by Vasilikis and Karamanos [2011]. Wrinkling initiation for both tested TFPs occurred at , while it occurred at higher curvatures for the numerical models at and for the model with ovalisation restricted and for the model allowing for ovalisation, respectively. This is according to expectations because the imperfections present in the tested TFPs are expected to cause an earlier but more gradual liner wrinkling initiation compared to the perfect numerical models. Figure 7.38 shows that the trends and absolute wrinkle heights correspond well for the experiments and numerical models, especially for TFP P01KA and the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends. Figure 7.39 shows that the trends and absolute wavelengths match reasonably well for the experiments and numerical models, until the sudden increase in wavelength of N01KA.

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Figure 7.38. Height of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels resulting from four point bend tests on TFPs with 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with numerical model results

Figure 7.39. Wavelength of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels resulting from four point bend tests on TFPs with 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with numerical model results

7.5.2

Lined pipe with 17.5mm thick outer pipe

The results of the numerical models with the 17.5mm nominal outer pipe thickness with the two different boundary conditions are compared with the experimental results of TFP T13KB. Figure 7.40 includes the global moment-curvature diagram of the tested TFPs and the two numerical models. The moment capacity of the tested TFP results to be approximately 12% higher than that of the numerical models. The same reasons as discussed in section 7.5.1, for the lined pipes with a 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness can explain the extra capacity of the tested TFPs compared to the numerical models. From Table 7.9 it shows that the differences between the numerical input values for the material and geometric characteristics and the actual values of the tested TFPs account for 6% of the difference

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in the resulting plastic moment. For the same reasons as for the lined pipes with a 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness, it is decided that rerunning the FEM calculations will not contribute to the objective and conclusions of this research.

Figure 7.40. Moment-curvature diagram resulting from four point bend tests on TFPs with 17.5mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with outcome numerical models Table 7.9 Plastic moment based on material and geometric characteristics TFP used for base case pure bending numerical model and actual values of tested TFPs

Considering the axial strains at the highest experimental curvature of as given in Figure 7.41, it shows that the trends and absolute values of the tested TFP and the numerical models correspond. At the compression side, the compressive strain of the two models have localised at midspan, while in the tested TFP T13KB the compressive strain uctuates along the length being highest left from midspan. This might be caused by imperfections along the length of TFP T13KB, not present in the numerical models. The maximum compressive strain values of the two numerical models exceed that of the tested TFP T13KB.

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Figure 7.41. Local strains along the pipe length at the nal curvature level of resulting from four point bend tests on TFPs with 17.5mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with numerical model results Figure 7.42 includes the ovalisation development at increasing curvature. The ovalisation measured along the tested TFP agrees reasonably well with that of the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends, as well as with ovalisation restricted at the ends at a distance of 100mm away from midspan. For the tested TFP and the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends, ovalisation has just started to localise around midspan, while it has signicantly localised for the numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends.

Figure 7.42. Ovalisation along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels resulting from four point bend tests on TFPs with 17.5mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with numerical model results The inuence of the differences between the numerical input values for the geometric characteristics and the actually measured values in the tested TFP is illustrated by the analytical elastic ovalisation solutions as depicted in Figure 7.45. From Table 7.11 it shows that in the elastic range the differences in ovalisation are negligible.

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Table 7.10 Analytical elastic ovalisation solutions for outer pipes based on material and geometric characteristics of TFP used for base case pure bending numerical model and the actual values of the tested TFPs

Figure 7.43. Analytical elastic ovalisation solutions along the pipe length at increasing curvature levels resulting for the geometric characteristics of the pure bending numerical model and the actual values of the tested TFPs From a comparison of the analytical elastic ovalisation curve for the numerical model with the test results and numerical models in Figure 7.33, it can be concluded that the analytical elastic ovalisation solution corresponds best with the numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends. As explained for the TFPs with a nominal outer pipe thickness of 14.3mm, the ovalisation measurements being lower than the analytically calculated elastic ovalisation is mainly caused by friction in the ovalisation meters. The amount of friction is not known, because it differs for each test and also varies during a test.

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Figure 7.44. Ovalisation from four point bend tests and numerical model compared with analytical elastic ovalisation solution for TFPs with 14.3mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation The resulting mode shapes at a curvature level of for the tested TFP is given in Figure 7.45, and for the numerical models in Figure 7.46 and Figure 7.47. The tested TFP shows a periodic wrinkling pattern along the length of the TFP at the compression side. This mode shape matches with the two numerical models, although the wrinkling patterns in the two numerical models seem to have localised already at either side of midspan.

Figure 7.45. Full scan four point bend tests showing the relative displacements at compression side of TFP T13KB with 17.5mm thick seamless outer pipe, without coating simulation at curvature level

Figure 7.46. Mode shape from numerical model of deformed liner at compression side conned in 17.5mm thick outer pipe with the original mesh and ovalisation restricted at the liner ends in pure bending at curvature level , representing axial stress

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Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

Figure 7.47. Mode shape from numerical model of deformed liner at compression side conned in 17.5mm thick outer pipe with the original mesh and allowing for ovalisation at the liner ends in pure bending at curvature level , representing axial stress The wrinkle height and wavelength development at increasing curvature are shown in Figure 7.48 and Figure 7.49, respectively. Wrinkling initiation for the tested TFP and both numerical models occurred at . Figure 7.48 shows that the trends in wrinkle height correspond, while the absolute values differ for all three with the experiment being lowest.

Figure 7.48. Height of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels resulting from four point bend tests on TFPs with 17.5mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with numerical model results Figure 7.49 shows that the trends in wavelength are in good agreement and that the absolute values are in the same order of magnitude, although the wrinkle in the experiment is smaller than in the numerical models. Corona [2006] found that the predicted half wavelengths consistently being longer than the measured values did not occur when plastic anisotropy was taken into account. The two tensile tests did not indicate anisotropy, although it is very likely to be present in an ERW pipe. Based on the limited number of tensile test data, anisotropy cannot be excluded as a plausible reason for underestimating the wavelength.

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Figure 7.49. Wavelength of highest wrinkle at increasing curvature levels resulting from four point bend tests on TFPs with 17.5mm nominal outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation, compared with numerical model results

7.5.3

Conclusions numerical and experimental results lined pipe compared

In the preceding two subsections the numerical results were compared with the experimental results. The test results are well suited to indicate trends and qualitative observations, however, statistically the number of specimens is too small to draw rm quantitative conclusions. The results based on the investigated characteristics are summarised in Table 7.11 and Table 7.12.

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Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

Table 7.11 Comparison four point bend test and numerical results of TFPs with 14.3mm outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation

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Table 7.12 Comparison four point bend test and numerical results of TFPs with 17.5mm outer pipe thickness, without coating simulation

Comparison of the numerical and experimental results for the lined pipes with a 14.3mm and a 17.5mm thick outer pipe indicates the following qualitative observations: -  The bending moment following from the numerical models appeared to be signicantly lower than from the experiments for both outer pipe thicknesses. This difference is mainly caused by differences between the numerical input values for the material and geometric characteristics and the actual values of the tested TFPs. Additional reasons are variations along the tested TFPs and changes in the geometry of the test rig due to bending of the TFP. The shape of the moment-curvature response, which is most important, corresponds reasonably well for the test and numerical results. Because of this observation and the fact that the differences between the bending moments resulting from the tests and those resulting from the numerical models could be well explained, it was decided to be not necessary to repeat the numerical simulations. New numerical models would not have resulted in different conclusions for the objective of this research, although they would have given more condence in the possible reasons for the quantitative mismatch. -  The numerically determined ovalisation values exceed those measured during the four point bend tests. Additionally, the ovalisation measurements show irregularities and lack behind the analytically

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Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

calculated elastic ovalisation. This is mainly caused by friction in the ovalisation meters. The amount of friction is not known, because it differs for each test and also varies during a test. The ovalisation measured along the two tested TFPs is larger towards the middle. The bending moment in the pipe ends outside the inner straps is lower, due to which ovalisation and curvature in the pipe ends are lower. Under the inuence of the reduced ovalisation in the pipe ends, the ovalisation in the middle section is larger at midspan than at the ends. -  The maximum axial strain shows results in correspondence with ovalisation, except for the fact that the differences in strain values are smaller. These differences may be caused by variations in the geometry and material behaviour of the tested TFPs. -  For the TFPs with a 14.3mm thick outer pipe numerically two different mode shapes were found. The rst mode shape, found for all models with ovalisation restricted at the pipe ends, is an X-shape with one main wrinkle at 900, and four accompanying wrinkles somewhat higher at the circumference of the liner. The numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends shows a different mode shape with two localised wrinkles at either side of midspan. The rst mode shape, the X-shape corresponds best with the wrinkle pattern of the two tested TFPs. Additionally, this mode shape results in the lowest dissipated energy level and is therefore most likely to occur. The mode shape of the TFP with a 17.5mm thick outer pipe had not localised at the maximum curvature neither in the numerical model nor in the test. The numerical models with a 17.5mm thick outer pipe exhibit the mode shape with two localised wrinkles at either side of midspan at higher curvatures. When comparing curvatures at which liner wrinkling initiates, only similar mode shapes should be taken into account. -  The curvatures at which wrinkling initiates agree for the lined pipes with the 17.5mm thick outer pipe, while for the 14.3mm thick outer pipes the numerical values exceed the experimental values. Once wrinkles start to develop in the perfect numerical models, they develop at a higher rate than in the experiments. Imperfections present in the tested TFPs are expected to cause an earlier but more gradual liner wrinkling initiation compared to the perfect numerical models. These imperfections will have less inuence on a thicker pipe. -  The wrinkle heights resulting at a curvature level of are in better agreement for the lined pipe with the 14.3mm than for the lined pipe with the 17.5mm thick outer pipe. For the 14.3mm thick outer pipe, the wrinkle height in the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends is smaller than the experimental value, while the value in the numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends exceeds the experimental value. For the 17.5mm thick outer pipe both numerical values exceed the experimental value, although the wrinkle initiation curvature and trends correspond. -  The wavelengths resulting from the tests on the TFPs with an outer pipe thickness of 14.3mm at a curvature level of differ signicantly. This is caused by a sudden increase for TFP N01KA. Considering lower curvatures, the wavelengths are close, where the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the ends corresponds reasonably well with N01KA, while the numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the ends gives a reasonably good approximation for P01KA. For the TFPs with the 17.5mm thick outer pipe, the trends in wavelength as depicted in Figure 7.49 are in good agreement and the absolute values are in the same order of magnitude, although the wrinkle in the experiment is smaller than in the numerical models. Corona [2006] found that the predicted half wavelengths consistently being longer than the measured values did not occur when plastic anisotropy was taken into account. The two tensile tests did not indicate anisotropy, although it is

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very likely to be present in an ERW pipe. Based on the limited number of tensile test data, anisotropy cannot be excluded as a plausible reason for underestimating the wavelength. Overall it can be concluded that the trends of the investigated characteristics in the numerical models correspond reasonably well with the experiments. In general, the numerically determined absolute values of the investigated characteristics overestimates the experimental results, the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the ends matches best.

