Arduino Uno

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM. The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports from shorts and overcurrent The main reason of us using Arduino was that it was easy to program.

Stepper Motor
The Bipolar Stepper motor is very similar to the Unipolar Stepper motor, except that the motor coils lack center taps. Because of this, the bipolar motor requires a different type of controller, one that reverses the current flow through the coils by alternating polarity of the terminals, giving us the name - Bipolar. A Bipolar motor is capable of higher torque since entire coil(s) may be energized, not just half-coils. Where 4-wire steppers are strictly 'Bipolar', 5 and 6 wire motors with center-taps can be used with a bipolar controller. The Bipolar Stepper motor has 2 coils. The coils are identical and are not electrically connected. You can identify the separate coils by touching the terminal wires together-- If the terminals of a coil are connected, the shaft becomes harder to turn.

The Bipolar Controller must be able to reverse the polarity of the voltage across either coil, so current can flow in both directions. And, it must be able to energize these coils in sequence. Let us look at the mechanism for reversing the voltage across one of the coils...

This circuit is called an H-Bridge, because it resemble a letter "H". The current can be reversed through the coil by closing the appropriate switches - AD to flow one direction then BC to flow the opposite.

Another way of depicting the H-Bridge... Since each half of the bridge can both sink and source current, it qualifies as a push-pull type amplifier, and can be drawn with the symbol for the amplifier. H-bridges are applicable not only to the control of stepping motors, but also to the control of DC motors, solenoids and many other applications, where polarity reversal is needed. Diodes protect the switches from the kickback of inductive type loads, such as the coils of a stepper. Two such circuits are needed to drive both coils of the Bipolar stepper, and is commonly called a "Dual H-Bridge."

Conceptual Model of Bipolar Stepper Motor

The coils are activated, in sequence, to attract the rotor, which is indicated by the arrow in the picture. (Remember that a current through a coil produces a magnetic field.) This conceptual diagram depicts a 90 degree step per phase. Assuming Terminal 1a is positive and 1b is negative, the rotor points to the East in this diagram. If these two terminals were reversed in polarity the rotor would point to the West. Coil 2 is entirely de-activated in the diagram. In a basic "Wave Drive" clockwise sequence, winding 1 is de-activated and winding 2 activated to advance to the next phase. The rotor is guided in this manner from one winding to the next, producing a continuous cycle. Note that if two adjacent windings are activated, the rotor is attracted mid-way between the two windings. The following table describes 3 useful stepping sequences and their relative merits. The polarity of terminals is indicated with +/-. After the last step in each sequence the sequence repeats. Stepping backwards through the sequence reverses the direction of the motor. Note that these sequences are identical to those for a Unipolar Stepper Motor. There are 3 modes of a stepper motor Wave Drive, One Phase: It consumes the least power among the 3 modes. Only one phase is energised at a time. In this mode, positional accuracy is guaranteed regardless of any winding imbalances. Sequence: 0001-0010-0100-1000 Hi-Torque, Two-Phase: It provides high torque. This sequence energizes two adjacent phases, which offers an improved torque-speed product and greater holding torque. Sequence: 0011-0110-1100-1001 Half-Step: Effectively doubles the stepping resolution of the motor, but the torque is not uniform for each step. (Since we are effectively switching between Wave Drive and HiTorque with each step, torque alternates each step.) This sequence reduces motor resonance

which can sometimes cause a motor to stall at a particular resonant frequency. Note that this sequence is 8 steps. Sequence: 0001-0011-0010-0110-0100-1100-1000-1001 We need high torque so we are using the mode Hi-Torque, Two-Phase.

L298 Motor Driver:

The Motor Shield is based on the L298, which is a dual full-bridge driver designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, DC and stepping motors. It lets you drive two DC motors, controlling the speed and direction of each one independently. The L298 chip is the bigger brother to the L293 chip (a popular small-motor driver IC), but the L298 handles more current and more. There are many ways to strengthen (buffer) a signal so its strong enough to drive a large load like a motor. Transistor bridge circuits, buffer chips, and dedicated motor driving chips are all suitable candidates, with their own benefits and limitations. Were using the well-proven L298 for this design, as it has practically all the features youd need in a good motor driver , including thermal-shutdown, meaning that it will slow down and stop if overloaded. Without modification, the maximum voltage input to the compact motor driver board is 26V , this is the maximum voltage that the regulator can handle. If the voltage regulator is replaced with a 7805 then the maximum voltage will be limited to 30V by the 1N5818 diodes. If 30V isnt enough and you want to use 35V, replace the diodes with some 1N5819 diodes. Over 35V operation is restricted by the voltage regulator , but if you can work around that, the next limit is 50V (the limit of the L298!).

