UNIVERSITY OF PRISHTINA FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

DEIXIS AND DISTANCE (MINI-RESEARCH PAPER)

Mentor: Prof Dr L!n"!t Rugova

St#"ent$: Ar%nor& Hot! F''&n(& H&)r#''&*#

Pr!$*t!n+, -./1

T&%'e of 0ontent$:
/ Intro"#0t!on 1111111111111111111111111 12 De!3!$ &n" "!$t&n0e 1111111111111111111111 4

- / Per$on "e!3!$ 11111111111111111111111111 5 - - S6&t!&' "e!3!$ 1111111111111111111111111 7

- 2 Te86or&' "e!3!$ 111111111111111111111111 /. 2 Ot*er 0&te9or!e$ 111111111111111111111111 /-

3.1 D!$0o#r$e 111111111111111111111111111 /2 - S:!t0* referen0e 111111111111111111111111/2 3.3 So0!&' 11111111111111111111111111111/2 3.4 T-V "!$t!n0t!on 1111111111111111111111111 /2 3.5 Honor!f!0$ 111111111111111111111111111 /; 3.6 An&6*or!0 referen0e 1111111111111111111111 /; 2 5 E3o6*or!0 referen0e 11111111111111111111111/; 2 7 Ho8o6*or!0 referen0e1111111111111111111111 /; 2 < En"o6*or!0 referen0e 1111111111111111111111 /; 2 /. An&6*or!0 referen0e 1111111111111111111111 /; 2 // C&t&6*or!0 referen0e 1111111111111111111111/= ; De!0t!0 0enter 11111111111111111111111111/= = Con0'#$!on 111111111111111111111111111 /4 4 Referen0e$ 111111111111111111111111111/7

Intro"#0t!on:
In this paper we have tried to describe the term deixis introducing some definitions b different researchers! we a"so tried to give some characteristics and examp"es of deixis and then we e"aborated the five t pes of deixis. #ccording to $u"e the term %&eixis' is derived from (ree) word for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means pointing via "anguage *1++6,. It is done b using deictic expression or indexica"s in utterance. &eixis signa"s a referent and it re"ates the referent to a common ground shared b the spea)er and the addressee. -evinson a"so points out that %&eixis is an important fie"d studied in pragmatics! semantics and "inguistics. It refers to the phenomenon where understanding the meaning of certain words and phrases in an utterance re.uires contextua" information. /ords and phrases that re.uire contextua" information to conve an meaninag are deictic %* 1++50 11, 1 #nother definition of it is that ! %&eixis is an important fie"d of "anguage stud in its own right! but it a"so has some re"evance to the ana" sis of conversations and pragmatics. It is often and best described as %verba" pointing'! that is to sa "anguage.'2 2he "inguistic forms of this pointing are ca""ed deictic expressions! deictic mar)ers or deictic words3 the are a"so sometimes ca""ed indexica"s. De!0t!0 e36re$$!on$ f&'' !nto t*ree 0&te9or!e$: pointing b means of

4erson deixis * ou! us etc,!

5patia" deixis *here! there, and

1 http://www.scribd.com/doc/91057052/DEIXIS
2

http066www.goog"e.com67.8deixis9h"8en9prmd8imvnsb9ei8/2:;<=/1>?3@sga#14AI9s.i82

9start8119sa8;9bav8on.2!or.rBgc.rBpw.rB.f.9fp8d25c1+ea1C111a?e9bpc"8354665219biw8113? 9bih8642

2empora" deixis *now! then,.

&eixis is c"ear" tied to the spea)erDs context! the most basic distinction being between near the spea)er *proxima", and awa from the spea)er *dista",.

4roxima" deictic expressions inc"ude this! here and now.

&ista" deictic expressions inc"ude that! there and then.

4roxima" expressions are genera"" interpreted in re"ation to the spea)erDs "ocation or deictic centre. Aor examp"e now is ta)en to mean some point or period in time that matches the time of the spea)erDs utterance.

De!0t!0 e36re$$!on$ !n0'#"e $#0* 'e3e8e$ &$:

4ersona" or possessive pronouns *I6 ou6mine6 ours,! &emonstrative pronouns *this6that,! *5patia"6tempora", adverbs *here6there6now,! =ther proEforms *so6do,! 4ersona" or possessive adFectives *m 6 our,! &emonstrative adFectives *this6that,! #rtic"es *the,.