7.6

Numerical Parameter Study for Full Length Lined Pipe in Pure Bending

In this section, the inuence of several parameters on the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner in pure bending is investigated. The lined pipe with the original mesh applied to the liner and the outer pipe and ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends is used. The evaluation of the different parameters is based on the moments and curvatures at maximum moment capacity, since the maximum moment can better be dened than the bifurcation point. The inuence of the following geometric parameters on the liner wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner is studied: - Diameter over thickness-ratio , and - Thickness ratio liner over outer . The inuence of material parameters on the liner wrinkling behaviour will be studied. In agreement with the parameter studies carried out in section 4.4 and section 5.5, the investigated material parameters are: - 0.2% Proof stress of the liner , - Yield stress of the outer , - Material hardening of the liner by varying the ultimate tensile stress , The inuence of material hardening of the outer pipe by varying the ultimate tensile stress is not further investigated based on the conclusion in section 4.4 that the material curves did not show a signicant stress deviation in the strain range of interest. In the tested TFPs, friction and a contact stress between the liner and the outer pipe are present, while the liner in the base case numerical model is conned with a so-called snug-t without friction. The inuence of friction and contact stresses on the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe in pure bending is studied based on the following models: 1. Base case, i.e. snug-t lined pipe; 2. Friction only; 3. Initial compressive hoop stress only; 4. Friction with initial compressive hoop stress in liner; 5. Friction, with initial hoop and axial stress; a. Initial compressive hoop and compressive axial stress in the liner, i.e. the actual TFP tested, b. Initial compressive hoop stress and tensile axial stress in the liner.

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Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

The values used for friction and initial stresses are included in Table 7.13 for the different models. The initial stress values are based on the saw cut test results discussed in section 2.4. The initial stresses in the numerical models are applied during an initial one step static analysis. Table 7.13 Lined pipe models to investigate inuence of contact parameters

7.6.1

Diameter over thickness-ratio of liner

The inuence of diameter over thickness-ratio on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied by varying while keeping constant and at the same time adjusting to keep constant: - LC , with and . - BC , with and ; - HC , with and . The moment curvature response resulting for each of the three cases is illustrated in Figure 7.50 and Figure 7.51 for the lined pipe and liner, respectively. The moment, curvature and strain values at maximum moment are included in Table 7.14.

Figure 7.50 Inuence of

on lined pipe

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Figure 7.51 Inuence of

on conned liner

Figure 7.52 Inuence of

on wrinkle height at increasing curvature levels

Table 7.14 Inuence of on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

It can be concluded that a decrease in , i.e. the low case with a relatively thicker liner, results in a signicant increase of the maximum moment and the corresponding curvature. This is reected in the wrinkle height development in Figure 7.52 showing wrinkling initiation at higher curvature. Deviation of the high case from the other two cases is caused by the difference in mode shape; the conned liner in the high case wrinkles at either side of midspan, while the other two wrinkle at midspan.

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Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

7.6.2

Thickness ratio liner over outer pipe

on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied by

The inuence of the thickness over thickness-ratio varying while keeping constant: - LC - BC - HC

The moment curvature response resulting for each of the three cases is illustrated in Figure 7.53 and Figure 7.54 for the lined pipe and liner, respectively. The moment, curvature and strain values at maximum moment are included in Table 7.15.

Figure 7.53 Inuence of

on lined pipe

Figure 7.54 Inuence of

on conned liner

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Chapter 7

Figure 7.55 Inuence of

on wrinkle height at increasing curvature levels

Table 7.15 Inuence of on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

An increase in the thickness over thickness-ratio, i.e. a relatively thicker outer pipe, results in a signicant increase of the moment capacity of the outer pipe and later decrease of the moment carrying capacities of both the liner and the outer pipe. For the liner an increase in outer pipe thickness results in a minor increase of the moment capacity, and a signicant delay in the decrease of the moment capacity. This is reected in the wrinkle height development as included in Figure 7.55. Deviation of the high case is again caused by a difference in mode shape. The high case develops wrinkles at either side of midspan, while the other two cases wrinkle at midspan.

7.6.3

Hardening of the liner by varying the ultimate tensile stress

:

The inuence of material hardening of the liner is studied by varying the ultimate tensile stress - LC ; - BC ; - HC .

The moment curvature response resulting for each of the three cases is illustrated in Figure 7.56 and Figure 7.57 for the lined pipe and liner, respectively. The moment, curvature and strain values at maximum moment are included in Table 7.16.

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Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

Figure 7.56 Inuence of

on lined pipe

Figure 7.57 Inuence of

on conned liner

Figure 7.58 Inuence of

on wrinkle height at increasing curvature levels

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Chapter 7

Table 7.16 Inuence of on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

An increase of the ultimate stress of the liner results in an increase of the maximum moment and the corresponding curvature. This is reected in the wrinkle height development in Figure 7.58 showing wrinkling initiation at higher curvature.

7.6.4

0.2% Proof stress of the liner

, on the liner wrinkling behaviour is studied for the following

The inuence of the 0.2% proof stress, cases: - LC ; - BC ; - HC .

The moment curvature response resulting for each of the three cases is illustrated in Figure 7.59 and Figure 7.60 for the lined pipe and liner, respectively. The moment curvature and strain values at maximum moment are included in Table 7.17.

Figure 7.59 Inuence of

on lined pipe

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Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

Figure 7.60 Inuence of

on conned liner

Figure 7.61 Inuence of

on wrinkle height at increasing curvature levels

Table 7.17 Inuence of on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

An increase of the 0.2% proof stress of the liner results in an increase of the maximum moment and the corresponding curvature as long as the outer pipe material is relatively strong with respect to the liner pipe material. However, when the liner material becomes relatively strong compared to the outer pipe material, the maximum moment capacity of the liner still increases but the corresponding curvature tends to decrease due to earlier deformation of the outer pipe. This becomes clear when comparing the base case (316L) with an extra case run for stronger liner material such as duplex or super duplex with a high yield stress, where the stronger liner reaches its maximum moment at lower curvature. The moment

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Chapter 7

curvature response and the moment curvature and strain values at maximum moment are included in Figure 7.62 and Table 7.18, respectively, for the following cases: - BC ; - HHC .

Figure 7.62 Inuence of

for super duplex (HHC) compared to 316L (BC) on conned liner

Table 7.18 Inuence of for super duplex (HHC) compared to 316L on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures and strains of the conned liner

7.6.5

Yield stress of the outer pipe

, on the wrinkling behaviour of the liner is

The inuence of the yield stress of the outer pipe, studied for the following cases: - LC ; - BC ; - HC .

The moment curvature response resulting for each of the three cases is illustrated in Figure 7.63 and Figure 7.64 for the lined pipe and liner, respectively. The moment, curvature and strain values at maximum moment are included in Table 7.19.

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Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

Figure 7.63 Inuence of

on lined pipe

Figure 7.64 Inuence of

on conned liner

Figure 7.65 Inuence of

on wrinkle height at increasing curvature levels

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Chapter 7

Table 7.19 Inuence of on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

An increase in outer pipe yield stress results in a signicant increase in the moment capacity of the outer pipe. The inuence on the maximum moment capacity of the liner is negligible, whereas it has a slightly positive inuence on the curvature at maximum moment capacity of the liner. During postbuckling an increase in outer pipe yield stress has a small negative inuence on the moment capacity of the liner and the wrinkle height as depicted in Figure 7.65. Deviation of the low case from the other two is caused by the difference in mode shape; the low case wrinkles at either side of midspan, while the other two wrinkle at midspan.

7.6.6

Friction coefficient
, is included in Table 7.20

The inuence of friction at the contact surface with a friction coefficient of and illustrated in Figure 7.66 and Figure 7.67.

Table 7.20 Inuence of friction on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

Figure 7.66 Inuence of friction on lined pipe

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Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

Figure 7.67 Inuence of friction on conned liner A higher friction coefficient makes it harder for the liner material to be fed into the wrinkle, resulting in onset of liner wrinkling and thus decrease of moment capacity at higher curvatures. The maximum moment capacity of the liner decreases due to higher stresses in axial direction, while the yield criterion still needs to be met. The inuence of friction is relatively small because the relative displacement between the liner and the outer pipe is small due to the fact that rotation is prescribed both to the liner and the outer pipe.

7.6.7

Initial hoop stress

The inuence of conning the liner in the outer pipe by introducing an initial hoop stress of -185MPa in the liner and 37MPa in the outer pipe is illustrated in Figure 7.68 and Figure 7.69 on the lined pipe and liner, respectively. The connement gives the lined pipe some additional resistance against ovalisation. Furthermore, the hoop stress causes a resistance in the liner against inward radial displacement and thus against wrinkling. As a result of a hoop stress introduction, the liner wrinkles at higher curvatures and has a larger moment capacity. Since the initial hoop stresses are relatively low compared to the bending stresses introduced, their inuence on the total moment capacity is relatively small.

Figure 7.68 Inuence of initial hoop stress on lined pipe

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Chapter 7

Figure 7.69 Inuence of initial hoop stress on conned liner Table 7.21 Inuence of initial hoop stress on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

7.6.8

Friction and initial hoop stress

The inuence of friction with friction coefficient in combination with an initial hoop stress of -185MPa in the liner and 37MPa in the outer pipe is illustrated in Figure 7.70 and Figure 7.71 on the lined pipe and liner, respectively. At maximum moment capacity, the moment-curvature response lies in between the responses for friction only and an initial hoop stress only. The inuences as described in the preceding sections interact. Under the inuence of friction, the liner reaches its lower maximum moment capacity at higher curvature, which is reected in liner wrinkling at higher curvature. Contrary, under the inuence of the presence of an initial hoop stress, the liner reaches its maximum moment at lower curvature, which is reected in liner wrinkling at lower curvature. Additionally under the inuence of an initial hoop stress, the maximum moment capacity of the liner increases.

187

Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

Figure 7.70 Inuence of friction and initial hoop stress on lined pipe

Figure 7.71 Inuence of friction and initial hoop stress on conned liner Table 7.22 Inuence of friction and initial hoop stress on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

7.6.9

Friction, initial hoop stress and axial stress

The inuence of friction with a friction coefficient in combination with an initial hoop stress of -185MPa in the liner and 37MPa in the outer pipe and an initial axial stress of -13MPa in the liner and 2.6MPa in the outer pipe for the model 5a and an initial axial stress of 13MPa in the liner and -2.6MPa in the outer pipe for model 5b is illustrated in Figure 7.72 and Figure 7.73 on the lined pipe and liner, respectively. Observing the moment-curvature diagram of the liner in more detail, it can be concluded that

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the introduction of both a compressive as well as an initial tensile axial stress cause a small decrease in moment capacity of the liner due to the fact that still the yield criterion has to be met. The inuence of the axial stress on the moment capacity of the lined pipe is small due to the fact that these stresses are low compared to the bending stresses introduced.

