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0 DRAWING AND DESIGN Today it is common for a part to be designed in one country, manufactured in another and assembled in a third. This can be done efficiently with engineering communication via drawings. Engineering drawings communicate product design and manufacturing information in a reliable and unambiguous manner regardless of language Information in engineering drawings are a legal specification that carry a binding contract. Types of Drawings 1. Design Layout Drawing - Represents broad principles of feasible solution 2. Detail Drawing - Single part drawing containing all information for fabrication 3. Assembly Drawing - Shows how individual parts are combined, refers to parts list] 4. Arrangement Drawing - Shows finished arrangement of assemblies, includes functional and performance requirements 5. Diagram - Drawing depicting the function of a system 6. Parts List [Bill of Materials] - A parts this including material, number and provides reference number 7. Drawing List - Cross references drawings that all combine to produce an single product

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DESIGN PROCESS - The process of designing something is characterized as an interactive procedure, which consists of six identifiable steps or phases: * Recognition of need. * Definition of problem. * Synthesis. * Analysis and optimization. * Evaluation. * Presentation. - The design-related tasks performed by CAD system are: * Geometric modeling. * Engineering analysis. * Design review and evaluation. * Automated drafting. * Parts classification and coding. Recognition of need o This involves the realisation that a problem or need exists that may be solved by design. This may mean identifying some deficiency in a current machine design by an engineer, or perceiving some new product opportunity by a salesperson. Problem definition o This involves a thorough specification of the item to be designed. Specifications include physical characteristics, function, cost, quality, and operating performance. Synthesis o Closely related with the following step, analysis, synthesis refers to the bundling of information that occurs after problem definition, and concurrently during analysis, and after re-analysis.

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Analysis and optimization o Closely related to the previous step, analysis is concerned with the investigation of design specification information, and the optimization of this information, as well as a synthesis of new information, as required. Evaluation o Involves measuring the design against the specifications established in the problem definition phase. This evaluation may require the building and testing of prototype models to assess operative performance metrics for the proposed design. This may lead to the re-design of certain or all elements. Presentation o This is the final phase, where the design is documented by means of drawings, material specifications, assembly lists, and so on. Documentation means that the design database is created. Geometric modeling o It is a special use of CAD data to create a mathematical description of the geometry of an object. The geometric model, which contains the mathematical description, is contained in the computer memory and the CAD system is upon accessing the computer memory can display the resultant model as an image on its graphics terminal, allowing the operator to manipulate certain aspects of the geometric model displayed. The operator can create new geometric models from basic building blocks available in the system, can zoom in on certain features of the image on-screen, can move two or more geometric models into close relation to each other, and so on. These capabilities allow the operator to interrogate existing product models, and create new variations on existing products to cater for a wide variety of needs. Engineering Analysis o Once a design has been developed, it must then be subjected to engineering analysis. This engineering analysis may include various tests, depending on the product, but may include: stress-strain calculations, heat transfer analysis, or dynamic simulation. These analyses tend to be quite complex, which has led to the development of computer-aided engineering (CAE) software packages, so that complicated engineering analysis may be performed by computer Design Evaluation and Review o Following comprehensive engineering analysis, the proposed design must be evaluated and reviewed for consistency. Some CAD features that are helpful in evaluating and reviewing a proposed design include: a. Automatic dimensioningupon model completion, the CAD software can automatically generate the dimensions of the drawn model; Error checkingthis checks the accuracy and consistency of dimensions and tolerances, to assess whether the proper design documentation format has been followed; b. Animation of discrete-event simulation solutionsthis displays the result as a discrete-event simulation, where input parameters, probability distributions, and other factors can be changed to assess their effect on the performance of the system being modeled; and c. Plant layout design scoresthis provides numerical scores for plant layout designs, based upon such factors as material flow, and closeness ratings.

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Automated Drafting o CAD may also be used as a presentation application, in that the CAD system can produce highly accurate engineering drawings quickly and conveniently, and also provide associated documentation as necessary. It is estimated that a CAD system increases productivity in the drafting function by about fivefold over manual preparation of drawings.

The systems engineering process

2.1.1 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A MANUFACTURING PROCESS Shape of the final product and raw material Type of material and its basic properties: Brittle and hard materials cannot be formed easily, but they can be cast or machined. Manufacturing process often alters the properties of the materials: metals that are formed at room temperature become stronger, harder, and less ductile than prior to processing. Design requirements Additional Criteria Dimensional and surface finish requirements: Size, thickness, and shape complexity: parts with thin cross-sections cannot be cast properly; complex parts cannot be formed easily.
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Tolerances and surface finish: better in hot-working vs. cold-working; dimensional changes, warpage, surface oxidation at elevated temperatures. Additional operations: grinding, polishing (better finish but more expensive!) Operational and Cost considerations: Design and cost of tooling Lead time required to begin production Effect of workpiece material on tool and die life Expensive materials: minimize scrap (e.g., machining produces too much scrap) Availability of machines and equipment Number of parts or products required and desired production rate Environmental concerns 2.1.2 CATEGORIES OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES a. Casting: expandable molding and permanent molding b. Forming and shaping: rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet forming, powder metallurgy and molding c. Machining: turning, boring, drilling, milling, planning, shaping, broaching, grinding, ultrasonic machining; chemical, electrical, and electrochemical machining and high energy electron beam machining d. Joining: welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion bonding, adhesive bonding and mechanical joining e. Micro and nano manufacturing: surface micromachining, dry and wet etching, and electroforming f. Finishing: honing, lapping, polishing, burnishing, de burring, surface treating, coating and plating

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FINITE -ELEMENT METHOD The finite element method (FEM), sometimes referred to as finite element analysis (FEA), is a computational technique used to obtain approximate solutions of boundary value problems in engineering. Simply stated, a boundary value problem is a mathematical problem in which one or more dependent variables must satisfy a differential equation everywhere within a known domain of independent variables and satisfy specific conditions on the boundary of the domain. Boundary value problems are also sometimes called field problems. The field is the domain of interest and most often represents a physical structure. The field variables are the dependent variables of interest governed by the differential equation. The boundary conditions are the specified values of the field variables (or related variables such as derivatives) on the boundaries of the field. Depending on the type of physical problem being analyzed, the field variables may include physical displacement, temperature, heat flux, and fluid velocity to name only a few. In the finite-element method, a distributed physical system to be analysed is divided into a number (often large) of discrete elements. The complete system may be complex and irregularly shaped, but the individual elements are easy to analyse. The division into elements may partly correspond to natural subdivisions of the structure. Most or all of the model parameters have very direct relationships to the structure and material properties of the system. A finite-element model generally has relatively few free parameters whose values need to be adjusted to fit the data. This assumes, of course, that
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the parameters are known a priori from other measurements. FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new condition. There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3D modeling. While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling, however, produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest computers effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer can insert numerous algorithms (functions) which may make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic deformation. Non-linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also are capable of testing a material all the way to fracture. FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. Regions which will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the material properties to the object, creating many elements. A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for minimization or maximization: Mass, volume, temperature Strain energy, stress strain Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration Synthetic (User defined) There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system. Next to Figure 3, some examples are shown: Point, pressure (Figure 3), thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis Enforced displacements Heat flux and convection Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads

Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed over time. Some sample elements are: Rod elements Beam elements
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Plate/Shell/Composite elements Shear panel Solid elements Spring elements Mass elements Rigid elements Viscous damping elements

Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within the structure such as: Isotropic, identical throughout Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees General anisotropic, different throughout

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