%De!3!$ genera"" refers to the wor"d outside a text. @eference to the context surrounding an utterance is often referred to as primar deixis! exophoric deixis or simp" deixis. 4rimar deixis is used to point to a situation outside a text *situationa" deixis, or to the spea)erDs and hearerDs *shared, )now"edge of the wor"d *)now"edge deixis,.'3 Conte3t#&' #$e of "e!0t!0 e36re$$!on$ is )nown as secondar deixis! textua" deixis or endophoric deixis. 5uch expressions can refer either bac)wards or forwards to other e"ements in a text0 An&6*or!0 "e!3!$ is bac)ward pointing! and is the norm in Gng"ish texts. Gxamp"es inc"ude persona" and demonstrative pronouns0 he! this! such! said! simi"ar! *the, same. C&t&6*or!0 "e!3!$ is forward pointing. Gxamp"es inc"ude0 the fo""owing! certain! some *%the spea)er raised some obFections...',! this *%-et me sa this...',! these! severa".

/ De!3!$ &n" "!$t&n0e

%&eixis is a technica" term *from (ree), for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means %pointing' via "anguage. #n "inguistic form used to accomp"ish this %pointing' is ca""ed a % "e!0t!0 e36re$$!on'. /hen ou notice a strange obFect and as)! %/hat is thatH'! ou are using a deictic expression *that, to indicate something in the immediate context. &eictic expressions are a"so sometimes ca""ed !n"e3!0&'$.'4 /e have three t pes of deixis0 /
3

Per$on "e!3!$ (8e, >o#) t*&t &re #$e" to refer to 6eo6'e

http066www.goog"e.com67.8deixis9h"8en9prmd8imvnsb9ei8/2:;<=/1>?3@sga#14AI9s.i829start

8119sa8;9bav8on.2!or.rBgc.rBpw.rB.f.9fp8d25c1+ea1C111a?e9bpc"8354665219biw8113?9bih8642

(eorge $u"e! 4ragmatics! =xford <niversit press! 1++6! p.11

S6&t!&' "e!3!$ (*ere, t*ere) t*&t &re #$e" for 'o0&t!on$ Te86or&' "e!3!$ (no:, t*en) t*&t &re #$e" for t!8e

%#"" these expressions depend! for their interpretation! on the spea)er and hearer sharing the same context. &eixis is c"ear" a form of referring that is tied to the spea)ers context! with the most basic distinction between deictic expressions being %near spea)er' versus %awa from spea)er'. In Gng"ish! the %near spea)er' or 6ro3!8&' ter8$ are t*!$,*ere, no:. 2he %awa from spea)er' or %"!$t&'' terms are t*ere, t*en.'5 Pro3!8&' ter8$ are t pica"" interpreted in terms of the spea)ers "ocation! or the deictic center! so that %now' is genera"" understood as referring to some point or period in the time that has the time of the spea)ers utterance at its center. D!$t&' ter8$ can simp" indicate %awa from spea)er' but! in some "anguages! can be used to distinguish between %near addressee' and %awa addressee'. from both spea)er and

/ / Per$on "e!3!$
%2o "earn these deictic expressions! we have to discover that each person in a conversation shifts from being %I' to being % ou' constant" . #"" oung chi"dren go through a stage in their "earning where this distinction seems prob"ematic and the sa things "i)e %@ead ou a stor ' *instead of me! when handing over a favourite boo).,'6 4erson deixis operates on a basic three part devision! exemp"ified b the pronouns for the first person *I, second person * ou, and third person *he! she! it,. In man other "anguages these deictic categories of the spea)er depend on the re"ative socia" status of the peop"e *higher versus "ower status,. Gxpressions which indicate higher status are described as *onor!f!0$. 2hese forms are otherwise ca""ed socia" deixis aswe"". 2here is another
5 6