Figure 7.72 Inuence of friction, initial hoop and axial stress on lined pipe

Figure 7.73 Inuence of friction, initial hoop and axial stress on conned liner Table 7.23 Inuence of friction, initial hoop and axial stress on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

189

Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

7.6.10 Conclusions numerical parameter study

In the parameter study performed in this section the inuence of geometric and material parameters is investigated in agreement with the parameter studies carried out in section 4.4 and 5.5, and an additional part in which the inuence of friction and contact stresses is investigated. The inuence of geometric and material parameters on the liner wrinkling behaviour is illustrated in Figure 7.74 and Figure 7.75, respectively, representing the relative difference of the maximum moment and corresponding curvature for the low case (-10%) and the high case (+10%) with respect to the base case. For reeling, the inuence of the parameters on the curvature at maximum moment, further referred to as curvature capacity of the liner, is of most interest.

Figure 7.74 Inuence of investigated geometry and material parameters on maximum moment capacity of the conned liner

Figure 7.75 Inuence of investigated geometry and material parameters on curvature at maximum moment capacity of the conned liner From Figure 7.75 it is concluded that increasing the liner thickness is the most effective way to increase the curvature capacity of the liner. This has a signicant positive inuence on the moment capacity as well. Increasing the outer pipe thickness only has a small inuence on the moment capacity of the liner, but a signicant positive inuence on the curvature of the liner. The same applies for increasing the yield

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Chapter 7

stress of the outer pipe. Increasing the ultimate stress of the liner material has a positive effect on the curvature capacity of the liner. From examining the inuence of the 0.2% proof stress of the liner it can be concluded that the ratio between liner and outer pipe strength is important. Increasing the liners strength relative to the outer pipe results in an increase of its maximum moment capacity but the corresponding curvature tends to decrease due to earlier deformation of the outer pipe. The same representation is used for visualising the inuence of the contact parameters on the liner wrinkling behaviour in Figure 7.76 and Figure 7.77. The contact parameters have a signicant inuence on the curvature at which the maximum moment capacity of the liner is reached, while they have a negligible inuence on the moment capacity of the liner. From Figure 7.77 it can be concluded that the initial hoop stress has a larger inuence on the curvature capacity than friction and axial stress. The presence of a tensile axial stress contributes to an increase in curvature, while the curvature decreases when a compressive axial stress is present. These results are in good agreement with those published by Vasilikis and Karamanos [2011].

Figure 7.76 Inuence of investigated geometry and material parameters on maximum moment capacity of conned liner

Figure 7.77 Inuence of investigated geometry and material parameters on curvature at maximum moment capacity of conned liner

191

Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

The negligible inuence of the contact parameters on the moment capacity of the liner can be explained by examining the axial and hoop stresses present along a path at the compression side of the liner inner surface. The initial stresses present are compared with those present after liner wrinkling has occurred at a curvature level . The hoop stresses along the liner initially present in the different numerical models are depicted in Figure 7.78, and those after bending to a curvature level in Figure 7.79. Initially, three of the liners have a compressive hoop stress which decreases signicantly with increasing curvature. For the liners without an initial hoop stress, a small compressive hoop stress is introduced due to bending. At the curvature where the liner starts wrinkling, all liners have approximately the same small compressive hoop stress, which is primarily the result of bending.

Figure 7.78 Initial hoop stress along the compression side of the inside of the conned liner at a curvature of

Figure 7.79 Hoop stress along the compression side of the inside of the conned liner at a curvature of

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Chapter 7

The development of the axial stresses along the liner during bending is illustrated in Figure 7.80 and Figure 7.81. Initially, two of the liners have an axial stress, one compressive and the other tensile. At the start of bending large compressive axial stresses are introduced in the liner. Already at low curvatures, the inuence of the initial axial stress has signicantly reduced and practically vanished at the onset of liner wrinkling.

Figure 7.80 Initial axial stress along the compression side of the inside of the conned liner at a curvature of

Figure 7.81 Axial stress along the compression side of the inside of the conned liner at a curvature of

For the initial hoop and axial stresses as measured by means of the saw cut test as described earlier, the following can be concluded: bending introduces large axial stresses, and therefore the initial stresses have only a negligible inuence on the stresses present in the liner at the onset of liner wrinkling. The hoop and axial stresses present in the liner at the onset of liner wrinkling are primarily the result of imposed bending.

193

Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

The inuence of the contact parameters on the moment capacities at specied curvature levels, illustrated in Figure 7.77 , is conrmed by the wrinkle height at increasing curvature as given in Figure 7.82. Deviation of the wrinkle growth of the base cases is caused by the difference in mode shape; the base case wrinkles at midspan, while the other cases wrinkle at either side of midspan.

Figure 7.82 Inuence of contact parameters on wrinkle height at increasing curvature levels In Figure 7.83 the wrinkle growth from the test results as derived in section 6.2 of TFPs N01KA and P01KA having an 14.3mm thick outer pipe are compared with the numerical results of the following models: 1. Base case, i.e. snug-t lined pipe; 2. Friction only; 5a. Friction, with initial compressive hoop and compressive axial stress in the liner, i.e. the actual TFP. The wrinkle height developments resulting from the numerical models appear to be close to the four point bend tests results. From Figure 7.83 it can thus be concluded that the numerical models give a good representation of the four point bend test results.

Figure 7.83 Comparing wrinkle heights resulting from four point bend tests with numerical models with and without contact

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Chapter 7

7.7 Conclusions
In this chapter, the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner as part of the lined pipe in pure bending has been discussed based on numerical results that have been compared with the test results obtained in section 6.2. The natural limit load due to uniform ovalisation was investigated with a model having unit length, not allowing wrinkle development due to the reduced length. From the mesh sensitivity analysis it resulted that the mesh with 120 elements in circumferential direction suffices. Full length models of the lined pipe were used to determine the behaviour when allowing wrinkle development. Two different boundary conditions were investigated, i.e. allowing for ovalisation and fully restricting ovalisation at the cylinder ends. Ovalisation localises at midspan for the lined pipe with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends, causing bifurcation at lower curvature level. The two different boundary conditions result in different mode shapes, the model with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends develops an inward wrinkle at midspan, and the model allowing ovalisation at the cylinder ends develops wrinkles at either side of midspan. The mesh sensitivity of the full length lined pipe was investigated based on three meshes with different numbers of elements in axial direction. The lined pipes with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends resulted to be only slightly mesh dependent with corresponding mode shapes being more pronounced for the original mesh than for the coarse mesh, while the number of elements is limited compared to the rened mesh. The lined pipes with ovalisation allowed at the cylinder ends exhibit different mode shapes for each mesh. The lined pipe with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends and the original mesh is judged to be suitable for modelling the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner and examining the sensitivity for different parameters. The numerical results of the full length lined pipe are compared with those of the single walled liner and outer pipe. Connement of the liner in the outer pipe results in a signicant increase of the liners maximum moment capacity and corresponding curvature. However, the liner exerts an extra load on the outer pipe causing it to fail at lower curvature compared to the single walled outer pipe. The numerical model results were compared with the four point bend test results of the three TFPs that were not given a coating simulation cycle. Detailed conclusions have been discussed in section 7.5.3. In general, it can be concluded that the trends of the investigated characteristics in the numerical models correspond reasonably well with the experiments. For the local parameters in general, the numerically determined absolute values of the investigated characteristics exceed the experimental results. The tested TFPs appeared to have larger moment capacities than the numerical models. This difference is mainly caused by differences between the numerical input values for the material and geometric characteristics and the actual values of the tested TFPs. Additional reasons are variations along the tested TFPs and changes in the geometry of the test rig due to bending of the TFP. The shape of the moment-curvature response, which is most important, Because the shape of the moment-curvature response, which is most important, corresponds reasonably well for the test and numerical results and the differences

195

Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe

could be well explained, it was decided not necessary to repeat the numerical simulations. New numerical models would not have resulted in different conclusions for the objective of this research, although they would have given more condence in the possible reasons for the quantitative mismatch. The mode shapes resulting in the tested TFPs with an 14.3mm thick outer pipe appeared to be a combination of the two different mode shapes that were found from the numerical models with the two different mode shapes: an X-shape with one main wrinkle at 900 and four accompanying wrinkles somewhat higher at the circumference, and a mode shape with periodic localised wrinkles at 900. During a parameter study the inuence of several geometric, material and contact parameters on the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner has been investigated. Detailed conclusions have been discussed in section 7.6.10. Increasing the liner thickness resulted to be the most effective way to increase the curvature capacity of the liner. Increasing the outer pipe thickness only has a small inuence on the moment capacity of the liner, but a signicant positive inuence on the curvature of the liner. The ratio between liner and outer pipe strength appeared to be important. A relatively strong liner, for example from duplex or super duplex alloys, causes the outer pipe to fail at lower curvatures. The contact parameters, i.e. friction and initial stresses, have a signicant inuence on the curvature at which the maximum moment capacity of the liner is reached. However due to bending, the initial stresses reduce signicantly and their inuence has practically vanished at the onset of liner wrinkling.

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8.

Reeling of Lined Pipe

8.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the numerical pure bending results are compared with reeling test results in order to determine the inuence of reeling on lined pipe. The reeling test results that will be used in this chapter have been published by Focke [2007].
Over the last years, the behaviour of lined pipe during bending and reeling has gained interest as a research topic. In 2002, Heerema Marine Contractors started a research project in cooperation with Delft University of Technology and Kuroki Tube and Pipe to investigate the inuence of reeling installation on liner wrinkling and pipe ovalisation [Focke, 2007]. Axial compression tests and full scale reeling tests of the spooling-on process were performed on TFP, in order to investigate liner wrinkling. This resulted in a signicant increase in knowledge on the behaviour of TFP during spooling-on [Focke, 2005a;2005b;2006;2007;2007a]. In 2007 HMC and Delft University of Technology started the current research with the objective to further investigate the inuence of relevant variables on the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe during bending, in particular the onset of wrinkling and the growth of the wrinkles during further bending. Det Norske Veritas initiated a Joint Industry Project called Lined and Clad Pipeline Materials in 2005 which still continues. This project will result in a design guideline with updated requirements for the design and fabrication of lined and clad pipelines [DNV, 2007; Johnsrud, 2009]. In 2010 both Statoil [Endal, 2010] and Technip [Howard, 2010] patented the application of internal overpressure during reeling to minimise wrinkling. Very recently, Technip has published a paper describing their development program to design and qualify mechanically lined pipes for reeling based on the use of lined pipe with appropriately chosen liner thickness without the use of internal pressure [Tkaczyk, 2011a]. A patent covering the results of this development program has been applied for [Tkaczyk, 2011b]. A numerical analysis on the buckling of lined pipes under bending and external pressure is described by Vasilikis and Karamanos [Vasilikis, 2011]. In section 1.2, the reeling process was explained based on the moment-curvature diagram of a pipeline subjected to the complete reeling process. In order to understand the differences between reeling and pure bending, the loads on the pipeline during spooling-on are discussed here in more detail for a horizontal reeling system [Focke, 2007]. During spooling-on, the end of the pipeline is attached to the reel, a holdback tension is applied by tensioners and the reel is rotated slowly. The pipeline is plastically deformed until it follows the reel radius. The bending moment in the pipeline increases from the tensioners to the reel until the plastic moment is reached and the pipe follows the reel radius. As a result of the constant moment on the reel, the shear force in the pipeline on the reel is zero, while it is constant between the tensioners and the touchdown point on the reel as illustrated in Figure 8.1.

