Akbar, the Great Moghul

Contributed by Prof. Dr. Nazeer Ahmed, PhD Jalaluddin Muhammed Akbar Padashah Ghazi, as his celebrated biographer Abul Fazal refers to him, was one of the greatest rulers produced by Hindustan Muslim historians are ambiguous about his rule !ome consider him to be one of the greatest among Muslim rulers, while others look at him as a renegade "n the entire span of fourteen hundred years of "slamic history, no Muslim emperor stretched the social and religious en#elope as an "slamic so#ereign, as did Akbar, while remaining within the fold of "slam And no one tackled the comple$ issues of Muslim interactions with a largely non%Muslim world with the sincerity, zeal, passion, originality, common sense, and commitment demonstrated by this comple$, enigmatic, gifted, energetic, purposeful monarch &he orthodo$ thought he had become a Hindu &he Hindus were con#inced he died a Muslim 'thers said he was pro%!hi(a, while some !hi(as said he persecuted them &he Jesuits sent from Goa thought he was a sure candidate for con#ersion to )atholic )hristianity &he Jains and Parsis felt at home in his presence and considered him one of their own He befriended the !ikhs, and protected mos*ues and temples alike Akbar was a uni#ersal man+ he was more than any single group thought of him He was the purest representation of that folk "slam that grew up in Asia after the destruction wrought by the Mongols ,-.-/%-.0.1 Jalaluddin Akbar was born to a !unni father, 2mperor Humayun, and Hamida 3anu, daughter of a learned !hi(a !haykh Ali Akbar, at the 4a5asthan%!indh outpost of Amarkot ,-06.1, while Humayun was wandering in the Great "ndian 7esert after his defeat by !her !hah !uri ,-068%-0001 !her !hah is remembered in "ndian history for his efficient administration and his e$tensi#e construction of roads and canals Akbar(s grandfather 9ahiruddin 3abur, himself a deeply spiritual &imurid prince from !amar*and, had taken Hindustan in -0.:, and had consolidated his hold on the "ndo%Gangetic plains &he hapless Humayun inherited the kingdom but was unable to fight off the Afghan challenge led by !her !hah !uri !o poor was Humayun when Akbar was born that he had no gifts to gi#e his entourage on the birth of an heir "t is said that the proud father took out a small bottle of rose perfume, and anointed each one of his courtiers, proclaiming that the fame of the newborn would spread like the sweet scent of the rose in that perfume History would pro#e him right Humayun(s misfortunes had a direct bearing on the early childhood of Akbar "n Afghanistan, Humayun tried to reclaim ;abul from his brother, ;amran, but lost the skirmish His retreat from Afghanistan was so hasty that the infant Akbar fell into the hands of Askari, another of Humayun(s brothers, who was allied with ;amran "t was an unwritten co#enant among the &imurid princes that while they scrambled for the throne upon the death of the king, the children were safe from the ensuing fratricide Askari and his wife treated the infant with the utmost lo#e Akbar had no time for formal education but the keen intellect of the prodigious child absorbed the wisdom of the ancient people of the Hindu ;ush, and their #alues of #alor and courage

<hen he had lost all hope of pre#ailing o#er ;amran, Humayun proceeded to Persia where the !afa#id &ahmasp warmly recei#ed him &he Persian 2mperor saw a golden opportunity to turn Hindustan into another bastion of "thna Ashari Fiqh and offered to help Humayun if he would embrace !hi(a #iews Humayun accepted the military help but he was ambi#alent about his religious commitments <ith Persian help, he first captured ;abul, and when the successors of !her !hah !uri fell into arguments and s*uabbles, Humayun marched triumphantly back to Agra, the first Moghul capital Hamida 3anu and Akbar returned to Hindustan Humayun was always a prince of misfortune 2#en his end was full of pathos He was an a#id patron of literature and had built a library, which housed more than -08,888 precious manuscripts 2#en in his flight, when the 2mperor literally had nothing, he carried the literary treasure with him, loaded on camels =ate one afternoon, in -00:, as he was in his study on the upper floor of the library, Humayun heard the call to prayer &he 2mperor hastened to descend a steep stone staircase to 5oin the congregational prayer He slipped, his head hit a stone, and the following day died from head in5uries Akbar was only thirteen when he ascended the throne A key decision made by Humayun played a crucial role in the early life of Akbar He had appointed 3airam ;han, a loyal and trusted friend, as Akbar(s mentor and wali ,protector1 <hen Humayun recaptured Agra, 3airam ;han rose rapidly through the ranks and became ;han ;hanan ,prime minister1 &he capable and loyal 3airam ;han meticulously carried out the initial consolidation of the empire, defeating a determined challenge from the Afghans led by an "ndian general Hemu, and successi#ely captured Agra, Gwalior and Jaunpur 3airam fell #ictim to court intrigue Akbar retired him, ga#e him a generous pension, and sent him off to Mecca for Ha55 ,-0:81 &he following two years marked a brief period of ascendancy for Adham ;han, a foster brother of Akbar, but when Adham became tyrannical, Akbar had him eliminated, and assumed direct control of the affairs of the 2mpire A #igorous consolidation of the empire began and continued into the last years of Akbar(s reign Malwa ,-0:81, )hitoor ,-0:>1, 4athambur ,-0:>1, Gu5rat ,-0>?1, and 3engal ,-0>61 were added to the empire "n -0@-, when his brother Mirza Hakim occupied =ahore, Akbar mo#ed his head*uarters to that city and stayed there for fifteen years to contain Mirza and ward off a threat of in#asion from the powerful Azbeks of !amar*and =ahore was an ideal base from which to conduct operations to the northwest From the Pun5ab, Akbar mo#ed to capture ;ashmir ,-0/?1, !indh ,-0/?1, 3aluchistan ,-0/61 and Makran ,-0/61 "n -0/0, he took Bandahar, a key trading post between Persia and "ndia, from the !afa#ids For a hundred years thereafter, this city in southern Afghanistan was contested between the Moghuls and the !afa#ids "n -0/-, Akbar in#ited the 3ahmani !ultans of Ahmednagar, 3idar, Golkunda and 3i5apur to submit to the Moghuls 3ut the !ultans of the 7eccan, flush from their recent #ictory o#er the kingdom of Ci5ayanagar ,-0:01, refused "nternational politics played a part in this refusal Many of the 7eccan !ultans followed the "thna Ashari Fi*h, and some toyed with the idea of accepting the !afa#ids as their protectors Antil the ad#ent of