(eorge $u"e! 4ragmatics! =xford <niversit press! 1++6! p.11 (eorge $u"e! 4ragmatics! =xford <niversit press! 1++6! p.11

categor of persona" deixis that comes from the destinction between the fami"iar versus nonEfami"iar addressee in some "anguages. 2his is )nown as the 26I distinction! from the Arench forms %tu'*fami"iar, and %vous' *nonEfami"iar, and is found in man "anguages inc"uding (erman *du65ie, and 5panish *tu6<sted,. In those socia" contexts where individua"s t pica"" mar) distinctions between the socia" status of the spea)er and addressee! the higher o"der and more powerfu" spea)er wi"" tend to use %tu' version to a "ower! ounger and "ess powerfu" addressee! and be addressed b the %vous' form in return. /hen socia" change is ta)ing p"ace! as for examp"e in modern 5pain! where a oung businesswoman *higher economic status, is ta")ing to her o"der c"eaning "ad *"ower economic status,! how do the address each otherH I am to"d that the age distinction remains more powerfu" than the economic distinction and the o"der woman uses %tu' and the ounger uses %<sted'. 2hird person pronouns are conse.uent" dista" forms in terms of person deixis. <sing a third person form! where a second person form wou"d be possib"e! is one wa communicating distance *and nonEfami"iarit , for examp"e0 1. /ou"d his highness "i)e some coffeeH 2. a. 5omebod didnt c"ean up after himse"f. 2. b. Gach person has to c"ean up after him or herse"f. 2o ma)e the potentia" "ess direct as the examp"e *2a, shows or to ma)e a potentia"" persona" issue seem "i)e an impersona" one! based on a genera" ro"e as in *2b,. Aor genera" ru"es we can use the form %we' aswe""! "i)e0 /e c"ean up after ourse"ves around here. % In Gng"ish! there are two t pes of %we'. 2here is t*e e30'#$!?e %we' *spea)er p"us other*s,! exc"uding the addressee! and !n0'#$!?e %we' *spea)er and addressee inc"uded,. 2he inc"usiveEexc"usive distinction ma a"so be noted in the difference between sa ing %-ets go' *to some friends, and %-et us go' *2o some who has countered the spea)er and friends,. of

/ - S6&t!&' De!3!$

%2he concept of distance is considered re"evant to spatia" deixis ! whenever re"ative "ocation of things is being indicated. Jontemporar Gng"ish uses on" two adverbs0 here and there. 2here are a"so some verbs of motion! such as come and go! which retain a deictic sense when the are used to mar) movement toward the spea)er! for examp"e! Jome to m room! or awa from the spea)er! as in (o to m room .'C 2he "ocation! from the spea)ers perspective! can be fixed menta"" as we"" as ph sica"" . 5pea)ers tempora"" awa from their home "ocation wi"" often continue to use here to mean the home "ocation! as if the sti"" were in that "ocation. It is described as deictic proFection and we can ma)e more use of its possibi"ities when techno"og a""ows us to manipu"ate "ocation. If here means the p"ace of the spea)ers utterance! and now means the time of this utterance! a sentence "i)e0 %I am not here now' on an aswering machine shou"d be nonsense. %2he basis of spatia" deixis is often ps cho"ogica" distance *rather than ph sica" distance,. <sua"" ph sica" and *metaphorica", ps cho"ogica" distance wi"" appear the same. >ut a spea)er ma wish to mar) something ph sica"" c"ose as ps cho"ogica"" distant! as when ou indicate an item of food on our p"ate with %I donDt "i)e that'.'? Jontemporar Gng"ish ma)es use of on" two adverbs! here and there! for the basic distinction! but in o"der texts and in some dia"ects! a much "arger set of deictic expressions can be found. #"though % onder' *more distant from spea)er, is sti"" used! words "i)e %hither' *to this p"ace, and thence *from that p"ace, now sound archaic. 2hese "ast two adverbs inc"ude the meaning of motion toward or awa from the spea)er *here! there,. 5ome verbs of motion! such as %come' and %go' retain a deictic sense when the are used to mar) movement toward the spea)er *come to bed, or awa *(o to bed,.