197

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Figure 8.1 Moment and shear force in pipeline during spooling-on for a horizontal reel system In addition to the shear force and bending moment, tension is applied on the pipeline by the tensioners. A free body diagram of the length of pipeline between the tensioners and the touchdown point on the reel, and the length of pipeline on the reel is illustrated in Figure 8.2. For simplicity reasons, the reaction force of the reel on the pipeline at the touchdown point is illustrated as a concentrated load, while in reality this is a distributed load. From the free body diagram of the length of pipeline on the reel, it can be seen that in addition to the constant moment applied during pure bending, an additional tension and distributed load are applied. Both the distributed load as well as the tension is expected to result in some additional ovalisation of the pipeline. For lined pipe additional ovalisation might result in earlier initiation of liner wrinkling.

Figure 8.2 Free body diagram of pipeline during spooling-on for a horizontal reel system

8.2

Reeling Experiments

Focke [2007] executed full scale reeling tests on ve TFPs without a circumferential weld in the bending rig as shown in Figure 8.3. The objective of these tests was to investigate local buckling and ovalisation of the TFP, as well as liner wrinkling during the spooling-on phase of the reeling process. The TFPs were subsequently bent to smaller reels with bending radii of 9, 8, 7.5, 7, 6.5, 6 and 5.5m by means of pulling with a hydraulic cylinder.

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From discussing the differences between the reeling tests and spooling-on during the actual reeling process, Focke [2007] concluded that the test rig was able to provide reliable information on the ovalisation and the local buckling behaviour of the pipe during actual reeling. The main difference was found in the reaction force of the reel on the pipeline. This force is small during actual reeling, and larger during the reeling test due to the relatively small distance between the touchdown point of the TFP on the reel and the hydraulic cylinder. In addition, this force is constant during actual reeling because of the xed distance between the tensioners and reel on board of the reeling vessel, although it is different for each vessel, while it changes during the reeling tests due to the decreasing distance between the reel and the hydraulic cylinder as more pipe length comes into contact with the reel. As a result, the reeling tests provided a conservative and thus safe approach to ovalisation and local buckling compared to the actual reeling process. Furthermore this conservatism can be accounted for, since the reaction force of the reel on the pipeline is known continuously.

Tested TFP Reel former

Reusable pipe length

Hydraulic cylinder

Figure 8.3 Full scale bending rig used for full scale reeling tests on TFP During the full scale reeling tests, the following measuring equipment was used: - Curvature meters to measure the bending curvature of the TFP; - Strain gauges to measure the strains at the tension and compression side of the TFP; - Ovalisation meters to measure the diameter increase of the TFP; - Angle meter and displacement meter to monitor the rotations of the hydraulic cylinder; - Light sensors to determine the touchdown point of the TFP on the reel, and - A laser trolley to scan the inside of the TFP for liner wrinkles. Detailed descriptions of the test arrangement and measuring equipment are included in [Focke, 2007].

199

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8.3

Comparing Reeling with Pure Bending Results

For two of the TFPs that were subjected to a full scale reeling test, further referred to as TFP Orange and TFP Green, pure bending numerical simulations were carried out. The numerical model used corresponds to the model as discussed in section 7.3, with the respective characteristics of these two TFPs as included in Table 2.4. In this section, the numerical model outcomes for the pure bending simulations are compared with the experimental results of the full scale reeling tests. The models and experiments will be compared by means of the following characteristics: - Ovalisation at increasing curvature; - Local bending strain along the length of the pipe; - Mode shape, and - Wrinkle height at increasing curvature. Table 8.1 Characteristics of TFPs Orange and Green subjected to full scale reeling tests [Focke, 2007] and pure bending numerical simulation

Figure 8.4 represents the ovalisation at increasing curvature for the numerical models at midspan and at 600mm away from midspan and the average values over the test region resulting from the reeling tests as determined by Focke [2007]. Additionally, the gure includes ovalisation according to the DNV design formula [DNV, 2000] as given in Equation 8.1 below. The liner thickness is not accounted for as was suggested by DNV [DNV, 2007]. This design formula for ovalisation is valid for the pure bending case.

200

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Figure 8.4 shows that the ovalisation resulting at midspan from the numerical models with ovalisation restricted at the cylinder ends overestimates the reeling test results conducted by Focke [2007]. For TFP Orange, the numerical model allowing ovalisation is run additionally. Ovalisation resulting from the reeling tests lies in between the ovalisation at midspan resulting from the model with ovalisation restricted and the uniform ovalisation solution resulting from the model allowing ovalisation as included in Figure 8.5. The DNV design formula underestimates the ovalisation values resulting from both the pure bending numerical models as well as from the reeling tests.

Figure 8.4 Comparing ovalisation-curvature diagrams resulting from reeling tests, numerical models and DNV design equation 8.1 for TFPs Orange and Green

Figure 8.5 Comparing ovalisation-curvature diagrams resulting from reeling tests, numerical models and DNV design equation 8.1 for TFP Orange The material and geometric characteristics of TFP Orange subjected to the reeling test and TFP P01KA subjected to the four point bend test during this research correspond reasonably well. Therefore, in Fig-

201

Reeling of Lined Pipe

ure 8.6 the reeling test results of TFP Orange, the four point bend test results of TFP P01KA and the numerical results of both pipes are compared. The results from the two numerical models with restricted ovalisation are close, which conrms the similarity of both pipes. Comparing the reeling test results of TFP Orange with the pure bend test results of TFP P01KA shows that the reeling test induces signicantly larger ovalisation than the pure bend test. Where ovalisation measured during the pure bend test agrees best with the ovalisation measured in the numerical model 600mm away from midspan and is still overestimated, the ovalisation measured during the reeling test is slightly overestimated by the ovalisation measured at midspan in.

Figure 8.6 Comparing ovalisation-curvature diagrams resulting from reeling tests, four point bend tests and numerical models for TFPs Orange and P01KA

Figure 8.7 Comparing local strains along the pipe resulting from pure bending numerical model and reeling tests for TFP Orange In order to compare the local strains along TFP Orange for the reeling test and numerical models, the middle section of the test region in the reeling test is lined up with midspan in the numerical models. Figure 8.7 includes the axial strains measured along TFP Orange during the reeling test together with the strains resulting from the numerical models restricting and allowing ovalisation at the cylinder ends at a curvature of . It can be concluded that the axial strain levels resulting from the reeling test

202

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correspond best with the numerical model allowing for ovalisation at the cylinder ends. Similar results were found for the other two TFPs. In Figure 8.8 the reeling test results of TFP Orange and the four point bend test results of TFP P01KA are compared. It can be concluded that the axial strains occurring during pure bending and reeling do not differ signicantly, as expected based on the similar outer diameters of the pipes.

Figure 8.8 Comparing local strains along the pipe resulting from pure bending TFP P01KA and reeling TFP Orange The mode shape resulting for TFP Orange at the 5.5m reel former is illustrated with the full scan of the complete circumference in Figure 8.9 and the mode shape resulting from the pure bending numerical model with ovalisation restricted at the same bending radius is given in Figure 8.10. Both the reeling test and the numerical model of TFP Orange show a periodic mode shape along the compression side. The reeling test shows some accompanying wrinkles higher along the circumference, forming part of the X-shape as has been discussed in section 7.3. The mode shape resulting from the numerical model is localised around midspan. Contrary wrinkles occur along the full length of the reeled TFP.

L=2800mm

Figure 8.9 Full scan illustrating the mode shape from pure reeling test TFP Orange at the 5.5m reel former representing the relative radial displacements [Focke, 2007]

203

Reeling of Lined Pipe

L=1600mm

Figure 8.10 Mode shape resulting from the numerical model with ovalisation restricted of TFP Orange at a curvature of corresponding with bending radius Rb=5.5m representing the axial stresses Figure 8.11 gives the liner wrinkle height at increasing curvature. It shows that liner wrinkling initiates earlier during the reeling tests than during the numerical analyses. For both TFPs, the test results show the growth of liner wrinkles at a lower curvature than the numerical models.

Figure 8.11 Comparing wrinkle height-curvature diagrams resulting from reeling tests and numerical models The mode shape resulting from the numerical model with ovalisation restricted of TFP P01KA at a curvature of as given in Figure 8.12 corresponds with that of TFP Orange as shown in Figure 8.10. Figure 8.13 shows the wrinkle growth resulting from the numerical models and tests for TFP Orange and P01KA. Comparing the reeling test results of TFP Orange with the bend test results of P01KA shows that liner wrinkling growth in TFP P01KA occurs at a lower curvature than in TFP Orange in contrast with expectations. The same applies for comparison of the numerical model outcomes in the same gure, which means that the trends resulting from the numerical models correspond with the test results. However this signicant difference in liner wrinkling growth cannot be explained from the liner geometry; TFP P01KA has a relatively thicker liner. Examining the resulting moment-curvature diagrams of the two models as given in Figure 8.14, it shows that the liner of TFP P01KA exhibits a higher moment capacity while its outer pipe exhibits a lower moment capacity. The combination of geometry and material has a larger inuence than each of the parameters individually. The relatively strong liner of TFP P01KA compared to the outer pipe results in liner wrinkling initiation at lower curvature than for TFP Orange. This

204

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outcome strengthens the conclusion that the ratio between liner and outer pipe strength does have a signicant inuence on liner wrinkling initiation and growth.

L=1600mm

Figure 8.12 Mode shape resulting from the numerical model with ovalisation restricted of TFP P01KA at a curvature of corresponding with bending radius Rb=5.5m representing the axial stresses

Figure 8.13 Comparing wrinkle height-curvature diagrams resulting from reeling tests and four point bend tests with numerical models

Figure 8.14 Moment-curvature diagrams resulting from numerical models TFP Orange and P01KA

205

Reeling of Lined Pipe

Comparing the results from the pure bend numerical model with the reeling test results of TFP Orange it can be concluded that the pure bend numerical model gives a non-conservative and thus not safe approximation for the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe during reeling.

8.4 Conclusions
In this chapter the numerical pure bending results are compared with reeling test results in order to determine the inuence of reeling on the behaviour of lined pipe. The main difference between pure bending and reeling is that in addition to the constant moment applied during pure bending, a tension and distributed load are applied to the lined pipe during reeling. Comparing the ovalisation resulting from pure bend tests and numerical models with reeling test results shows a signicant increase of ovalisation during reeling as expected. In general, it can be concluded that the pure bending models result in a non-conservative and thus not safe approximation for the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe during reeling. The increase in ovalisation resulting from the additional tension and distributed load due to contact with the reel results in earlier liner wrinkling initiation. Comparison of the numerical model results of TFP Orange and TFP P01KA conrmed the conclusion from Chapter 7 that the ratio between liner and outer pipe strength does have a signicant inuence on liner wrinkling initiation and growth.

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9

Conclusions and Recommendations

The main objective of this study is to investigate the possibility of installing lined pipe by means of the reeling installation method. Initially, interaction of the lined pipe with the reel is not taken into account while pure bending of the lined pipe is investigated. After the behaviour of the isolated lined pipe in pure bending is fully understood, the interaction with the reel can be added to the process. In dealing with the main research objective, the following questions were posed: 1.  What variables do inuence the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe in pure bending leading to a limit state? 2.  What is the sensitivity of the identied variables on this behaviour, in particular the onset of wrinkling and the growth of the wrinkles during further bending?

9.1 Conclusions
In this section rst the ndings with respect to the posed research questions are summarised, after which the feasibility of reeling lined pipe is discussed.

9.1.1  On variables inuencing the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe in pure bending and their sensitivity
In order to be able to determine what variables inuence the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe and to identify their sensitivity on this behaviour, rst the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe needed to be understood. The two different failure modes exhibited by elastic-plastic cylinders, i.e. ovalisation for thick elastic-plastic cylinders and wrinkling for thinner elastic-plastic cylinders, were rst investigated separately by means of numerical modelling before allowing them to interact. This approach has proven valuable by giving a lot of insight and condence in the nal numerical models. The cascade of events exhibited by the lined pipe in pure bending was fully understood. Initially the liner and the outer pipe ovalise uniformly along the length. From the bifurcation point on, contact between liner and outer pipe is lost at the compression side because the liner ovalises more than the outer pipe. In between the bifurcation point and the maximum moment of the liner, contact between the liner and outer pipe moves along the circumference. At a curvature just before the maximum moment capacity is reached, periodic wrinkles start to develop in the conned liner in correspondence with the failure mode for thinner elastic-plastic cylinders. At the curvature where the liner reaches its maximum moment capacity, the liner wrinkles start to localise around midspan and the moment capacity starts to decrease. As soon as the wrinkles localise, their height starts to grow. The localisation at midspan leads to an inward kink. The moment capacity of the outer pipe is larger than that of the liner. At the same curvature where the liner reaches its maximum moment capacity and the wrinkles start to localise around midspan, ovalisation of the outer pipe starts to increase at midspan due to the fact that the lined pipe does not act as one system any longer at this location. Away from midspan unloading occurs, leading

207

Conclusions and Recommendations

to decreasing ovalisation. The outer pipe reaches its maximum moment capacity due to ovalisation, in correspondence with the failure mode exhibited by thick elastic-plastic cylinders, at the same curvature than the liner reaches its maximum moment capacity. The decrease in moment capacities of both the liner and the outer pipe results in a decrease of the moment capacity of the total lined pipe. Comparison of the numerical results of the lined pipe with the single walled liner showed that connement of the liner in the outer pipe results in a signicant increase of the liners maximum moment capacity and corresponding curvature. However, the liner exerts an extra load on the outer pipe causing it to fail at slightly lower curvature compared to the single walled outer pipe. The sensitivity of the wrinkling behaviour of the conned liner in pure bending for several geometric, material and contact parameters was examined in a parameter study by means of comparing the maximum moments and corresponding curvatures. For reeling, the inuence of the parameters on the curvature at maximum moment is of most interest. The results of the parameter study on lined pipe in pure bending (Chapter 7) were in line with those for the single walled liner (Chapter 3) and lined pipe under axial compression (Chapter 4) and the single walled liner in pure bending (Chapter 5). Increasing the liner thickness resulted to be the most effective way to increase the curvature capacity of the liner, i.e. the curvature at maximum moment capacity of the liner. Increasing the outer pipe thickness only has a small inuence on the moment capacity of the liner, but a signicant positive inuence on the corresponding curvature. The ratio between liner and outer pipe strength appeared to be important. A relatively strong liner, for example of duplex or super duplex alloys, causes the outer pipe to fail at lower curvatures. The contact parameters, i.e. friction and initial hoop and axial stresses, have a signicant inuence on the curvature at which the maximum moment capacity of the liner is reached. The presence of an initial hoop stress, friction and an axial tensile stress to a smaller extend contribute positively to the curvature capacity of the liner. However due to bending, the initial stresses reduce signicantly and their inuence has practically vanished at the onset of liner wrinkling. The aim of the bend tests (Chapter 6) was twofold, namely comparing the numerical results with the test results, and investigating the inuence of several test conditions and pipe characteristics. From comparison of the numerical results with the test results (Chapter 7) it was concluded that the trends of the investigated characteristics in the numerical models correspond reasonably well with the experiments. Regarding the inuence of the investigated test conditions and pipe characteristics on the mechanical behaviour of TFP (Tight Fit Pipe) in pure bending the following trends and qualitative observations resulted: -  A longitudinal weld positioned at the neutral line during bending does not affect the wrinkling capacity of the liner in the TFP. -  An increase in outer pipe thickness has a positive effect on the wrinkling capacity of the liner in the TFP. -  A coating cycle might have a negative effect on the rigidity of the TFP during bending and results in earlier liner wrinkling. The coating cycle is expected not to affect the material, while it will result in a loss of radial contact stress due to a higher thermal expansion coefficient of the liner than of the outer pipe. However, further research is required into the inuence of coating cycles on the material behaviour of the outer pipe and the radial contact stress between the liner and outer pipe.

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-  An elevated temperature during bending has a negative effect on the rigidity of the TFP during bending and results in earlier liner wrinkling. - Applying an internal pressure results in later liner wrinkling and shallower but wider wrinkles. -  The presence of a circumferential weld has no signicant effect on the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe during bending except for the location of the wrinkles, because wrinkles do not occur in the inuence length of the weld.

9.1.2

Feasibility of installing lined pipe by means of the reeling installation method

Spooling-on of lined pipe during reeling is a displacement controlled process; the pipeline is plastically bent while the reel forms the geometrical curvature limit. In the preceding chapters it was concluded that the main failure mode of lined pipe during bending is liner wrinkling. Reeling of lined pipe thus becomes technically feasible when the curvature at which liner wrinkling initiates exceeds the reel curvature. This can be realised by either increasing the bending curvature, or decreasing the curvature at which liner wrinkling initiates. Obviously, the bending curvature decreases with increasing reel radius. However, building a new reel for each pipe dimension is not an economic option although one could think of building a reel system suitable for the lined pipe with the largest diameter and largest diameter to thickness-ratio that one would want to install. Adjusting the lined pipe to an existing reel system is likely to be the more economic option. From the parameter study conducted in section 7.6 it was found that the curvature at which the onset of liner wrinkling occurs as well as the curvature at which the lined pipe reaches its maximum moment capacity can be inuenced with the geometric and contact parameters of the lined pipe. Material parameters do not have a signicant inuence on the curvature, until the ratio of the liner over outer pipe strength exceeds a certain limit, above which the relatively strong liner causes the outer pipe to fail at lower curvature. As a result, the lined pipe can be tuned for reeling with an existing reel system by means of the following parameters, in the order of decreasing effectiveness: - Increasing the liner thickness; -  Increasing the relative outer pipe thickness with respect to the liner pipe thickness while keeping the radius over thickness ratio of the liner constant; - Increasing friction between liner and outer pipe; -  Increasing the radial contact stress between liner and outer pipe, i.e. the compressive hoop stress in the liner, and - Increasing the tensile axial stress in the liner. Throughout this thesis, the sensitivity of liner wrinkling for the different parameters has mainly been expressed in terms of strain and curvature. The consequence for reeling installation becomes more explicit when expressing the curvatures at maximum moment capacity, in the corresponding bending radii as included in Table 9.1 and Table 9.2 (Table 7.13 and Table 7.14 from Chapter 7, respectively). These bending radii should not be taken as the required reel radii, since the models only include pure bending, and amongst others contact between the lined pipe and the reel is not taken into account.

209

Conclusions and Recommendations

Table 9.1 Inuence of on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

Table 9.2 Inuence of on maximum moment and corresponding curvatures, bending radii and strains of the conned liner, relative to the base case values

Care should be taken with respect to the choice of strength-ratio between the liner and outer pipe. A relatively strong liner, for example from duplex or super duplex alloys, causes the outer pipe to fail at lower curvatures. When increasing the thickness of the relatively strong liner, the curvature at which it reaches its maximum moment capacity will exceed that of the thin conned liner investigated in this research. However, in this case the economic advantage of a relatively thin liner reducing material costs is then compromised. The ratio between liner and outer pipe strength does have a signicant inuence on liner wrinkling initiation and growth. At rst sight, the compressive hoop stress and tensile axial stress in the liner might seem to be more effective from the parameter study results than their ranking in the list above implies. However, it was found that due to plastic deformation during bending these stresses had signicantly reduced. The compressive hoop stress and axial tensile stress in the liner as resulting from the manufacturing process cannot be relied upon during the subsequent reeling stages unspooling and straightening. The above discussion is based on the results obtained from the lined pipe in pure bending. The main difference between pure bending and reeling is that in addition to the constant moment applied during pure bending, a tensile and distributed load is applied to the lined pipe. From a comparison of the numerical results of the lined pipe in pure bending with the results of reeling experiments in Chapter 8 it is concluded that the pure bending models result in a non-conservative and thus not safe approximation for reeling.

9.2 Recommendations
This research is regarded as a step towards better understanding of the mechanical behaviour of lined pipe during reeling. Naturally, not all aspects could be covered by this single study. From the perspective of Heerema Marine Contractors as an installation contractor, the end result of this research should qualify them for installation of lined pipe by means of reeling. Assuming that a validated numerical model of the complete reeling process meets this objective, the following steps are recommended.

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First of all, an acceptance criterion for liner wrinkling should be dened which should be met for qualication. Such an acceptance criterion could be based on the minimum required fatigue life of the liner and a minimum allowable cross sectional area of the liner from the perspective of for example ow assurance and pigging. A theoretical approach would require more research into the wrinkling mechanism and better denition of the bifurcation point. Secondly, a reel should be included in the numerical model and a representative tension should be applied to the lined pipe in order to simulate contact between the lined pipe and the reel. The results of the full scale reeling tests as performed by Focke [Focke, 2007] can be used for validation of the numerical model. During the spooling-on process a tension is applied to the lined pipe in order to plastically bend the pipe onto the reel and subsequently keep it on the reel. Ovalisation of the lined pipe is expected to increase due to the tension applied, resulting in a distributed contact load from the reel. Thirdly, cyclic bending should be included with for example the reel on one side and the aligner on the other side in correspondence with regularly used reeling rigs such as the bending test rig at Heriot-Watt University. In the numerical models used during this study the lined pipe was only subjected to pure bending once in a single direction. It is recommended to perform full scale tests for validation of the numerical model. The current numerical model uses isotropic hardening plasticity with a Mises yield surface. Including cyclic bending requires a more accurate material model in order to account for anisotropy and hardening. The inuence of the coating cycle on the material of the outer pipe and the radial contact stress should be incorporated. And in addition to the tensile tests performed during the current research, the mechanical properties should be determined both in tension and compression at several longitudinal and circumferential locations of the pipe before and after reeling, allowing verication of the simulated material with reality [Martinez, 2005]. Subsequently, parameter studies should be carried out, incorporating the correlation between the different parameters that have been investigated individually during this study as well as the inuence of the variation between adjacent pipe joints. The variations that should be investigated are material and geometric mismatches, such as for example variations in wall thickness and misalignment due to welding. Geometric variations are known to be more severe than material mismatches [Denniel, 2009]. Possibly the models developed at this stage suffice for qualication in combination with a number of full scale tests. However, it is advised to simulate the entire reeling installation process of lined pipe. Important aspects that are of inuence on the condition of the lined pipe after installation that have not been considered are the arrangement of the reeling equipment [Denniel, 2009], concentrated loads introduced by crossing pipeline layers on the reel, the inuence of hydro testing after installation as well as an external pressure exerted by the water on the lined pipe during lowering and when laying on the seabed. Another approach towards qualication would be the exploration of wrinkling mitigation methods. For example, from the pure bending tests internal pressure resulted in later liner wrinkling and shallower but wider wrinkles. In order to develop a strategic wrinkling mitigation product a strategic development trajectory is recommended, incorporating market analyses and exploration of possible solutions.

211

Conclusions and Recommendations

212

Chapter 9

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DNV, DNV-OS-F101 Submarine Pipeline Systems, 2000 DNV, DNV Report No. 2007-0220 Guideline for Design and Construction of Clad and Lined Pipelines, 2007 Dudley, B., BP Energy Outlook 2030, London, January 2011 Endal, G., Levold, E. and Ilstad, H., Patent No. US 2010/0034590 A1: Method for Laying a Pipeline, 2010 Evans, J., Overview of the Pipeline Industry: today and the next 12 18 months, Offshore Pipeline Technology, February 2011 Fabian, O., Collapse of Cylindrical, Elastic Tubes under Combined Bending, Pressure and Axial Loads, Int. J. Solids Structures, Vol. 13 pp. 1257-1270, 1977 Focke, E.S., Gresnigt, A.M., Meek, J., Nakasugi, H., E xperimental Research on Local Buckling Behaviour of Tight Fit Pipe, Proceedings of the 15th International Symposium of Offshore and Polar Engineering, p. 76-84, 2005a Focke, E.S., Van Oosten, J., Gresnigt, A.M., Meek, J., Nakasugi, H., The Inuence of the Reeling Installation Method on the Integrity of the Reeling Installation method on the Integrity of Circumferential Welds in Tight Fit Pipe, Proceedings of the 15th International Symposium of Offshore and Polar Engineering, p. 31-38, 2005b Focke, E.S., Gresnigt, A.M., Meek, J., Nakasugi, H., The Inuence of Heating of the Liner Pipe during the Manufacturing Process of Tight Fit Pipe, Proceedings of the 16th International Offshore and Polar Engineering conference, San Fransisco, USA, 2006, p. 31-38, 2006 Focke, E.S., Reeling of Tight Fit Pipe, Delft University of Technology, PhD thesis, 2007 Focke, E.S., Karjadi, E., Gresnigt, A.M., Meek, J., Reeling of Tight Fit Pipe (TFP), Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, 2007a Focke, E.S., Gresnigt, A.M., Hilberink, A., Local Buckling of Tight Fit Liner Pipe, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 133; 011207-1:011207-9, February, 2011 Gellin, S., The Plastic Buckling of Long Cylindrical Shells under Pure Bending, Int J Solids Structures Vol. 16, 397-407, 1979 Gresnigt, A.M., Plastic Design of Buried Pipelines in Settlement Areas HERON, vol 31 no 4, 1986 Gresnigt, A.M., Karamanos, S.A., Local Buckling Strength and Deformation Capacity of Pipes, Proceedings of the 19th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Osaka, Japan, 2009 Guarracino, F., Walker, A.C., Giordano, A., Effects of boundary conditions on testing of pipes and nite element modelling, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86: 196-206, 2009

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Hilberink, A., Gresnigt, A.M., Sluys, L.J., Liner Wrinkling of Lined Pipe Under Compression, a Numerical and Experimental Investigation, Proceedings of the 29th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Shanghai, China, 2010a Hilberink, A., Gresnigt, A.M., Sluys, L.J., A Finite Element Method Approach on Liner Wrinkling of Snug Fit Lined Pipe, Proceedings of the 20th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Beijing, China, 2010b Hilberink, A., Gresnigt, A.M., Sluys, L.J., Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe during Bending, Numerical and Experimental Results Compared, Proceedings of the 30th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2011a Hilberink, A., Gresnigt, A.M., Sluys, L.J., A Finite Element Method Approach on Liner Wrinkling of Lined Pipe during Bending, Proceedings of the 21 st International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Maui, Hawaii, USA, 2011b Howard, B., Hoss, J.L., Patent No. WO 2010010390 A2: Method of Spooling a Bi-Metallic Pipe, 2010 Ilstad, H. Nes H.A., Endal, G., Strengthening Effect form Steel Pipe Cladding in Pure Bending, Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Hamburg, Germany, 2006 Johnsrud, M., Collberg, L., Rasmussen, K., Bjerke, S.L., Design Guideline for Clad and Lined Pipelines, Rio Pipeline Conference and Exposition, , 2009 Ju G.T., Kyriakides S., Bifurcation and Localization Instabilities in Cylindrical Shells under Bending II. Predictions, Int. J. Solids and Structures, 1992; Vol. 29 No. 9: 1143-1171 Kyriakides S., Shaw P.K., Inelastic Buckling of Tubes under Cyclic Bending, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 1987; 109 Kolstein, M.H., Gresnigt, A.M., Experiments Advanced Pipe Laying Technology; Four-point bend tests on Kuroki TFP, Stevin report 6-11-3, 2010 Kyriakides S., Shaw P.K., Inelastic Buckling of Tubes under Cyclic Bending, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 1987; 109 Kyriakides S., Ju G.T., Bifurcation and Localization Instabilities in Cylindrical Shells under Bending I. Experiments, Int. J. Solids Structures, 1992; Vol. 29, No. 9, pp. 1117-1142 Kyriakides, S., Corona, E., Mechanics of Offshore Pipelines, Volume 1 Buckling and Collapse, Elsevier Science Ltd, 2007

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Lee, L.H.N., Inelastic Buckling of Initially Imperfect Cylindrical Shells Subject to Axial Compression, Journal of the Aerospace Sciences, January, pp.87-95, 1962 Martinez, M., Brown, G., Evolution of Pipe Properties during Reel-Lay Process: Experimental Characterisation and Finite element Modelling, Proceedings of the 24th Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Conference, Halkidiki, Greece, 2005 Murphey, C.E. and Langner, C.G., Ultimate Pipe Strength under Bending, Collapse and Fatigue, Proceedings of the Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Conference, 1985 Needleman, A., Tvergaard, V., Aspects of Plastic Postbuckling Behavior, Mechanics of Solids, The Rodney Hill 60th Anniversary Volume, Pergamon Press, 1982: 453-498 NNI, NEN-EN 1594 (en) Gas supply systems Pipelines for Maximum Operating Pressure over 16 bar Functional Requirements, Nederlands Normalisatie Instituut, 2000 NNI, NEN-EN 1993-4-3 (en) Design of steel structures Part 4 3: Pipelines, Nederlands Normalisatie Instituut, 2009 NNI, NEN-EN 10002-1 (en) Metallic materials Tensile Testing Part 1: Method of Test at Ambient Temperature, Nederlands Normalisatie Instituut, 2001 Nogueira, A.C., Lanan, G.A., Application of a Rational Model for Collapse of Deepwater Pipelines, Deepwater Pipeline and Riser Technology Conference, Houston, 2001 Pappa, P., Karamanos, S.A., Non-Associative Constitutive Model and Numerical Implementation for Buckling Calculations in Cylindrical Steel Shells, International Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, Romania, 2011 Peek, R., Wrinkling of Tubes in Bending from Finite Strain Three-Dimensional Continuum Theory, International Journal of Solids and Structures 39 (2002) 709-723, 2002 Rasmussen, K. JR, Full-range Stress-strain Curves for Stainless Steel Alloys, The University of Sydney Department of Civil Engineering Sydney, Centre for Advanced Structural Engineering, Sydney, Australia, 2001 Reddy, B.D., An Experimental Study of the Plastic Buckling of Circular Cylinders in Pure Bending, Int J Solids Structures, 1979; 15: 669-683 Reissner, E., On Finite Bending of Pressurized Tubes, Journal of Applied Mechanics, September 1959 Reissner, E., Weinitschke, J.J., Finite Pure Bending of Circular Cylindrical Tubes, Quarterly of Applied Mathematics Vol XX No 4, January 1963

216

Sewell, M.J., A Survey of Plastic Buckling, Stability, Leipholz (ed.), Waterloo University Press, 1972: 85 197 Shaw, P.K., Kyriakides, S., Inelastic Analysis of Thin-Walled Tubes under Cyclic Bending, Int. J. Solids Structures, vol. 21, No. 11, pp. 1073-1100, Pergamon Press, UK, 1985 Timoshenko, S.P., Gere, J.M., Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961 Tugcu, P., Plate Buckling in the Plastic Range, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 1991; 33: 1-11 Tvergaard, V., Plastic Buckling of Axially Compressed Cylindrical Shells, International Journal of Thin-Walled Structures, 1983a; 1: 139-163 Tvergaard, V., On the Transition from a Diamond Mode to an Axisymmetric Mode of Collapse in Cylindrical Shells, Int. J. Solids Structures, Vol. 19, No. 10, pp. 845-856, Pergamon Press, UK, 1983b Tkaczyk, T. Ppin, A., Denniel, S., Integrity of Mechanically Lined Pipes Subjected to Multi-Cycle Plastic Bending, Proceedings of 30th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, June 19-24, 2011a Tkaczyk, T., Ppin, A., Patent No. WO 2011048430 A1: Methods of Reel-Laying a Mechanically Lined Pipe, 2011b Vasilikis, D., Karamanos, S.A., Buckling of Clad Pipes under Bending and External Pressure, Proceedings of 30th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, June 19-24, 2011 Westwood, J., Future Offshore Oil & Gas and Renewable Markets, the Netherlands, 4 April 2011 Wilmot, D., Montague, P., The Suitability of CRA Lined Pipes for Flow lines Susceptible to Lateral Buckling, SUT Global Pipeline Buckling Symposium, 23-24 February 2011