Akbar, and the subse*uent consolidation of the empire, "ndia was a border state in the great tapestry of Muslim states e$tending from Morocco to the )hina !ea &he religious con#ulsions of )entral and <est Asia in#ariably had an impact on the "ndian subcontinent &he triumph of the !afa#ids in Persia, and their ri#alry with the !unni Azbeks to the north and the 'ttomans to the west, brought this ri#alry to "ndia also &he !afa#ids were a#id promoters of the "thna Ashari Fi*h 5ust as the 'ttomans were champions of the !unni !chool of Fi*h !o, when the 3ahmani !ultans of 7eccan toyed with the idea of 5oining the !afa#id camp, Akbar would not tolerate it 'utside interference on the soil of Hindustan was unacceptable to the Great Moghul "ndeed, at no time in "ndian history, has a strong central go#ernment in the north tolerated splinter kingdoms either in 3engal or in the south Akbar(s mo#e into the 7eccan was precipitated by the geopolitical ri#alry between "ndia and Persia and was not a reflection of the !hi(a%!unni split "n -0/:, Akbar mo#ed on Ahmednagar, which fell after a determined resistance by its Bueen )hand 3ibi <hen he returned to Agra in -:8-, the empire e$tended o#er all of north and central "ndia, Pakistan, 3aluchistan, 3engal and Afghanistan "t was the richest and most prosperous kingdom in the world, and had a population of eighty million, about the same as the entire population of 2urope &o augment the standing army, and to reward his cohorts, Akbar instituted a system of mansabs and 5agirs Jagirs were land grants gi#en to courtiers for meritorious ser#ice Mansabs were lands allocated to nobles in proportion to the number of mounted ca#alry that the mansabdar would supply in times of war &he number of mounted horsemen re*uisitioned in time of war ranged from ten for a mansabdar to ten thousand for a prince or an 2mir ul 'mara &he Mansabs ser#ed the empire well during the period of its e$pansion 3ut once decay set in, they also compounded the process of decay &he larger mansabdars acted as feudal lords o#er their peasants <hen the central power of the empire weakened ,->8>%->681, ta$ collection could not be enforced, and the 2mperor(s treasury was drained, further weakening his authority &hus "ndia entered the age of feudalism 5ust as 2ngland was working its way out of it &he mansabs and 5agirs stayed on during the 3ritish era &hey were abolished in independent "ndia through successi#e land reforms "n Pakistan, they ha#e continued to this day, and e$ercise a large influence on the politics of the country Akbar was one of the foremost reformers in "ndia(s long history He di#ided his #ast empire into subas ,pro#inces1, each one go#erned by a trusted emir or a prince &he go#ernors were rotated to minimize corruption and were made responsible for their decisions &he subas were subdi#ided into sarkars ,districts1, the sarkars into parganas ,sub%districts1 2ach city had a kotwal ,mayor1, and the surrounding countryside was administered by a fou5dar &a$ collection and fiscal affairs were rationalized Akbar abolished child marriages, forbade sati ,the burning of a widow with her husband(s funeral pyre which was practiced in some Hindu circles1, built roads, reduced ta$es on farmland to one%third of the yield, and made 5ustice for all his sub5ects a cornerstone of his realm Farmers were encouraged to bring more land under culti#ation, guilds had official blessing, and both internal and international trade prospered He treated the

Hindus as people of the 3ook, abolished the 5izya, bestowed on them religious autonomy, and allowed their own law, the dharma%shastra to be used in internal disputes &o the newly emerging community of !ikhs, he ga#e the area of Amritsar as a land grant, and promoted peaceful coe$istence His philosophy of sulah e kul ,peace between all communities1 embraced all of his sub5ects with himself as a father figure Akbar, the empire builder, was aware of the geopolitics of the age <ith the 'ttomans, who were the dominant land power in 2urasia, his relations were close and cordial Akbar acknowledged the )aliphate in "stanbul as one Din the tradition of the four rightly guided )aliphsE, while maintaining the independence of Hindustan 4elations with the !afa#ids of Persia were strained because of warfare o#er the control of the important trading center of Bandahar in southern Afghanistan Bandahar was captured by Akbar but was lost to the Persians during the reign of Jehangir Akbar had a working relationship with the Portuguese who saw in him a possible con#ert to their faith &he Portuguese dominated the "ndian 'cean, and their goodwill was re*uired to guarantee safe passage for pilgrims to Mecca Akbar(s method of managing geopolitics was through matrimonial politics 'f Akbar(s wi#es, one was a 4a5put+ one was a &urk, and one a Portuguese "n -0:., at the age of .8, 2mperor Akbar married Princess Jodha 3ai, daughter of 4a5a 3harmal of Amber, 4a5asthan &his was a benchmark not only in the administration of the Great Moghul, but also in the larger global history of the Muslim people Jodha 3ai was the mother of 2mperor Jehangir and was the Bueen Mother of Hindustan during the reign of the Great Moghul From a political perspecti#e, the issue before the 7elhi !ultanate since its inception in -.80 was its relationship with the people of Hindustan who were predominantly Hindu &he first in#asions had brought but a few &urkomans and Mamlukes into the subcontinent &heir presence was a thin #eneer, which masked the gigantic edifice of "ndia &here was little participation in the imperial administration from people of "ndian origin, either Hindu or Muslim Alauddin ;hil5i ,d -?-:1, who was perhaps the most far% sighted !ultan in pre%Moghul "ndia, opened the doors of employment to "ndians Howe#er, the empire still suffered from a basic flaw in that it was rule by coercion rather than by consensus &he ;hil5i 2mpire, which embraced the entire subcontinent, lasted only a generation ,-./8%-?.81, followed by the &ughla* 2mpire, which had a similar brief tenure 7uring the rule of Muhammed bin &ughla* ,d -?0-1, the empire disintegrated, with independent kingdoms emerging in 3engal, Gu5rat, Ci5ayanagar and the 7eccan !ubse*uent !ultanates of 7elhi, such as the =odhis ,-60-%-0.:1, were mere shadows of the great empire of Alauddin ;hil5i and were limited to 7elhi and its surrounding regions Akbar was cognizant of this terminal defect and sought to redress it !her !hah !uri ,-068%-0601 had pro#ided a good e$ample, and Akbar sought to build on it &he highest posts of the go#ernment were opened to all of his sub5ects, whether they were Hindu or Muslim, or came from Afghan, Persian or "ndian backgrounds His empire was a meritocracy and he promoted men of talent where#er he found them <hile the two