Ultrasonic Sensor
Ultrasonic principle: Ultrasonic sensors emit short, high-frequency sound pulses at regular intervals. These propagate in the air at the velocity of sound. If they strike an object, then they are reflected back as echo signals to the sensor, which itself computes the distance to the target based on the time-span between emitting the signal and receiving the echo.

As the distance to an object is determined by measuring the time of flight and not by the intensity of the sound, ultrasonic sensors are excellent at suppressing background interference. Virtually all materials which reflect sound can be detected, regardless of their colour. Even transparent materials or thin foils represent no problem for an ultrasonic sensor. Ultrasonic sensors are suitable for target distances from 20 mm to 10 m and as they measure the time of flight they can ascertain a measurement with pinpoint accuracy. Some of our sensors can even resolve the signal to an accuracy of 0.025 mm. Ultrasonic sensors can see through dust-laden air and ink mists. Even thin deposits on the sensor membrane do not impair its function. Sensors with a blind zone of only 20 mm and an extremely thin beam spread are making entirely new applications possible today: Fill level measurement in wells of microtiter plates and test tubes, as well as the detection of small bottles in the packaging industry, can be implemented with ease. Even thin wires are reliably detected. We are using the US-020 ultrasonic sensor.

Specification:

US-020 ultrasonic module distance measuring sensor Working voltage: DC 5 V Static current: 3 mA Working temperature: 0~ + 70 Output way: GPIO Induction Angle: Less than 15 Detection range:2 cm to 700 cm Detecting precision: 0.3 cm + 1% UART mode serial configuration: Baud rate starting 9600, eight bit parity checking, no flow control. Sensor size: Approx. 45 x 20 x 1.6mm Hole diameter: Approx. 1mm

The US-020 ultrasonic sensor uses sonar to determine distance to an object like bats or dolphins do. It offers excellent range accuracy and stable readings. Its operation is not affected by sunlight or black material like sharp rangefinders are (although acoustically soft materials like cloth can be difficult to detect). Ultrasonic Ranging Module US-020 provides 2cm-700cm non-contact distance sensing capabilities, Ranging accuracy up to 3mm; module comprises an ultrasonic transmitter, a receiver and a control circuit. Basic operating principle: 1. IO port TRIG trigger ranging to at least 10us high level signal; 2. the module automatically sends eight 40khz square wave, automatically detects whether a signal return; 3. a signal to return to a high output through the IO port ECHO high duration of ultrasound wave from the transmitter to the time of the return. Test distance = (high level time * sound velocity (340M / S)) / 2; Reliable, high performance, high accuracy, blind area within 3cm.

GPS Module:
Working principle of a satellite receiver GPS.

Working principle of GPS.

Basic principles of GPS is simple. But the devices are tools created by science is advanced GPS functionality. 1. To live the basic GPS: Satellites Triangulation. Principles: based on the location of the satellite in space as reference points and satellite measurements from 4 satellites and geometric principles to calculate positions on earth. 2. Measure the distance between the GPS receiver with satellite GPS by measuring time that radio waves travel from satellite to receiver. Formula. : Distance = Speed * Time Calculating the distance between the satellite with a GPS which requires the distance from the satellite at least 3 satellites in the location. When a GPS satellite can receive signals from 3 satellites and more. It will calculate the distance between GPS and satellite. The 3 satellites will signal the identical signal to the GPS device by light speed (186,000 miles per second), but the period of reception from the satellites are not equal. Because distances are not equal, for example. Satellite 1. Time signal from the first satellite to a GPS is 0.10 seconds, the distance between the GPS satellite is 18,600 miles (186,000 miles per second X 0.10 seconds = 18,600 miles) so the current position can be anywhere in the circle that has