(eorge $u"e! 4ragmatics! =xford <niversit press! 1++6! p. 12

http066www.goog"e.com67.8deixis9h"8en9prmd8imvnsb9ei8/2:;<=/1>?3@sga#14AI9s.i829start

8119sa8;9bav8on.2!or.rBgc.rBpw.rB.f.9fp8d25c1+ea1C111a?e9bpc"8354665219biw8113?9bih8642

In considering spatia" deixis! however! it is important to remember that "ocation from the spea)ers perspective can be fixed menta"" as we"" as ph sica"" . 5pea)ers temporar awa from their home "ocation wi"" often continue to use %here' to mean the *ph sica"" distant, home "ocation! as if the were sti"" in that "ocation. 5pea)ers a"so seem to be ab"e to proFect themse"ves into other "ocations prior to actua"" being in those "ocations! as when the sa 0 %I"" come "ater'! *movement to addressees "ocation,. 2his is somewhere described as "e!0t!0 6ro)e0t!on. If here means the p"ace of the spea)ers utterance! than an utterance such as0 %I am not here now'! shou"d be nonsense. Kowever! I can sa this into the recorder of a te"ephone answering machine! proFecting that I am not there at the moment that somebod is tr ing to phone me at that moment and not at the moment of spea)ing. It ma be that the tru" pragmatic basis of spatia" deixis is actua"" ps cho"ogica" distance. 4h sica"" c"ose obFects wi"" tend to be treated b the spea)er as ps cho"ogica"" genera"" be treated as ps cho"ogica"" distant *for ex. 2hat man over there., 5imi"ar ps cho"ogica" processes seem to be at wor) in our distinctions between proxima" and dista" expressions used to mar) tempora" deixis.

/ 2 Te86or&' "e!3!$
#ccording to Ai""more *1+66,! time! or tempora"! deixis concerns itse"f with the various times invo"ved in and referred to in an utterance. 2his inc"udes time adverbs "i)e LnowL! LthenL! LsoonL! and so forth! and a"so different tenses. # good examp"e is the word tomorrow! which denotes the consecutive next da after ever da . 2he LtomorrowL of a da "ast ear was a different da from the LtomorrowL of a da next wee). 2ime adverbs can be re"ative to the time when an utterance is made *what Ai""more ca""s the Lencoding timeL! or G2, or when the utterance is heard *Ai""mores Ldecoding timeL! or &2,. /hi"e these are fre.uent" the same time! the can differ! as in the case of prerecorded broadcasts or correspondence. Aor examp"e! if one were to write It is raining out now! but I hope when ou read this it wi"" be sunn . the G2 and &2 wou"d be different! with the former deictic term concerning G2 and the "atter the &2.

2enses are genera"" separated into abso"ute *deictic, and re"ative tenses. 5o! for examp"e! simp"e Gng"ish past tense is abso"ute! such as in Ke went. whi"e the p"uperfect is re"ative to some other deictica"" specified time! as in Ke had gone. In tempora" deixis Ai""more *1+66 , a"so discussed about tenses . 2enses are time re"ations in connection to a given point in time. /e can distinguish 0 as an event6action simu"taneous" to the speech act * wor) , as an event6 action before the speech act * wor)ed , as an event6action after the speech act * ou wi"" wor) ,

%In contrast to now! the dista" expression then can be used with both past and future time. Aor examp"e0 -ast 5aturda nightH I was at home with a friend then. 2heater at C p.m. on 5aturda H =)a ! I"" meet ou there then. /e a"so use s stems of nonEdeictic tempora" reference such as ca"endar and c"oc) time. Kowever! these forms of tempora" reference are "earned a "ot "ater than the deictic expressions! such as esterda ! tonight! this wee)! next wee). 2o interpret a"" these expressions! we have to )now the time of the utterance. =therwise! in the case of the fo""owing sentences! for examp"e! we wou"dnt )now if we have a short or a "ong wait ahead0 I"" be bac) in an hour. Aree beer tomorrow. #"so verb tense indication is considered a t pe of tempora" deixis in Gng"ish.

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I "ive in 5anta Maria *present" ,. I "ived in JruN #"ta *in the past,. 2he present tense is considered the proxima" form and the past tense the dista" form.' + 5omething that too) p"ace in the past! or that is extreme" un"i)e" from the spea)ers current situation is mar)ed via the dista" *past tense,.

4s cho"ogica" distance can app" to tempora" deixis as we"". /e can treat tempora" events as things that move towards us *into view, or awa from us *out of view,. Aor instance! we spea) of the coming year or the approaching year. 2his ma stem from our perception of things which we see approaching both spatia"" and in time. /e treat the near or immediate future as being c"ose to utterance time b using the proxima" deictic expression this! as in %this *that is the next, wee)end' or % this evening' *said ear"ier in the da ,. 2he form now indicates both the time coinciding with the spea)ers utterance and the time of the spea)ers voice being heard *the hearers %now',. In contrast to %;ow' the dista" expression %then' app"ies to both past and future! time re"ative to the spea)ers present time.