brothers Faizi ,-060%-0/01 and Abul Fazal ,-00-%-:8.1 were prominent courtiers, so were 4a5a &odarmal and 4a5a Man !ingh &odarmal(s organization of the fiscal affairs of the empire lasted well into the -/th century, until the 3ritish replaced it Man !ingh ser#ed as the commander of the armies during se#eral missions, and also as go#ernor of the predominantly Muslim pro#inces of ;abul and 3engal Akbar, a product of folk "slam, had no difficulty with classical "ndian arts, and became an a#id promoter of Hindustani music, classical dances and Hindustani literature &he celebrated &an !en, perhaps the greatest of "ndian musicians, li#ed at Akbar(s court Hindustani music styles, classical dances, the Ardu and Hindi languages, went through a profound transformation in Akbar(s court &he 2mperor(s reach to his sub5ects transcended the mere affairs of state &hrough his marriages to a 4a5put Hindu princess, a &urkish Muslim noblewoman, and a Portuguese )hristian lady, he sought not 5ust to lay the foundation of an "ndian empire, but also to transform the #ery essence of Muslim interaction with non%Muslims Fot until the &urkomans entered "ndia ,--/- onwards1, did Muslims face the gut%wrenching issue that millions of Muslims face todayG <hat does it mean to be a Muslim in a predominantly non%Muslim worldH 7uring its classical age, "slam had come into contact with the Jews and the )hristians 3ut interactions with these two faiths were relati#ely easy+ they were accepted as people of the book "nteractions with Persia were also comparati#ely easy, because most Persians accepted "slam early in "slamic history, and were absorbed into the mainstream "n "ndia, they met up with the ancient Cedic ci#ilization, and the answers were not that easy 7uring the zenith of classical "slamic ci#ilizations, in the courts of Harun ,d @8/1 and Mamun ,d @??1, Hindu scholars had arri#ed with their books of astronomy and mathematics, and had participated in the translation of these books into Arabic 3ut these interactions were academic and limited to the learned men of science and culture <hen the &urkoman territories e$tended to 7elhi, the *uestion of interaction with the Hindus was not merely academic+ it became the central political issue &he difficulties of accommodating the ancient, non%!emitic religions of Hindustan were compounded by the disaster of Mongol in#asions Genghiz ;han(s in#asions produced a sharp discontinuity in "slamic history &he great centers of learning, which had housed scholars of repute, were no longer a#ailable to pro#ide answers to pressing issues )ulti#ation of the sciences of Fiqh had essentially come to a halt some time after the death of "mam Hanbal ,>@8%@001 "ndian "slam thus grew up and matured in the post%Mongol era, guided not by the great fuqaha who had dominated the Abbasid era, but by the !ufis who preser#ed the spiritual dimension of faith &he initial response of the &urkomans to the "ndian *uestion was one of re5ection "ndians were treated as non%belie#ers, accorded the status of protected people ,Arabic wordG dhimmi or zimmi1, made to pay the 5izya, and in return were e$empt from military conscription &he issue of whether or not they were at one time Dpeople of the bookE was not raised nor was it answered &he arrangement ser#ed the 7elhi !ultans well because in their perennial warfare, they needed cash and 5izya pro#ided a source of ready cash &his

also e$plains why the !ultans made little attempt to propagate "slam, since that would reduce their ta$ re#enues &he attempts made by 2mperor Alauddin to bring "ndians into the realm were purely administrati#e+ the fundamental issues of religious compatibility were not addressed Akbar was the first Muslim emperor to e$tend to the Hindus the same status as that accorded to the )hristians and the Jews from the beginning of the "slamic period &his was a bold mo#e, one that met resistance from the more conser#ati#e ulema Akbar married a 4a5put princess, and allowed her to practice her faith within his palace, 5ust as earlier &urkish !ultans had married 3yzantine )hristian princesses and allowed them to practice )hristianity within their *uarters Hindus were treated on par with the People of the 3ook, the 5izya was abolished, and Hindus became generals and commanders in the army as well as go#ernors and di#ans in the empire 3y his personal e$ample, the 2mperor sought to build families with the Hindus, thus e$tending the reach of "slam to the Cedic ci#ilization &he fourth Great Moghul, Jehangir, was a product of 4a5put% Moghul intermarriage Akbar(s legacy stayed with the empire well into its years of decline !ome of the princes became scholars of !anskrit as well as Persian and Arabic Prince 7ara !hikoh, eldest son of !hah Jehan, translated the "ndian classic, Mahabharata, into Persian Akbar(s eclectic mind was always searching for spiritual answers "n the splendid city of Fatehpur !ikri, which he founded, he built a house of worship called Ibadat Khana Here, he in#ited scholars and listened to their discourse on matters of religion and ethics "nitial sittings with Muslim scholars broke up in disputes and arguments 'n one occasion, two of his most prominent courtiers, !haykh Abdul Fabi and !haykh Ma*dum ul Mulk went after each other with such #ehemence that the 2mperor had to inter#ene 7isillusioned, Akbar opened up the discourse to men of other faiths Hindu priests e$pounded the philosophy of karma+ Jains presented the doctrine of ahimsa+ Parsis 5oined in to discuss the tenets of their ancient faith "n -0@8, he sent word to the Portuguese go#ernor of Goa that he would like to hear from )hristian priests &he go#ernor, sensing an historic opportunity to con#ert the Great Moghul, and win o#er Asia to his faith, promptly dispatched three Jesuit priests, Antony Monserrate, a !paniard+ 4udolf A*ua#i#a, an "talian+ and Francis 2nri*ue, a Persian &he three brought with them paintings of Jesus and Mary which the 2mperor himself helped carry to the *uarters of the priests Akbar listened to the )hristians, as he had listened to Muslims%!hi(a and !unni alike%Hindus, Jains and Parsis, benefiting from the many insights offered by the learned men of all religions 3ut at no point during these years did the 2mperor renounce his faith in "slam or embrace another faith He remained a Muslim throughout his life and set an e$ample of open%mindedness, which has seldom been matched among monarchs of any faith &he disappointed Jesuits returned to Goa in -0@. &he house of &imur, from which the Great Moghuls claimed their descent, was deeply spiritual &imur himself, despite his cruel and destructi#e con*uests, was a religious man who honored !ufi shaykhs, li#ing and dead 3abur(s spiritual disposition showed up in the manner in which he died Humayun himself made it a point to #isit the tombs of !ufi shaykhs during his wanderings in Persia &his characteristic showed up in Akbar also