18,600 miles radius. Therefore it cannot tell the exact position. Satellite 2. Time signal from the first satellite to a GPS is 0.08 seconds, the distance between the GPS satellite is 13,200 miles (186,000 miles per second X 0.08 seconds = 13,200 miles) so the current location can point to any point in the Intersect. the circle from the first satellite to satellite 2. Satellite 3. Time signal from the first satellite to a GPS is 0.06 seconds, the distance between the GPS satellite is 11,160 miles (186,000 miles per second X 0.06 seconds = 11,160 miles). Therefore, the current position can be any point in between points Intersect circle and 3 satellite fleet. The remaining positions are 2 pionts in the intersection of 3 circles. The space will be automatically cut off and it will remain a position on the earth where we are Resources waves.Breaking: speed = 186,000 miles per minute. Measuring the travel time is compared by each of the signal sent to the satellite radio signal reception GPS. The waves that we use to send is a Pseudo Random Noise Code. 3. To measure time using radio waves travel in the GPS. require very accurate clock. If the PRN CODE from the satellite has data about departure time, when when the satellite signal and the GPS receiver is synchronize, the Atomic Clock will need to measure the time. It takes around. 0.06 seconds to travel. 4. Must know the exact location of the GPS satellites in space. - Orbit about 11,000 miles high. - Orbit may be incorrect (Ephemeris Errors) because of gravity of the moon and and the sun . - Controller uses radar to monitor GPS satellite orbit and send the information to modify the orbit data and the time of the satellite. Once data has been revised, it will be sent to a receiver GPS. 5. Correction of error caused by radio waves to travel the world. Cause of the discrepancy. (GPS Errors) coordinates of the calculated values. - Due to the travel to the atmospheric layer Ionosphere and Troposphere that have capacitance, humidity, temperature and density change at any time. - The Multipath Error - Problems caused by satellite - May be caused by orbit error due to gravity of the moon and the sun or may be caused by dislocation. The little clock will calculate the distance error is because satellites are very high. - Geometric relationship between the location of the satellite and the location of the GPS receiver, which is calculated. Value GDOP = Geometric Dilution of precision, which due to the nature of satellite positioning and GDOP is a component. - May be caused by other errors such as computer error or human control station.

GSM/GPRS module is used to establish communication between a computer and

a GSM-GPRS system. Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) is an architecture used for mobile communication in most of the countries. Global Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is an extension of GSM that enables higher data transmission rate. GSM/GPRS module consists of a GSM/GPRS modem assembled together with power supply circuit and communication interfaces (like RS-232, USB, etc) for computer. The MODEM is the soul of such modules.

Wireless MODEMs Wireless MODEMs are the MODEM devices that generate, transmit or decode data from a cellular network, for establishing communication between the cellular network and the computer. These are manufactured for specific cellular network (GSM/UMTS/CDMA) or specific cellular data standard (GSM/UMTS/GPRS/EDGE/HSDPA) or technology (GPS/SIM). Wireless MODEMs like other MODEM devices use serial communication to interface with and need Hayes compatible AT commands for communication with the computer (any microprocessor or microcontroller system). GSM/GPRS MODEM GSM/GPRS MODEM is a class of wireless MODEM devices that are designed for communication of a computer with the GSM and GPRS network. It requires a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card just like mobile phones to activate communication with the network. Also they have IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) number similar to mobile phones for their identification. A GSM/GPRS MODEM can perform the following operations:

1. 2. 3.

Receive, send or delete SMS messages in a SIM. Read, add, search phonebook entries of the SIM. Make, Receive, or reject a voice call.

The MODEM needs AT commands, for interacting with processor or controller, which are communicated through serial communication. These commands are sent by the controller/processor. The MODEM sends back a result after it receives a command. Different AT commands supported by the MODEM can be sent by the processor/controller/computer to interact with the GSM and GPRS cellular network. GSM/GPRS Module A GSM/GPRS module assembles a GSM/GPRS modem with standard communication interfaces like RS-232 (Serial Port), USB etc., so that it can be easily interfaced with a computer or a microprocessor / microcontroller based system. The power supply circuit is also built in the module that can be activated by using a suitable adaptor.

Relay:

A relay is a simple electromechanical switch made up of an electromagnet and a set of contacts. Relays are found hidden in all sorts of devices. In fact, some of the first computers ever built used relays to implement Boolean gates. Relay Construction Relays are amazingly simple devices. There are four parts in every relay: Electromagnet Armature that can be attracted by the electromagnet Spring Set of electrical contacts

A relay consists of two separate and completely independent circuits. The first is at the bottom and drives the electromagnet. A switch is controlling power to the electromagnet. When the switch is on, the electromagnet is on, and it attracts the armature .The armature is acting as a switch in the second circuit. When the electromagnet is energized, the armature completes the second circuit and the light is on. When the electromagnet is not energized, the spring pulls the armature away and the circuit is not complete. When you purchase relays, you generally have control over several variables:

The voltage and current that is needed to activate the armature The maximum voltage and current that can run through the armature and the armature contacts The number of armatures (generally one or two) The number of contacts for the armature (generally one or two -- the relay shown here has two, one of which is unused) Whether the contact (if only one contact is provided) is normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC)