DD132133

DEFENSE DEPARTMENT TACTICAL MANUAL

FLIGHT COMBAT HANDBOOK

CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS | EXILED. INC. | RILAH IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................4 BasicShipManeuveringOverview..........................................................................................................................................5 BasicShipManeuveringPrinciples.........................................................................................................................................6 Specific energy ................................................................................................................................................................6 Energy management........................................................................................................................................................6 Turn performance ............................................................................................................................................................7 Pursuit curves..................................................................................................................................................................8 Lead pursuit....................................................................................................................................................................9 Pure pursuit.....................................................................................................................................................................9 Lag pursuit....................................................................................................................................................................10 Out-of-plane maneuvers................................................................................................................................................10 Displacement rolls........................................................................................................................................................11 Positioning....................................................................................................................................................................12 Neutral ...........................................................................................................................................................................12 Offensive.......................................................................................................................................................................12 Defensive......................................................................................................................................................................13 BasicShipManeuveringConcepts........................................................................................................................................14 Turn circle.....................................................................................................................................................................14 Overshoots....................................................................................................................................................................14 Circle flow....................................................................................................................................................................15 Maneuvers............................................................................................................................................................................17 Combat Spread..............................................................................................................................................................17 Defensive Split..............................................................................................................................................................17 Break.............................................................................................................................................................................17 Barrel Roll Attack.........................................................................................................................................................18 High-Side Guns Pass .....................................................................................................................................................18 Immelmann...................................................................................................................................................................19 Split-S...........................................................................................................................................................................19 Pitchback.......................................................................................................................................................................19 Wingover .......................................................................................................................................................................19 Low Yo-Yo...................................................................................................................................................................20 High Yo-Yo..................................................................................................................................................................21 Lag Displacement Roll ..................................................................................................................................................22

High Yo-Yo Defense....................................................................................................................................................22 Unloaded Extension......................................................................................................................................................22 Scissors.........................................................................................................................................................................23 Flat Scissors..................................................................................................................................................................24 Rolling Scissors............................................................................................................................................................25 Guns Defense................................................................................................................................................................26 High-G Barrel Roll.......................................................................................................................................................26 Defensive Spiral............................................................................................................................................................27 GlossaryofTerms ..................................................................................................................................................................28

 INTRODUCTION Spacecombatmaneuvering(orSCM)istheartofmaneuveringacombatspacecraftinorder toattainapositionfromwhichanattackcanbemadeonanotherspacecraft.Itrelieson offensiveanddefensivebasicshipmaneuvering(BSM)inordertogainanadvantageoveran opponent. Basicshipmaneuvers(BSM)aretacticalmovementsperformedbyfighterspacecraft duringSCM,inordertogainapositionaladvantageovertheopponent.BSMcombinesthe fundamentalsofbothaerodynamicandextraatmosphericflightandthegeometryofpursuit withthephysicsofmanagingthespacecraft'senergytoweightratio,calleditsspecificenergy. Maneuversareusedtogainabetterangularpositioninrelationtotheopponent.Theycanbe offensive,tohelpanattackergetbehindanenemy,ordefensive,tohelpthedefenderevade anattacker'sweapons.Theycanalsobeneutral,wherebothopponentsstriveforanoffensive position,ordisengagementmaneuvers,tohelpfacilitateanescape. Superiorityinadogfightcandependonapilot'sexperienceandskill,andtheagilityofhis fighterwhenflownatmaximumspaceframespeedsapproachinglossofcontrol(causinga dangerofmoleculardestabilization);thewinnertypicallyplaystothestrengthsofhisown spacecraftwhileforcinghisadversarytoflyatadesigndisadvantage.Dogfightsaregenerally contestsfoughtatlowvelocities,whilemaintainingenoughenergyforviolentacrobatic maneuvering,aspilotsattempttoremainwithinairspeedswithamaximumturnrateand minimumturnradius:thesocalled"cornerspeed"thatoftendependsonthespacecraft's design.Thereforeadogfighthasnothingtodowithsuperluminalspeed,butmuchtodowith theenginepowerthatmakessuperluminalflightpossible.ThesupermaneuverableAegis DynamicsAvengercanstandonitssteerablethrustersatlessthan100knotsvelocity,yet quicklymaneuvertobringitsTigerstreikT21tobearonanearbyevasivetarget,whilean Origin325aismorelikelytouseitsthrusttomaintainitsrelativelyhighcornerspeed,working tocounterthedragcausedbytightturns.
Manyofthetacticsandstrategiesoutlinedinthishandbookaredesignedtobeappliedinplanetaryspace,wheregravitationalpull ofthenearestbodycanbeusedtoyouradvantage