&he history of the )hishti order of A5mer is closely interwo#en with the history of the 7elhi !ultanate 2mperor Alauddin ,d -?-:1 treated the )hishti shaykhs with respect and had prospered 2mperor Muhammed bin &ughla* treated them harshly and had paid a hea#y political price Akbar was a de#oted follower of !haykh Moeenuddin )hishti ,--6.%-.?:1 of A5mer, whose tomb he #isited on foot e#ery year <hen his wife Jodha 3ai was pregnant with Jehangir, he sent her under a 4a5put escort, to li#e in the zawiyah of !haykh !alim )hishti, who was the li#ing scion of the )hishtiya order "t was at the hermitage of the shaykh that Prince Jehangir was born, and the emperor named him !alim in honor of the shaykh "t was also in honor of the shaykh that Akbar raised the ma5estic city of Fatehpur !ikri near his hermitage 3oth Akbar and Jehangir held the shaykh and his memory in the highest esteem and his name was taken in court circles with the greatest respect "ndia belonged to the !ufis, and the emperor was no e$ception "slam in the subcontinent of the -:th century was the "slam of the !ufis, and Akbar was its finest product He did not claim di#inity as had the Fatimid )aliph al Hakim ,d -8.-1, nor did he claim 7i#ine attributes as had !hah "smail ,d -0.61, founder of the !afa#id dynasty Akbar did not e#en claim that he was a saint 3ut he was the king%emperor of Hindustan, an unlettered prince with the intellect of a giant, a deeply spiritual man with an unending search for transcendence in religion Akbar was the first, and perhaps the only Muslim 2mperor to reach out as far as he did to embrace peoples of non%!emitic religions Pre#ious contacts with )hristians and Jews were on the basis of co%e$istence "n the Abbasid as well as 'ttoman realms, )hristians and Jews were accepted as people of the 3ook and were gi#en autonomy to go#ern their own internal affairs Akbar went one step beyond co%e$istence+ he tried co%union with the Hindus &his was the first and only such attempt by a Muslim monarch of any significance &his single fact accords Akbar a pre%eminent position among the great monarchs of the world Deen-e-Ilahi, a compendium of ethical standards, which Akbar had e$tracted from the religious discourses he attended, and based largely upon Fasiruddin al &usi(s e$position of aqhlaqh, was misunderstood as a new religion &hese standards are to be found in Ain% e%Akbari, a collection of court edicts compiled by Abul Fazal !ome of the misunderstandings arose as a result of poor translations from Persian, and some from a lack of understanding of tasawwuf and of the doctrinal basis of aqhlaqh For instance, Akbar considered his relations with his followers as that of a pir%murid ,!ufi shaykh and his disciple1, not that of a prophet%follower &he emperor did not seek con#erts and there is e#ery indication that he discouraged people from becoming his murids and tolerated open dissent with his practices 2#en 4a5a Man !ingh had dubious feelings about the emperor wearing a holy mantle &o those who did accept him as their pir, the emperor ga#e a medallion on which was inscribed DAllah u AkbarE ,God is Greater1 <hen a courtier reminded him that the emblem could be misunderstood to mean that Akbar had claimed di#inity, the emperor replied that shirk ,association of partners with God1 had not e#en entered his thoughts "ndeed, the emperor continued to perform congregational prayers whene#er he was on military campaigns 'n his return from ;abul in -0@8, he is

known to ha#e performed Juma(a prayers in Peshawar 'n occasions, he insisted on gi#ing the khutba, a practice in keeping with the e$ample of the early )ompanions of the Prophet, but long since taken o#er by professional kadis <hile it is true that he patronized the construction of four large )haitanya temples at Mathura ,-0>?1, it is also true that the emperor himself built great mos*ues &he magnificent mos*ue in the courtyard of !haykh !alim )hishti ,-0>.1 in Fatehpur !ikri is a monument to Akbar(s dedication to "slam 'n the e$oteric plane, Akbar(s e$perimentation with ethics comes across as religious inno#ation 3ut at the esoteric plane, his initiati#es are in consonance with the spirituality of the age 3y the -:th century, the )hishtiya !ufi order had found a welcome home on "ndian soil Caishna#a Hinduism of Mathura was attracting more de#otees among Hindus Guru Fanak ,-6:@%-0?/1 had 5ust founded a new religion, !ikhism, to bring "slam and Hinduism closer together 2ach group pushed its point of #iew aggressi#ely Akbar, as the 2mperor, was aware of these mo#ements His discussions in the Ibadat Khana, with leading e$ponents of #arious religions, had gi#en him an insight into each one As a de#otee of the )hishti order, Akbar was in tune with !ufi practices, which were animated by the philosophy of Wahdat al Wajud ,unity of e$istence1 Although this philosophy was in e$istence since the earliest days of "slam, it appears in the writings of !adruddin ;onawi, a student of "bn al Arabi ,d -.681 3orn in !pain during the waning years of Al Muhaddith rule, "bn al Arabi tra#eled through Forth Africa to !yria and Arabia He learned the tasawwuf of 7i#ine =o#e from the !ufi ,lady1 masters of the era, Furah Fatima binte Al Muthanna of )ordo#a, !hams Iasminah Am ul%Fakhr al Marhena az%9aytun of )ordo#a, and Ain as !hams, of Mecca His standing in !ufi circles is so great that he is referred to as al !haykh al Akbar ,the greatest of the !haykhs1 A powerful speaker and a prolific writer, he influenced the e#olution of tasawwuf in lands as di#erse as Morocco and "ndonesia His masterpiece works include 4uh al Buds, &ar5amanul "shwa* and Futuhat al Makkiyah He passed away in 7amascus According to Wahdat al Wajud ,unity of e$istence1, all creation is illusion+ the only 4eality is God &he more He re#eals Himself, the more he conceals Himself Humankind is pre#ented from realizing 7i#ine Anity because of the ego, which considers it self% sufficient and does not submit to the 7i#ine &he doctrine of fana ,annihilation1 is a logical conse*uence of this philosophy <hen the indi#idual ego gets close to the 7i#ine, there can be no two egos+ the indi#idual ego is annihilated and only the 7i#ine e$ists "t is like a candle getting close to the sun &he candle no longer e$ists+ only the light of the sun remains Man can transcend his ego through belief and effort &he path to realizing unity of e$istence is through lo#e ,muhabbah1 rather than through knowledge ,maarifah1 &hus lo#e of God, and lo#e of fellow man, becomes a key element in !ufi practice !ufi masters know the path to 7i#ine ;nowledge, called a taree*ah, and a no#ice learns the secrets of the path by becoming a murid ,one who desires knowledge, disciple1 of the master &he presence of !ufi masters is animated by baraka ,blessing1, which has been transmitted to them by a silsilah ,chain of transmission1 going back to the Prophet &hrough the centuries, this doctrine has been a centerpiece of !ufi belief 3esides "bn al