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References

218

List of Publications

International Journals
Focke, E.S., Gresnigt, A.M., Hilberink, A., Local Buckling of Tight Fit Liner Pipe, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 133; 011207-1:011207-9, February, 2011 Hilberink, A., Liner Wrinkling in a Lined Pipe A Finite Element Approach, Exploration and Production, Touch Briengs 2010

Publications in Preparation
Hilberink, A., Sluys, L.J., Bijlaard, F.S.K., Gresnigt, A.M., Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe I. Full Scale Four Point Bend Tests, Journal of Constructional Steel: to be submitted Hilberink, A., Sluys, L.J., Bijlaard, F.S.K., Gresnigt, A.M., Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe II. Numerical Model Pure Bending of Lined Pipe, Journal of Constructional Steel: to be submitted Hilberink, A., Sluys, L.J., Bijlaard, F.S.K., Gresnigt, A.M., Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe - Parameters Inuencing Liner Wrinkling Behaviour, to be submitted

Conference Proceedings
Hilberink, A., Gresnigt, A.M., Sluys, L.J., Liner Wrinkling of Lined Pipe Under Compression, a Numerical and Experimental Investigation, Proceedings of the 29th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Shanghai, China, 2010 Hilberink, A., Gresnigt, A.M., Sluys, L.J., A Finite Element Method Approach on Liner Wrinkling of Snug Fit Lined Pipe, Proceedings of the 20th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Beijing, China, 2010 Hilberink, A., Gresnigt, A.M., Sluys, L.J., Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe during Bending, Numerical and Experimental Results Compared, Proceedings of the 30th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2011 Hilberink, A., Gresnigt, A.M., Sluys, L.J., A Finite Element Method Approach on Liner Wrinkling of Lined Pipe during Bending, Proceedings of the 21 st International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Maui, Hawaii, USA, 2011 Hilberink, A., Gresnigt, A.M., Sluys, L.J., A Finite Element Method Approach to Liner Wrinkling of Lined Pipe, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Thin Walled Structures, Timisoara, Romania, 2011

219

List of Publications

220

Appendix A

Stress-Strain Curves TFP

Tensile tests are performed on liner and outer pipes of the TFPs to determine the stress-strain curves after heat treatments when applicable.

Stress-strain curves TFPs without a coating simulation cycle

Three TFPs that were not given a coating simulation cycle are subjected to bend tests. The results of these bend tests will be used for validation of the pure bending numerical models in Abaqus. The stressstrain curves as used in the numerical models need to be the same as the actual bent TFPs. Therefore in this section, representative curves will be selected for these TFPs. On each of the three TFPs two tensile tests are performed on the liner and the outer pipe in hoop and axial direction. Table A.1 Overview tensile tests on TFPs without a coating simulation cycle

Figure A.1 Stress-strain curves for outer pipes of bent TFPs in hoop and axial direction From Figure A.1 and Table A.1 it can be concluded that for the outer pipe the average curves are M90-K P01KA transverse and M98-K T13KB transverse, which correspond well. The two N01KA curves and M89-K P01KA lie higher, while the M97-K T13KB lies lower. Since M98-K is aborted in an early stage, M90-K P01KA transverse is the best representative curve. From comparison of the different curves as given in Figure A.2 it can be concluded that only a small difference exists between the material behaviour

221

in longitudinal and transverse direction. The outer pipe material is considered isotropic, which is known to give a good approximation for non-cyclic bending.

Figure A.2 Stress-strain curves for liners of bent TFPs in hoop and axial direction For the liners, the curves lie much closer. T13KB M99-K and M100-K lie in the middle, with the N01KA curves being lower and the P01KA curves being somewhat higher, although they are really close to the T13KB curves. T13KB M99-K longitudinal curve is the best representative curve, since this specimen was taken in axial direction and did not need any attening before testing. From comparison of the different curves as given in Figure A.2 it can be concluded that only a small difference exist between the material behaviour in longitudinal and transverse direction. The liner material is considered isotropic.

Stress-strain curves TFPs with a coating simulation cycle

Additional tests are performed on a TFP that underwent a coating simulation cycle, during which the TFP was fully heated at 2200C. Two tensile tests are performed on the liner and the outer pipe in hoop and axial direction. Table A.2 Overview tensile tests on TFP with a coating simulation cycle

The resulting curves for this pipe are given in Figure A.3.

222

Appendix A

Figure A.3 Nominal stress-strain curves for liner and outer pipe of 17.5mm seamless TFP with coating simulation in hoop and axial direction From the above gure it can be concluded that just as for the TFPs without a coating simulation cycle, both the liner and the outer pipe show isotropic material behaviour and the outer pipe material acts signicantly stiffer than the liner material.

Overview stress-strain curves bent TFPs

An overview of the tensile test results for the bent TFPs is given in TableA.3. The yield stress is taken where the stress-strain curve deviates from the linear elastic branch, which is based on the theoretical modulus of elasticity. The average yield stresses are based on the consistent measured values, which means that if one yield stress shows signicant deviation from the others it is not included in the average yield stress. In the same way, the 0.2% proof stress has been determined and included in the same table.

223

Table A.3 Characteristics bent TFPs

224

Appendix A

Appendix B  Inuence of Specimen Length on Residual Compressive Stress Test Results

The residual compressive stress tests were performed according to the API5LD. This code does not mention the required length of the specimen. As concluded from the test results of Focke [2007], the residual compressive stress test specimen length has an inuence on the measured axial strain. This can be explained by two mechanisms: 1.  T he inuence of the specimen length on the strains present after cutting the specimen from the total pipe length, and 2.  T he inuence of the specimen length on the axial strain changes during the residual compressive stress test. Each of the two mechanisms will be discussed separately.

Cutting specimen from total pipe length

To obtain a specimen, it needs to be cut from the total pipe length. Equilibrium requires the axial strain at both pipe ends to be zero. A friction length is required to reach the maximum axial strain as shown in Figure B.1. The required friction length can be determined from a saw cut test. At a certain point on the circumference, the inside of a TFP should be equipped with bi-axial strain gauges along the complete length of the pipe. A pipe piece should then be cut from the total pipe length, while measuring the strain development.

Figure B.1 Axial elastic strain along the pipe length To understand the inuence of the specimen length on the measured strain changes during saw cutting, the saw cut test and the obtained results will be discussed for different specimen lengths hereafter. When cutting a pipe length exceeding four times the required friction length into half, strain at the newly cut ends will release and become zero. The elastic axial strains remaining in the liner are expected to follow the distribution as shown in Figure B.2, while the shaded areas will be the measured changes in axial strain. The measured axial strain change is the difference between the original elastic strain and the

225

new elastic strain. The maximum measured strain change equals the maximum elastic strain that was originally present.

Figure B.2 Resulting elastic axial strain and measured elastic strain changes along the pipe length when cutting total pipe length into half When the length of the cut off specimen exactly equals the required friction length, the measured strain change and remaining strain are illustrated in Figure B.3. The measured strain change again equals the difference between the original strain and the new strain and the maximum strain change measured equals the maximum strain originally present. The same will hold for specimen lengths between one and two times the required friction length.

Figure B.3 Resulting elastic axial strain and measured elastic strain changes along the pipe length when the length of the specimen on the left exactly equals the required friction length When the length of the cut off specimen is shorter than the required friction length, the measured strain change and remaining strain are shown in Figure B.4. The strain change measured for the left specimen will not reach the maximum strain change. The strain change measured along the remainder of the pipe, seen from the cut end, will increase until it has reached a maximum, lower than the maximum elastic

226

Appendix B

strain originally present in the pipe, and then decrease again. The length over which a strain change is measured in the remainder of the pipe will equal the required friction length. This situation corresponds with the tests on the 10 inch pipe as performed by Focke [2007]. The required friction length resulting from these tests equals 275 mm, somewhat longer than one pipe diameter.

Figure B.4 Resulting elastic axial strain and measured elastic strain changes along the pipe length when the length of the specimen on the left is smaller than the required friction length For a complete overview one other situation needs to be discussed, where the original total pipe length is smaller than two times the required friction length. The maximum elastic strain present in the total pipe length is smaller than the maximum present in the total pipe length as illustrated in Figure B.5.

Figure B.5 Resulting elastic axial strain and measured elastic strain changes along the pipe length when the original total pipe length is smaller than two times the required friction length If the length over which no strain change is measured, , during saw cutting along the length of one of the two pipe pieces is longer than the length over which a strain change is measured, , the length over which the strain change is measured equals the required friction length as illustrated in Figure B.6.

227

Figure B.6 Maximum elastic strain present is measured directly if specimen length exceeds two times the required friction length The length of the specimen for the residual compressive stress test should at least equal two times the required friction length to measure the maximum elastic strain present in the original pipe. Sometimes only shorter specimens can be used for the residual compressive stress test, due to practical limitations such as for example a limited length of the band saw. When a saw cut tests was performed on the same pipe, the strain changes measured during the residual compressive stress test can be compensated for by the relations between strains and length as obtained from the saw cut test result. However, specimens longer than twice the required friction length give more accurate results. This can be explained by looking at the inuence of the strain release during saw cutting. From the saw cut tests performed by Focke [2007] on shorter specimens, it resulted that cutting a specimen from the total pipe length caused a decrease of the compressive axial stress in the liner and of the tensile axial stress in the outer pipe. This resulted in elongation of the liner and shortening of the outer pipe. Elongation of the liner resulted in a decrease in diameter and, allowing relaxation of the outer pipe in hoop direction and causing the outer pipe diameter to decrease due to the tension it experienced. This is in correspondence with the results from Focke, showing that the change in axial strain and stress during the saw cut test is larger than the change in hoop strain and stress. These mechanisms of length and diameter decrease will result in some thickness increase in the outer pipe, thus restoring some of the hoop and axial stress. However, it is hard to determine what the exact inuence of these mechanisms is on a specimen length shorter than twice the required friction length. Focke [2007] concluded that saw cutting a specimen from the total pipe length only had a minor inuence on the hoop stress and strain, and consequently on the radial contact stress.

228

Appendix B

Specimen length during residual compressive stress test

The second mechanism, the inuence of the specimen length on the axial strain changes during the residual compressive stress test, is described below. The stress situation in a residual compressive stress test specimen having a length larger then twice the required friction length is given in Figure B.7, similar with the test results of Focke [2007] i.e. compressive hoop and axial stresses.

