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Motor 2
Motor 2
Robot Actuators
Stepper motors DC motors AC motors Physics review: Nature is lazy.
Things seek lowest energy states. iron core vs. magnet magnetic fields tend to line up N S
S
+ v + v -
rotor
N
Increased Resolution
S
torque
angle
Half stepping
Increased Resolution
S
Half stepping
Increased Resolution
S
Half stepping
How to Control?
4 Lead Wire Configuration Step Table Step Red Blue Yellow White 0 + + 1 + + 2 + + 3 + + 4 + + Clockwise Facing Mounting End Each step, like the second hand of a clock => tick, tick Increase the frequency of the steps => continuous motion
Red
A+
4 lead motor
ABlue
Yellow B+
White B-
Motoring along...
direct control of position
precise positioning (The amount of rotational movement per step depends on the construction of the motor)
Easy to Control
under-damping leads to oscillation at low speeds torque is lower at high speeds than the primary alternative
DC motors -- exposed !
DC motor basics
permanent magnets
N N rotor S stator S
brush
+
V
DC motor basics
permanent magnets
N N rotor S stator S N S
+
V
+
V
DC motor basics
permanent magnets
N N rotor S stator S N S N N S S
+
V
+
V
+
V
Position Sensors
Optical Encoders
Relative position Absolute position
Other Sensors
Resolver Potentiometer
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor
decode circuitry
- direction
- resolution
light emitter
grating
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor
decode circuitry
mask/diffuser
Ideal
Real
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor
decode circuitry
- direction
- resolution
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor
decode circuitry
- direction
- resolution
A
A lags B
B B
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor
decode circuitry
- direction
- resolution
A leads B
Optical Encoders
Detecting absolute position
something simpler ?
Optical Encoders
Detecting absolute position
wires ?
Gray Code
# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Binary
0 1 10 11 100 000 001 011 010 110
101
110 111 1000 1001
111
101 100
among others...
Other Sensors
Resolver = driving a stepper motor
Control
Control: getting motors to do what you want them to
speed
R w
S
N S
back emf
e = ke w
t = kt I
R V e
DC motor model
e = ke w
t = kt I
V = IR + e
How is V related to w ?
Istall = V/R
current when motor is stalled speed = 0 torque = max
R V e
tR V= + ke w kt
- or -
V ke
torque t
ktV R
V ke
Rotational version of Pm = t w
torque t
ktV R
stall torque
V ke
max speed
Rotational version of Pm = t w
power output
torque t
ktV R
stall torque
V ke
max speed power output
gasoline engine
torque t
ktV R
stall torque
Motor specs
003S
006S
012S
024
-------------------------nominal supply voltage armature resistance maximum power output maximum efficiency no-load speed no-load current friction torque stall torque velocity constant back EMF constant torque constant armature inductance
-------(Volts) (Ohms) (Watts) (%) (rpm) (mA) (oz-in) (oz-in) (rpm/v) (mV/rpm) (oz-in/A) (mH)
-------3 1.6 1.41 76 12,000 30 .010 .613 4065 .246 .333 .085
-------6 8.6 1.05 72 10,600 16 .011 .510 1808 .553 .748 .200
kt
ke
Back to control
Basic input / output relationship:
We can control the voltage applied V.
tR V= + ke w kt
PWM
PWM -- pulse width modulation
Duty cycle:
The ratio of the On time and the Off time in one cycle Determines the fractional amount of full power delivered to the motor
Motor
w
actual speed
wa Motor
actual speed wa
PID Controller
PID control: Proportional / Integral / Derivative control e V = Kp (wd - w) + Ki (wd - w) dt + Kd ddt e) V = Kp ( e + Ki e + Kd ddt
Error signal e wd - wa
desired wd
actual w Motor
actual speed w
steady-state error
settling time
ss error -- difference from the systems desired value overshoot -- % of final value exceeded at first oscillation rise time -- time to span from 10% to 90% of the final value settling time -- time to reach within 2% of the final value
rise time
Kp = 20
Kp = 50
Kp = 200
Kp = 500
Kp = 50
Kp = 200
Ki = 50
Ki = 200
Kd = 10
Kd = 20
PID Tuning
How to get the PID parameter values ?
(1) If the system has a known mathematical model (i.e., the transfer function), analytical methods can be used (e.g., rootlocus method) to meet the transient and steady-state specs. (2) When the system dynamics are not precisely known, we must resort to experimental approaches.
Ziegler-Nichols Rules for Tuning PID Controller: Using only Proportional control, turn up the gain until the system oscillates w/o dying down, i.e., is marginally stable. Assume that K and P are the resulting gain and oscillation period, respectively. Then, use
for P control for PI control for PID control
Kp = 0.5 K
Kp = 0.45 K Ki = 1.2 / P
Implementing PID
Use discrete approximations to the I and D terms: Proportional term: Integral term: Derivative term: ei = wdesired - wactual
i=now
at time i
S e i=0 i
ei - 2ei-1 + ei-2
How could this discretization affect the performance of a system? Sampling time is critical!!
Aliasing:
The higher frequency component that appears to be a lower one is called an alias for the lower frequency Aliasing: the frequency of the sampled data is different from the frequency of the continuous signal
Aliasing
b. 0.09 of sampling rate might represent, a 90 cycle/second sine wave being sampled at 1000 samples/second; in another word, there are 11.1 samples taken over each complete cycle of the sinusoid d. Aliasing occurs when the frequency of the analog sine wave is greater than the Nyquist frequency (onehalf of the sampling rate); in other word, the sampling frequency is not fast enough. Aliasing misrepresents the information, so the original signal cannot be reconstructed properly from the samples.
Definitions:
Given a signal bandlimited to f BL , must sample at greater than 2 f BL to preserve information. The value 2 f BL is called Nyquist rate (of sampling for a given f BL ) Given sampling rate f s , the highest frequency in the signal must be less than f s / 2 if samples are to preserve all the information. The value f NYQ f s / 2 is called the Nyquist frequency (associated with a fixed sample frequency).
Rule of Thumb
For a closed-loop control system, a typical choice for the sampling interval T based on rise time is 1/5 th or 1/10 th of the rise time. (i.e., 5 to 10 samples for rise time)
Motor Drive
Micro-controller
Logic Level
Useful Links
6.270 MITs Autonomous Robot Design Competition, http://web.mit.edu/6.270/www/home.html Acroname Inc. for Easy robotics, sensors, kits, etc, http://www.acroname.com/ Interactive C Users Guide, etc., http://www.newtonlabs.com/ic/ Handy board, http://www.handyboard.com/ Pitsco Lego Dacta, lego components, http://www.pitscolegodacta.com/intro.htm The Electronic Goldmine: cheep motors, electronics components, http://www.goldmine-elec.com Applied Motion Products: Step/DC motors and drives, http://www.applied-motion.com Jameco Electronics: http://www.jameco.com
Assignment
Refresh you memory
Control Theory
(Text book: K. Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Prentice Hall)
Laboratory
Specs of Motors Motor Drive Circuit Looking for Drive Components