Arabi, the other leading e$ponents of this school were the Persian al 3istami ,d @>61 and the 2gyptian "bn Ataullah ,d -?8/1 2mperor Akbar found an echo of the doctrine of fana in the Ad#aita Cedanta of the Hindus Akbar(s son Jehangir is known to ha#e studied the Ad#aita under a leading Hindu master &he Great Moghul saw in the correspondence between !ufi thought and the Cedantas the possibility of opening up the embrace of "slam to Hindus by accepting them as people of the 3ook &heir books were DlostE but the inner kernel of spirituality had remained &his was a masterstroke by a consummate statesman who hoped by this mo#e to at once consolidate the empire and gi#e it a solid foundation by establishing the legitimacy of his rule with all the peoples of his #ast realm He achie#ed this through his marriage to 4a5put princesses, who became mothers and grandmothers of successi#e emperors &he 4a5puts responded by showing their loyalty to the Moghuls until the waning years of the empire "ndeed, it may 5ustifiably be argued that Akbar(s 2mpire was a Moghul%4a5put confederacy His son Jehangir introduced Persian elements into it through his marriage to Foor Jehan, while his grandson, 2mperor !hah Jehan, achie#ed a total synthesis of the art, architecture and culture of "ndia with that of Persia and )entral Asia Akbar was a product of !ufic "slam that dominated Asia until recent years &he !ufis, while accepting the Shariah to be the fundamental platform of religion, consider the obligations of Fi*h to be an outer kernel, which has to be penetrated to reach the inward spirituality of religion <ithout the !hariah, there is no religion 3ut without its spiritual dimension, religion itself becomes a litany of do(s and don(ts "n "ndia and Pakistan, the great !ufis of the )hishti order found a sympathetic chord among the Hindus by adopting a musical rendering for their sessions of dhikr ,recitation of the Fame of God1 and presenting !ufi doctrines in a manner that the Hindu mind could at once identify with "t was this spiritual thrust of "slam that con#erted many millions of Hindus in the subcontinent &he con#ersion cut across all classes and castes, the 3rahmans as well as the warriors, the peasants as well as the untouchables )on#ersion was not, as some western writers assume, confined to the lower castes among Hindus Families often split, with one brother accepting "slam through the Baraka of a !ufi master, while the other remained a Hindu "n slow measures, o#er the centuries, "slam became a ma5or religion of Hindustan, and it remains so today &he historical process through which the people of Hindustan accepted "slam was different from the way the Persians and the 2gyptians ,for instance1 became Muslim &he initial con#ersion of the Arabs was through e$posure to the pristine religion of the Prophet and his )ompanions &he faith was diffused through Persia and 2gypt early in the Amayyad period and had a hea#y linguistic, legal and cultural content from Arabia "slam entered the subcontinent fi#e hundred years after it entered Persia and 2gypt "ts content was primarily spiritual &he legal content entered later "n the interaction between "slam and Hinduism, the cultures of )entral Asia and Persia fused with those of "ndia "t ga#e birth to new languages, and shaped a composite culture, much as happened in the Sahel of 2ast Africa where a rich !wahili culture emerged from a fusion of African, Arab and Persian elements

&he great !ufis were fully alert to the risks in the idea of Wahdat al Wajud &he doctrine of fana carries with it the possibility of shirk ,association of partners with God1, by proposing that the )reator and the created are on the same plane &his is totally unacceptable in "slam in which the Absolute Anity and &ranscendence of the )reator is in#iolate &o o#ercome these ob5ections, clarifications of tasawwuf were de#eloped in the classic age of "slamic history As early as the -8th century, Al Junayad ,d /-81 of 3aghdad formulated the doctrine of <ahdat as !hahada ,Anity of <itness1 "n the self% sustained elo*uence of the Bur(an, !hahada is a powerful term "t means at once Dto witnessE, Dto recognizeE, Dto seeE, Dto findE, Dto be consciousE, Dto acknowledge through speechE, and Dto sacrificeE <hen a person accepts "slam, he takes the !hahada <hen a person becomes a martyr in the path of God, it is said that he has tasted the !hahada "t is only the beauty and power of Bur(anic language that makes possible the immediate synchronization of thought and deed !hahada has two parts to itG D&here is no deity but Allah, and Muhammed is the Messenger of AllahE &he first part at once frees human consciousness from bondage to any deity, and tethers it solidly to God &he second part makes the consciousness of God accessible through re#elation brought by Prophet Muhammed ,p1 &he doctrine of Wahdat as Shahada states that humankind is conscious of the Anity of the 7i#ine &he apparent di#ersity in creation is decepti#e+ there is the in#isible power of the )reator in e#ery creation Humans can gain cognizance of this Anity through doctrine and through training &his apparent difference between cognition and union is crucial to maintaining the transcendence of God &he )reator and the created are not on the same plane <hile the doctrine of <ahdat al <a5ud can throw a person into the #ast ocean of 7i#ine =o#e, in which heJshe may drown, the doctrine of <ahdat as !hahada throws a life raft so that e#en the uninitiated can swim &he doctrine of <ahdat as !hahada remained dormant for centuries "t was the doctrine of <ahdat al <a5ud that was accepted and practiced by the !ufis &his was so at the time of 2mperor Akbar Akbar(s religious initiati#es produced whirlpools of intellectual acti#ity in "ndia &he orthodo$ were con#inced that the purity of faith was in peril !ome of the practices that the ulema found ob5ectionable included the emperor offering his darshan ,Hindustani, to appear, to show oneself1 to his sub5ects from a balcony at sunrise ,a practice borrowed from the Persians1, inscription of DAllah u AkbarE on medallions that were offered to his murids ,those who sought spiritual guidance from him1, and e#en his marriages to Hindu ladies &hey considered these practices to be inconsistent with their #iew of "slam &he response of the orthodo$ ulema and their interactions with the emperors determined the shape of "ndian history, and ultimately that of global "slamic history "ronically, the most determined resistance came from a !ufi order, the Fa*shbandi that grew roots in Hindustan during the reign of Akbar ;hwa5a 3a*i 3illah, one of the Fa*shbandi shaykhs, was born in ;abul in -0:?, from where he migrated first to =ahore and then to 7elhi 7issatisfied with some of the practices introduced in the court, he interacted with court elements that sought to replace Akbar "t was at the instigation of these dissidents that Akbar(s brother Mirza Hakim in#aded =ahore ,-0@-1, an e#ent that brought the Great Moghul to =ahore and resulted in his con*uest of ;ashmir, !indh, 3aluchistan and