- Ot*er 0&te9or!e$
2hough the traditiona" categories of deixis are perhaps the most obvious! there are other t pes of deixis that are simi"ar" pervasive in "anguage use. 2hese categories of deixis were first discussed b Ai""more and - ons.

http066www.goog"e.com67.8deixis9h"8en9prmd8imvnsb9ei8/2:;<=/1>?3@sga#14AI9s.i82

9start8119sa8;9bav8on.2!or.rBgc.rBpw.rB.f.9fp8d25c1+ea1C111a?e9bpc"8354665219biw8113? 9bih8642
http://www.scribd.com/doc/91057052/DEIXIS

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- / D!$0o#r$e
&iscourse deixis! a"so referred to as text deixis! and refers to the use of expressions within an utterance to refer to parts of the discourse that contains the utteranceO inc"uding the utterance itse"f. Aor examp"e! in This is a great stor . %this' refers to an upcoming portion of the discourse! and in That was an amaNing da . %that' refers to a prior portion of the discourse. &istinction must be made between discourse deixis and anaphora! which is when an expression ma)es reference to the same referent as a prior term! as in Matthew is an incredib"e ath"ete3 he came in first in the race. - ons points out that it is possib"e for an expression to be both deictic and anaphoric at the same time. In his examp"e I was born in -ondon and I have "ived here/there a"" m "ife. %here' or %there' function anaphorica"" in their reference to -ondon! and deictica"" in that the choice between %here' or %there' indicates whether the spea)er is or is not current" in -ondon. 2he ru"e of thumb to distinguish the two phenomena is as fo""ows0 when an expression refers to another "inguistic expression or a piece of discourse! it is discourse deictic. /hen that expression refers to the same item as a prior "inguistic expression! it is anaphoric.

- - S:!t0* referen0e is a t pe of discourse deixis! and a grammatica" feature found in

some "anguages! which indicates whether the argument of one c"ause is the same as the argument of the previous c"ause. In some "anguages! this is done through same subFect mar)ers and different subFect mar)ers. In the trans"ated examp"e LPohn punched 2om!

12

and "eftEQsame subFect mar)erR!L it is Pohn who "eft! and in LPohn punched 2om! and "eftE *different subFect mar)er,!L it is 2om who "eft.

- 2 So0!&'
5ocia" deixis concerns the socia" information that is encoded within various expressions! such as re"ative socia" status and fami"iarit . 2wo maFor forms of it are the soEca""ed 2EI distinctions and honorifics.

2.4 T-V distinction

2EI distinctions! named for the -atin %tu' and %vous' *singu"ar and p"ura" versions of % ou', are the name given to the phenomenon when a "anguage has two different secondE person pronouns. 2he var ing usage of these pronouns indicates something about forma"it ! fami"iarit ! and6or so"idarit between the interactants. 5o! for examp"e! the 2 form might be used when spea)ing to a friend or socia" e.ua"! whereas the I form wou"d be used spea)ing to a stranger or socia" superior. 2his phenomenon is common in Guropean "anguages.

2.5 Honorifics
Konorifics are a much more comp"ex form of socia" deixis than 2EI distinctions! though the encode simi"ar t pes of socia" information. 2he can invo"ve words being mar)ed with various morphemes as we"" as near" entire" different "exicons being used based on the socia" status of the interactants. 2his t pe of socia" deixis is found in a variet of "anguages! but is especia"" common in 5outh and Gast #sia.

- 4 An&6*or!0 referen0e
(enera"" spea)ing! anaphora refers to the wa in which a word or phrase re"ates to other text0

13

- 5 An e3o6*or!0 referen0e refers to "anguage outside of the text in which the

reference is found.

- 7 A *o8o6*or!0 referen0e is a generic phrase that obtains a specific meaning

through )now"edge of its context. Aor examp"e! the meaning of the phrase "the Queen" ma be determined b the countr in which it is spo)en. >ecause there are man Sueens throughout the wor"d! the "ocation of the spea)er provides the extra information that a""ows an individua" Sueen to be identified.

- < An en"o6*or!0 referen0e refers to something inside of the text in which the
reference is found.