Figure B.7 Stress situation residual compressive stress test specimen When cutting the outer pipe from the liner, the compressive radial and hoop stresses in the liner are released, resulting in a diameter increase, shortening and thickening of the liner as shown in Figure B.8.

Figure B.8 Inuence of hoop stress release on the liner geometry

Figure B.9 Inuence of axial stress release on the liner geometry

Contrary due to cutting the outer pipe from the liner, the compressive axial stresses in the liner are released, resulting in a diameter decrease, elongation and a decrease in thickness of the liner as illustrated in Figure B.9.

229

It can thus be concluded, that the release of compressive hoop and radial stresses has an opposite effect on the liner as the release of compressive axial stress. During a real residual compressive stress test these two inuences will interact. Whether the liner length will experience a net increase or decrease depends on the ratio between the hoop and axial compressive stresses initially present in the TFP specimen. As concluded by Focke, saw cutting a specimen from the total pipe length only had a minor inuence on the hoop stress and strain, and consequently on the radial contact stress. For specimens with a length longer than twice the required friction length, the maximum axial strain present equals the maximum strain that was present in the original pipe length. The inuence of the axial stress release will thus increase for increasing specimen length. For the liners initially experiencing axial and hoop compression, shorter specimens are expected to shorten during a residual compressive stress test, while longer specimens are expected to elongate. This is in agreement with the residual compressive stress test results of Focke on 10 inch pipe pieces with different lengths. The specimens with a length of 50 and 100mm show shortening and diameter increase, while the 200mm long specimens show elongation and diameter increase.

Conclusions
From the above discussion it can be concluded that ideally residual compressive stress test specimens should be longer than twice the required friction length to measure the strain changes corresponding with the axial and hoop strains originally present in the complete pipe length. A saw cut test should be performed to determine the required friction length. The axial stresses present are much smaller than the hoop stresses and have only a minor inuence on the stress state of the liner and outer pipe. The hoop strains measured are more reliable than the axial strains. Unfortunately, for the 200mm long specimens no saw cut test was performed on forehand. The results obtained by Focke [2007], show that twice the required friction length exceeds one diameter in length. The 200mm specimens used in this research are too short to measure the maximum elastic strain originally present in the lined pipe. However, saw cutting a specimen from the total pipe length only has a minor inuence on the hoop stress and strain, and consequently on the radial contact stress. The measured changes in hoop strain during the residual compressive stress test are much larger than the axial strain changes. This is conrmed by the fact that the hoop strains measured during the residual compressive stress test result in relatively high stress values compared to the yield stress, the maximum possible value. It is considered valid to use the strain changes measured during the residual compressive stress test as a rst approximation for calculating the contact stress, hoop stresses, and axial stresses originally present in the TFP.

230

Appendix B

SAMENVATTING  Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe

Het mechanisch gedrag van mechanisch verbonden dubbelwandige pijp Annemiek Hilberink
Met de verwachte aanhoudende groei van het volume gewonnen fossiele brandstoffen over de komende decennia onder druk van de wereldwijd stijgende energiebehoefte en de daarmee gepaard gaande verwachte groei van het volume gewonnen corrosieve grondstoffen, zal de vraag naar corrosiebestendige transportoplossingen voor het transporteren van deze grondstoffen toenemen. Mechanisch verbonden lined pijp is een kosteneffectieve transportoplossing die een hoge corrosiebestendigheid combineert met een lange levensduur. Mechanisch verbonden lined pijp is een type dubbelwandige pijp, bestaande uit een buitenpijp van koolstofstaal zorgend voor de sterkte van de pijp, en een corrosiebestendige dunwandige binnenpijp, de zogenaamde liner. De binnenpijp is met een klempassing in de buitenpijp gebracht en beschermd deze tegen de corrosieve fossiele brandstoffen. Reeling is een offshore installatiemethode waarbij een pijpleiding aan land op een grote spoel, de reel, wordt gewikkeld en tijdens installatie offshore wordt afgespoeld. Het offshore installeren van lined pijp met de reelingmethode lijkt een aantrekkelijke combinatie, omdat bij deze methode de moeilijke zogenaamde veeleisende lassen aan land kunnen worden geprefabriceerd en daarmee uit de kritische tijd offshore kunnen worden gelimineerd. Reelen is echter nog geen bewezen methode voor de installatie van lined pijp. Uit voorgaand onderzoek is gebleken dat lined pijp onder invloed van de hoge plastische rekken die tijdens reelen optreden excessief ovaliseert en de binnenpijp plooien gaat vertoont. Dit onderzoek heeft tot doel te bepalen of lined pijp kan worden genstalleerd door middel van de reelingmethode. In eerste instantie is de interactie tussen lined pijp en reel buiten beschouwing gelaten en is het mechanisch gedrag van lined pijp onder pure buiging bekeken. Nadat voldoende inzicht was verkregen in het gedrag van de gesoleerde lined pijp onder pure buiging is het contact met de reel toegevoegd. Bij het benaderen van de onderzoeksdoelstelling zijn de volgende onderzoeksvragen gesteld: 1.  Welke variabelen hebben invloed op de limiet en het mechanische gedrag van lined pijp onder pure buiging? 2.  Wat is de gevoeligheid van het mechanisch gedrag van lined pijp, in het bijzonder het begin van plooien van de binnenpijp en de groei van deze plooien tijdens verder buigen, voor de gedenticeerde variabelen? Om de relevante parameters te kunnen identiceren en hun invloed op het mechanisch gedrag van lined pijp te kunnen bepalen moest eerst volledig inzicht worden verkregen in het mechanisch gedrag van lined pijp.

231

Samenvatting

Hiervoor is een combinatie van numerieke modellen en vierpuntsbuigtesten gebruikt. De vierpuntsbuigtesten zijn uitgevoerd met het doel de numerieke resultaten met de test resultaten te kunnen vergelijken, en de invloed van een aantal testcondities en pijpeigenschappen te onderzoeken. Elastisch-plastische cilinders vertonen afhankelijk van hun dikte-diameter verhouding twee verschillende faalmechanismen: relatief dikke elastisch-plastische cilinders bezwijken ten gevolge van ovalisatie, terwijl relatief dunnere elastisch-plastische cilinders bezwijken ten gevolge van plooien. Deze twee faalmechanismen zijn eerst afzonderlijk onderzocht met behulp van numerieke modellen, alvorens ze te combineren. Door middel van deze aanpak is volledig inzicht verkregen in de opeenvolgende stappen die tijdens buiging leiden tot het falen van lined pijp. Tevens werd veel vertrouwen verkregen in de opeenvolgende numerieke modellen. De lined pijp bleek te bezwijken onder invloed van het plooien van de binnenpijp. Het vergelijken van de numerieke resultaten van de lined pijp onder pure buiging met de binnenpijp alleen liet zien dat het opsluiten van de binnenpijp in de buitenpijp resulteert in een aanzienlijke stijging van het maximale moment capaciteit en bijbehorende buigkromming. De gevoeligheid van het plooigedrag van de binnenpijp in de lined pijp onder pure buiging voor verschillende geometrische, materiaal- en contactparameters is onderzocht op basis van het vergelijken van de maximale momenten en bijbehorende buigingskrommingen. Het installeren van lined pijp met behulp van de reelingmethode is technisch haalbaar als de buigradius waarbij de binnenpijp plooien vertoond kleiner is dan de reelradius. Het aanpassen van de lined pijp eigenschappen aan een bestaande reel lijkt economisch haalbaarder dan een nieuwe reel voor elke lined pijp afzonderlijk. Uit de parameterstudies bleek dat de kromming waarbij de binnenpijp plooien begint te vertonen verhoogd kan worden door aanpassing van de geometrische en contactparameters van de lined pijp. Aanpassing van de materiaalparameters had weinig invloed op de minimum buigradius, totdat de binnenpijp in verhouding tot de buitenpijp te stijf wordt en ervoor zorgt dat de buitenpijp bij een grotere buigradius faalt. In volgorde van afnemende effectiviteit kan de lined pijp geschikt worden gemaakt voor reeling met behulp van de volgende parameters: - Verdikken van de binnenpijp; - Verdikken van de buitenpijp met gelijkblijvende diameter-dikte verhouding van de binnenpijp; - Verhogen van de wrijving tussen binnenpijp en buitenpijp; - Verhogen van de radiale contactdruk tussen binnenpijp en buitenpijp, d.w.z. een verhoogde drukspanning in omtreksrichting in de binnenpijp, en - Vergroten van de axiale trekspanning in de binnenpijp. De bovenstaande resultaten volgen uit het op pure buiging belasten van lined pijp. Het belangrijkste verschil tussen pure buigen en reelen is dat naast het constante moment, een trekspanning en verdeelde belasting in de lined pijp worden gentroduceerd. Uit een vergelijking van de numerieke resultaten van de lined pijp onder pure buiging met experimentele reeling resultaten uit een voorgaand onderzoek kan worden geconcludeerd dat pure buiging een niet-conservatieve en dus onveilige benadering geeft voor reeling. Om tot een nauwkeurigere benadering te komen moet het huidige numerieke model worden uitgebreid met cyclisch buigen, inclusief een reel en aligner, een constante radius waarover de buis wordt doorgebogen tijdens het afspoelen, evenals een nauwkeuriger materiaalmodel, inclusief anisotropie en versteviging van het pijpmateriaal.

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CURRICULUM VITAE

Annemiek Hilberink was born in Middenmeer, The Netherlands, on 20th February 1980. She completed the Atheneum-B in Coevorden in 1998. In the same year she started her studies in Industrial Design Engineering at Delft University of Technology, from which she obtained her propaedeuse in July 1999 and B.Sc. degree in August 2002. During her studies she spent one year as a secretary in the board of her students union, this year being funded by the university. In September 2001 she continued her studies in Mechanical Engineering. Working experience was gained during internships at Siemens N.V. Cranes Department, where she worked on the application of sensors on container cranes, and at Svendborg Brakes A/S in Denmark during her graduation project. In July 2005 she obtained her M.Sc.-degree in Mechanical engineering cum laude on her thesis titled A Software Model of a Hydraulic Brake System to Generate Knowledge for a Condition Monitoring Expert System. After spending the summer of 2005 working on a water system for a maternity clinic in Twabidi, Ghana, Annemiek started working as an engineer on offshore installation projects at Heerema Marine Contractors. In February 2007 she started working on her Ph.D. research titled Mechanical Behaviour of Lined Pipe, which was funded by AgentschapNL. She combined her Ph.D. project with industry related work and offshore experience at Heerema Marine Contractors and coaching B.Sc. and M.Sc. students at Delft University of Technology. At present, Annemiek is working as a Senior Engineer at the Innovation Department of Heerema Marine Contractors.

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Curriculum Vitae

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