southern Afghanistan ;hwa5a 3a*i 3illah passed away in -:8? "t was his disciple, !haykh Ahmed !irhindi ,-0:6%-:.61, who had a profound impact on "slamic thought, not 5ust in "ndia%Pakistan, but also in the entire "slamic world !haykh Ahmed !irhindi was born into a family of Hanafi scholars, and was initiated into the Fa*shbandi order at 7elhi in -0// &hrough his lectures, his writings, and his contacts with 2mperor Jehangir ,-:80%-:.>1, he deeply influenced social and political de#elopments in "ndia !haykh Ahmed was opposed to any form of inno#ation in religion and taught that religion should follow the simplicity and rigor of the 4ightly Guided )aliphs He was anguished at disrespect shown to Prophet Muhammed ,p1 as had happened when the Jesuit priests from Goa presented their religion at the imperial court in Fatehpur !ikri He was distraught at the aggressi#eness with which non%Muslims propagated their faiths, while the orthodo$ Muslims were constrained in implementing their practices He wrote to the leading Moghul courtiers, as well as to the leading ulema of the age in "ndia and in the 'ttoman 2mpire, e$pounding his #iews on orthodo$y &hese writings, Maktubat-I-Iman-I-Rabbani, ha#e been translated into &urkish, Farsi, and Ardu, and ha#e influenced Muslims the world o#er =ater historians termed his mo#ement Mu5addidiya !haykh Ahmed elaborated and consolidated the principles of <ahdat as !hahada as a counterpoint to e$treme interpretations of <ahdat al <a5ud !o pre%eminent is the position of !haykh Ahmed !irhindi among the ulema that he is referred to as Mu5addid al Alf e &hani ,4enewer of the !econd Millennium1 !haykh Ahmed !irhindi was the first of three great Muslim thinkers of the subcontinent &he other two were !hah <aliullah ,d ->:.1 of 7elhi, and Muhammed "*bal of =ahore ,d -/?@1 3oth !haykh Ahmed and !hah <aliullah came from !ufi backgrounds and both are uni#ersally recognized as mujaddids ,first rank scholars of !hariah, Fi*h and !unnah who are *ualified to reform religious practices1 &he elo*uent poetry of Muhammed "*bal of =ahore ,-@>?%-/?@1 echoes the legacy of tasawwuf left by !haykh Ahmed and !hah <aliullah, although "*bal went further than any of his predecessors in asserting the free will of man and its responsibility for noble action "n this respect, "*bal stands at the confluence of the Asharite and the Mu(tazilite !chools, where the doctrines of qida ,predestination1 and qadr ,free will1 meet &he profound religious thoughts of these reformers re*uire a separate #olume Here, we are concerned more with their social and political thoughts, and their impact on the history of the subcontinent &here is a common thread in their approach to Muslim interactions with the largely non% Muslim populations of !outh Asia !haykh Ahmed took e$ception to Akbar(s initiati#es for co%union with the Hindus Perhaps it was a reaction to the Caishana#a Hindu re#i#al in northern "ndia at the time, or perhaps it was the deeply felt con#iction of the shaykh that the future of "slam lay in strict adherence to the !unni tradition !ome of his #iews were implemented during the reign of Aurangzeb ,-:0@%->8>1 with disastrous conse*uences for the Moghul 2mpire Aurangzeb befriended !haykh Muhammed Maasum, son and successor to !haykh Ahmed, while !haykh !aifuddin, his grandson, li#ed at the court of Aurangzeb in 7elhi