- /. An &n&6*or!0 referen0e! when opposed to cataphora! refers to something

within a text that has been previous" identified. Aor examp"e! in "Susan dropped the plate. It shattered loudly" the word "it" refers to the phrase "the plate".

- // A 0&t&6*or!0 referen0e refers to something within a text that has not et been
identified. Aor examp"e! in "He was very cold. David promptly put on his coat" the identit of the "he" is un)nown unti" the individua" is a"so referred to as "David".

2 De!0t!0 0enter
%# deictic center! sometimes referred to as an origo! is a set of theoretica" points that a deictic expression is anchored to! such that the eva"uation of the meaning of the expression "eads one to the re"evant point. #s deictic expressions are fre.uent" egocentric! the center often consists of the spea)er at the time and p"ace of the utterance! and additiona"" ! the p"ace in the discourse and re"evant socia" factors. Kowever! deictic expressions can a"so be used in such a wa that the deictic center is transferred to other participants in the exchange! or to persons 6 p"aces 6 etc. being described in a narrative. 5o! for examp"e! in the sentence0 Im standing here now.

14

2he deictic center is simp" the person at the time and p"ace of spea)ing. >ut sa two peop"e are ta")ing on the phone "ongEdistance! from -ondon to ;ew $or). 2he -ondoner can sa /e are going to ;ew $or) next wee). in which case the deictic center is in -ondon! or the can e.ua"" va"id" sa /e are coming to ;ew $or) next wee). in which case the deictic center is in ;ew $or). 5imi"ar" ! when te""ing a stor about someone! the deictic center is "i)e" to switch to them. 5o then in the sentence Ke then ran twent feet to the "eft. it is understood that the center is with the person being spo)en of! and thus! Lto the "eftL refers not to the spea)ers "eft! but to the obFect of the stor s "eft! that is! the person referred to as DheD at the time immediate" before he ran twent feet.'11

Con0'#$!on
11

http066en.wi)ipedia.org6wi)i6&eixis

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Arom this paper we cou"d see what deixis are. 2he are often mixed with the word reference! even though the are a part of it. &eixis can main" be found as part of the demonstrative references! because their function is to show here and there! near and far and to substitute peop"e with persona" pronouns. In some of the examp"es we cou"d see that deixis and grammar have both to do with the direct and indirect speech! where I becomes ou and here becomes there! and now becomes then. /e dea"t with three main categories of deixis! which were0 1. 4erson deixis * ou! us etc., which are used for persons 2. 5patia" deixis *here! there, which are used for "ocations 3. 2empora" deixis *now! then, which are used to express the time. De!0t!0 e36re$$!on$ !n0'#"e $#0* 'e3e8e$ &$:

4ersona" or possessive pronouns *I6 ou6mine6 ours,! &emonstrative pronouns *this6that,! *5patia"6tempora", adverbs *here6there6now,! =ther proEforms *so6do,! 4ersona" or possessive adFectives *m 6 our,! &emonstrative adFectives *this6that,! #rtic"es *the,.

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De!3!$ genera"" refers to the wor"d outside a text. @eference to the context surrounding an utterance is often referred to as primar deixis! exophoric deixis or simp" deixis. 4rimar deixis is used to point to a situation outside a text *situationa" deixis, or to the spea)erDs and hearerDs *shared, )now"edge of the wor"d *)now"edge deixis,.

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Referen0e$
1. http066en.wi)ipedia.org6wi)i6&eixis 2. (. $u"e! 4ragmatics! =xford <niversit press! 1++6 3. http066www.igewem.tuE dresden.de6dieBtuBdresden6fa)u"taeten6phi"osophischeBfa)u"taet6iph6thph6braeuer6 "ehre6beNugnahmeBre"evanN6;unbergT21ET21Indexica"sand&eixis.pdf 4. http066www.goog"e.com67.8deixis9h"8en9prmd8imvnsb9ei8/2:;<=/1>?3 @sga#14AI9s.i829start8119sa8;9bav8on.2!or.rBgc.rBpw.rB.f.9fp8d25c1+ea 1C111a?e9bpc"8354665219biw8113?9bih8642 5. M. #.: Ka""ida ! @. Kasan! Johesion in Gng"ish! -ongman (roup -td! 1+C6

6. http066www.scribd.com6doc6+115C1526&GIUI5

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