!haykh Ahmed !irhindi(s political leanings can also be seen in !hah <aliullah, one of the most eminent of "slamic scholars produced by "ndia "n ->:-, as the Marathas ad#anced towards the Pun5ab, and briefly occupied =ahore ,->:81, it was the forceful plea of !hah <aliullah, which in#ited Ahmed !hah Abdali of ;abul to inter#ene &he bitterly fought 3attle of Panipat ,->:-1, destroyed Maratha power in the north, and confined it to central "ndia More than a hundred and fifty years later, another profound thinker, Muhammed "*bal, reflected on the apparent di#ersity of Hindu%Muslim ways of life, and ad#anced the idea of a separate state for Muslims%Pakistan &he history of the subcontinent shows that Akbar(s attempts did not succeed Muslim "ndia remained ambi#alent about his initiati#es !unni "slam embraced the orthodo$y of Aurangzeb &he !hi(as maintained their e$clusi#eness &he Hindus and the Muslims both took aggressi#e positions &he !ikhs, who started out bridging the gap between Muslims and Hindus, ended up fighting them both &he partition of the subcontinent in -/6>, and its gory aftermath in which Hindus, Muslims and !ikhs indulged in sustained orgies of mutual slaughter, was a political and social acknowledgement of this failure "t is instructi#e to compare the achie#ements of 2mperor Akbar with those of Bueen 2lizabeth " of 2ngland &he two were contemporaries Akbar ruled from -00: to -:80, while 2lizabeth " ruled from -00/ to -:8? 3oth had inherited kingdoms that were weak and di#ided <hen Akbar ascended the throne, his control hardly e$tended beyond 7elhi and Agra <hen he died in -:8?, the empire embraced more than a million s*uare miles and had become one of the most powerful empires in the world <hen 2lizabeth ascended the 2nglish throne, 2ngland was a marginal state in 2urope and the ob5ect of intrigues by !pain and France !cotland was at war with 2ngland 2lizabeth consolidated the Anited ;ingdom, defeated the !panish Armada and took 2ngland out of the orbit of 4ome <hen she died in -:8?, 2ngland was the most powerful state in <estern 2urope Akbar(s dominions were far more e$tensi#e than those of 2lizabeth, and had a population ten times that of 2ngland 3ut Akbar was a king%2mperor on the mighty landmass of !outh Asia He made no attempt to build a strong na#y &he material for building ships was a#ailable in 3engal as well as in Gu5rat &he technology was a#ailable to them from the 'ttoman &urks and from the )hinese 3ut as strong as they were on land, they surrendered the "ndian 'cean to the 2uropeans 7uring the height of Akbar(s power, pilgrims to Mecca and traders to 2ast Africa had to ha#e their papers stamped by the Portuguese for safe conduct "n the year -:88, e#en while Akbar was consolidating his empire and Hindustan was headed towards a period of dazzling prosperity, the 2ast "ndia )ompany was granted a charter by 2lizabeth " &wo hundred years later, when history hurled 2ngland and "ndia into a fateful embrace, it was the lapse of the Great Moghuls to build a na#y and control the "ndian 'cean that made the difference, and the )ompany triumphed o#er the 4a5as and Fawabs who had inherited the 2mpire &he system of mansabs instituted by Akbar, while it ser#ed the empire during its period of e$pansion, pro#ed to be a drag on the treasury when decay set in "n the .8 th century, it pro#ed to be an impediment to modernization in both "ndia and Pakistan &hird, the empire lagged behind 2urope in the diffusion of knowledge and technology &he printing press, which was introduced into 2urope in -6-0, made possible the Protestant

4eformation of the -:th century &he printing press was not introduced into the Moghul territories until the -@th century &echnology and inno#ation suffered, while wealth and power became the focus of court life "ndia did not produce a Fewton or Galileo or ;epler Fourth, the Moghuls ,and the 'ttomans and the !afa#ids1 knew far less about the 2uropeans than the 2uropeans knew about them "ndian e$plorers did not tra#el through 2urope to learn about the DFirangisE who were increasingly acti#e on their shores "ndian e$clusi#eness, Hindu and Muslim alike, acted as a barrier to correct information and knowledge about these traders from far%away lands !o, when the decisi#e confrontation came, faulty intelligence did the "ndians in, while the 2uropeans took full ad#antage of the knowledge they had about "ndian court intrigues and societal fissures Akbar(s greatest contribution to "slamic history was his e$tension of the framework for interaction between Muslims and non%Muslims Antil his reign, !ultans and ulema alike had di#ided the world into two neat little compartments, 7ar ul "slam and 7ar ul Harab 7ar ul "slam was where the !ultans reigned, and the non%Muslims paid 5izya in return for military protection as 7himmis ,protected minorities1 7ar ul Harab was where the non% Muslims ruled, and conflicts between Muslims and non%Muslims were una#oidable 4eligious obligations that were binding on all belie#ers in 7ar ul "slam, were not necessarily binding in 7ar ul Harab Akbar, the Great Moghul, added a third dimension to this bi%polar world &his was the dimension of co%union, in which the definition of People of the 3ook recei#ed the ma$imum latitude, the meaning of "slam as 7een ul Fitra ,pristine and natural faith of all humans1 was implemented, and "slam e$tended its lo#ing hand to all mankind Few grasped the #ision of the Great Moghul &hey were looking at the rainbow through a prism that allowed a single wa#elength of light+ the colors of the rainbow were lost to them Akbar(s social, political and religious acti#ism fell by the wayside, and history lost track of the lofty horizons shown by the Great Moghul "t chose instead narrow and sinuous alleys 4etrie#ed on -6th march, .8-., at .G 06 p m httpGJJhistoryofislam comJcontentsJthe%land% empires%of%asiaJakbar%the%great%moghulJ

Akbar period architecture, building style that de#eloped in "ndia under the patronage of the Mughal emperor Akbar ,reigned -00:K-:801 &he architecture of the Akbar period is characterized by a strength made elegant and graceful by its rich decorati#e work, which reflects many traditional Hindu elements &he style is best e$emplified by the fort at Agra ,built -0:0K>61 and the magnificent town of Fatehpur !ikri ,-0:/K>61, but fine examples are also found in the gateway to the Arab !arLM ,guesthouse at HumLyNn(s tomb1, 7elhi ,-0:8K:-1, the A5mer fort ,-0:6K>?1, the =ahore fort with its outstanding decoration ,-0@:K-:-@1, and the Allahabad fort ,-0@?K @61, now largely dismantled &he fortress%palace of Agra is notable for the massi#e enclosure wall+ its entire length of - 0 miles ,. 0 km1 is faced with dressed stone &he main entranceway, which is known as the 7elhi gate, is attracti#ely decorated with white marble inlay against the warm red sandstone "t was the first location in "ndia to be designated a AF2!)' <orld Heritage site ,-/@?1

&he capital town of Fatehpur !ikri ,named a <orld Heritage site in -/@:1 is one of the most notable achie#ements of "slamic architecture in "ndia &he town, which was deserted only a few years after it was built, is a great comple$ of palaces and lesser residences and religious and official buildings, all erected on top of a rocky ridge .: miles ,6. km1 west of Agra &he Hall of Pri#ate Audience ,7iwan%i%;has1 is arresting in its interior arrangement, which has a single massi#e column encircled by brackets supporting a stone throne platform, from which radiate four railed balconies &he palace of Jodha 3ai, Akbar(s wife, and the residence of Mahesh 7as ,commonly known as 3Mrbal, Akbar(s friend and confidant1 again showOin their niches and bracketsOfeatures adopted from the religious and secular architecture of the Hindus

&he most imposing of the buildings at Fatehpur !ikri is the Great Mos*ue, the JLmi Mas5id, which ser#ed as a model for later congregational mos*ues built by the Mughals &he mos*ue(s southern entrance, a massi#e gateway called the 3uland 7arwaza ,Cictory Gate1, gi#es a feeling of immense strength and height, an impression emphasized by the steepness of the flight of steps by which it is approached httpGJJwww britannica comJ23checkedJtopicJ--60@JAkbar%period%architecture

Administration of Akbar / Mughuls Administration The administrative machinery of the Mughuls, which functioned throughout the Mughuls rule, was introduced by Akbar and that is why, by Mughul Administration, we mean Akbars Administration. Akbar was not only a brave soldier, a successful leader and a great religious reformer but also a great administrator. e introduced various reforms in all the branches of the administration, whether central, provincial, revenue, military or !udicial. Central Administration" Akbar was the overall in#charge of the central government. All the executive, !udicial and legislative powers of the state were combined in him. There were no limitations on his despotism and his word was law. $ut Akbar had always the welfare of his people in his mind and so his was a benevolent despotism. e himself supervised all the branches of his administration and worked hard to discharge his manifold duties. e would hold an open court, listen to the complaints of his sub!ects and try to pacify them. Akbar was, however, assisted by a number of ministers in the administration. Among others, the most important ministers were % the Vakil, who maintained a general control over all the central departments and acted as the chief adviser of the &ing' Diwan, who was in#charge of finance and revenue' Mir Bakshi, who maintained the records of all the Mansabdars and distributed pay among the high officials' Sadar-i-Sadur, who acted as a religious adviser to the king, disbursed royal charity and discharged the function of the (hief )ustice of the empire. $eside these four ministers, there were other ministers of lower rank# Khan-i-Saman, who was in#charge of the royal household' Muhtasib, who saw that the people *Muslims+ led a highly moral life according to the Muslim law' and Daroga-i-Dak Chowki, an officer who was in#charge of the postal and intelligence department. Provincial Administration" Akbar divided his vast empire into fifteen *,-+ Subas or provinces. .n each suba or province there was a Subedar, a Diwan, a $akshi, a Sadar, a Qazi, a Kotwal, a Mir Bahr and Waqa-i-Nawis. The Subedar or /overnor was the head of the provincial administration. e en!oyed vast powers and was in#charge of the provincial military, police, !udiciary and the executive. The *provincial+ Diwan was in#charge of the provincial finance and all bills of payments were signed by him. The Bakshi looked after the management of the provincial army. The Sadar was in#charge of the !udicial charity department. The Qazi was in#charge of the !udicial department of his province. e supervised the work of Qazis in the districts and towns. The Kotwal was the supreme administrator of all the thanas of the province and was responsible for the maintenance of law and order in all the cities. The Mir Bahr was in#charge of customs and taxation department. The Waqa-i-Nawis was in#charge of the secret service of the province. The provinces were further divided into 0arkars and 0arkars into 1arganas. The head of the Sarkar was !au"dar who kept his own small force and maintained law and order in his area. e was assisted by a number of other officials who collected the revenue, maintained the accounts and deposited the money into the state treasury. The head of the #arganas was called Shikdar whose functions were the same as those of the !au"dar in a Sarkar. 2ach #argana comprised several villages. 2ach village was under the charge of a Muqaddam, a #atwari and a Chowkidar who carried on the work of administration with the help of the village $an%ha&at. Military Administration" Akbar paid much attention towards the organi3ation, e4uipment and discipline of the army. 5or efficient military administration he introduced a new system known as the Mansabdari 0ystem. The Mansabdars had to maintain soldiers according to his grade or rank. There were thirty three grades of these Mansabdars who maintained soldiers ranging from ,6 to ,6,666. They were paid salaries in cash and the system of assignments of lands was discouraged. They were directly under the charge of the emperor and were promoted, degrade or dismissed at his will. e also revived the practice of taking the descriptive rolls of the soldiers and branding the horses.

A large number of troops were, no doubt, supplied by these Mansabdars but Akbar had maintained a standing army of his own. The Mughul army consisted of infantry, cavalry, artillery, elephants, and navy. The cavalry was the most important wing of the army and special attention was paid towards its organi3ation and e4uipment. The military organi3ation of Akbar had no doubt certain defects *e.g., The Mansabdars cheated the government, the soldiers were more loyal to the chiefs than to the emperor, the practice of payment through the Mansabdars was precarious and often led to abuses, efficiency of one unit to unit, etc.+ but still under Akbar it worked well because of his uncommon ability as a leader and an administrator, great vigilance and discipline. Land Revenue Administration: 7and 8evenue was the chief sources of income of the /overnment. 0o, Akbar paid special attention towards the organi3ation of the land revenue administration. 9ith the help of his Diwan *8evenue Minister+, 8a!a Todar Mal, Akbar introduced many reforms in his revenue department. 5irst of all, the land was measured into bighas, secondly, all the cultivated land was classified into four divisions % #ola", #arauti, Cha%har and Ban"ar. The #ola" land was always cultivated and was never allowed to fallow' the #arauti land was allowed to fallow for a year or two to recover its strength' the Cha%har land had to be left uncultivated for three or four years and Ban"ar land had to be left fallow for five years or more. Thirdly, the total produce of each land was determined separately. 5ourthly, the share of the state was fixed at one#third of the total produce. 7and revenue was paid in cash or in kind, but cash payment was preferred. 7oans with small interest were advanced to the cultivators. .n case of famine, drought or another unexpected calamity, remission was granted and even loans were advanced for purchase of seeds and animals. The revenue collectors were asked to be friendly towards the cultivators and not to oppress them on every account. As a result of these measures the revenue of the state greatly increased, the cultivators became better off and the country became prosperous. The abundance of food also made the life of the common man better and happier than before. Judicial Administration or Judicial Reforms" Akbar introduced various reforms in the administration of !ustice. $efore him almost all the cases were decided according to the .slamic law. $ut now, for the first time, indu law was administered in deciding the cases where the parties indus, but .slamic law continued to function where the parties involved were Muslims. The king was the highest court of appeal. (apital punishment was given only in extreme cases and that too by the emperor alone. ocial Reforms" Akbar had the welfare of his people always in his mind. e had taken several measures to improve the general condition of his sub!ects. .n ,-:;, the #ilgrim 'a(, which was a great burden on the indus, was abolished. .n ,-:<, )azi&a, a tax which was imposed on non# Muslims, was also abolished. Akbar tried to stop the practice of 0ati. (hild marriage was discouraged and female#infanticide was forbidden. 9idow#marriage was encouraged. 5rom the above account it is 4uite clear that Akbar was a great administrator and the administrative machinery that he set up continued to function throughout the Mughul period

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