 BASIC SHIP MANEUVERING OVERVIEW Basicshipmaneuvers(onceBasicFighterManeuvers)areactionsthatafighterspacecraft makesduringaircombatmaneuvering,historicallyknownasdogfighting. Basicshipmaneuversconsistoftacticalturns,rolls,andotheractionstogetbehindorabove anenemy,beforetheopponentcandothesame.BSMaretypicallyuniversalmaneuvers whichcanbeperformedinmostanyfighterspacecraft,andareusuallyconsideredtobe trainingmaneuvers.Trainingusuallybeginswithpilotsflyingthesametypeofspacecraft, pittingonlytheirskillsagainsteachother.Inadvancedtraining,pilotslearntoflyagainst opponentsindifferenttypesofspacecraft,sopilotsmustlearntocopewithdifferent technologicaladvantagesaswell,whichmoreresemblesrealcombat.Inactualspacecombat maneuvering,variationsofthesebasicmaneuversmaybecomenecessary,dependingonthe differenttypesofcraftinvolved,theweaponsystemseachsideisusing,andthenumberof craftinvolved. BSMareusedinthethreedimensionalarenaofspacecombat,wheremaneuversarenot limitedbysimpletwodimensionalturns,suchasduringaPTVrace.BFMnotonlyreliesona spacecraft'sthrusterperformance,butalsoonthepilot'sabilitytomaketradeoffsbetween velocityandrelativegforcetomaintainanenergylevelthatwillallowthefightertocontinue maneuveringefficiently,andthepilottosurvivetheharshstrainofzerogmaneuvers.BSM alsoreliesonthepilot'sunderstandingofthegeometryofpursuitwithinthethree dimensionalarena,wheredifferentanglesofapproachcancausedifferentratesofclosure. Thefighterpilotusestheseanglesnotonlytogetwithinarangewhereweaponscanbeused, butalsotoavoidovershooting,whichconsistseitherofflyingoutinfrontoftheopponent, calleda"winglineovershoot",orcrossingtheenemy'sflightvector,calleda"vector overshoot". Thefighterpilotwiththemostadvantageouspositionisusuallyaboveorbehindthe opponent,andiscommonlycalledtheattacker.Conversely,thepilotinthedisadvantageous positionisusuallyeitherbeloworaheadoftheopponent,andisreferredtoasthedefender. Mostmaneuversareoffensive,suchasthe"barrelrollattack","highYoYo","lowYoYo",and "lagroll".Defensivemaneuversmoreoftenconsistofturningorreversethrustingvery aggressivelytoavoidtheattacker'sguns,withmaneuverslikethe"break"andthe"highYoYo defense";sometimestighteningtheturn,sometimesrelaxingit,andothertimesreversingthe turn.Thedefenderwillusuallymaneuvertoforceanovershoot,ortoextendtherange enoughtodiveawayandescape.However,other"lastditch"maneuversareusedbythe defenderwhentheattackerachievesafiringsolution,orthedefenderrunsoutofenergy.

 BASIC SHIP MANEUVERING PRINCIPLES

SPECIFIC ENERGY
Energyisaprimaryfactorincontrollingandmaneuveringaspacecraft.Ifanattackerhastoo muchenergy,itmaybeeasytogetinrangebutdifficulttopreventanovershoot.Toolittle energyandtheattackermaynotbeabletogetinrangeatall.Ifthedefenderhasmoreenergy thantheattacker,anescapemaybepossible,buttoolittleenergyandthedefenderwilllose maneuverability. Inaviation,theterm"energy"doesnotrefertothefuelnorthethrustitproduces.Instead, thrustisreferredtoas"power."Energyisthestateofthefighter'smassatanygiventime,and istheresultofthepower.Energycomesintwoforms,whicharekineticandpotential.The combinedpotentialandkineticenergyiscalledthetotalenergy,or"energypackage." Generally,thefighterthatisabletomaintainahigherenergypackagewillhavetheadvantage. However,ahighenergypackagealonedoesnotimprovemaneuverability,becauseoptimum turnperformancetypicallyoccurswithinarangenearacertainspeed,calledthe"corner speed."Also,increasingthemassofthespacecraftwouldincreaseitsenergypackage, butcentrifugalforcewouldhampermaneuverability,causingtheheavierspacecrafttoturn widercircles.Instead,thefighter'susefulenergyiscalculatedbydividingitsenergypackageby itsweight,determiningitsspecificenergy(totalenergyperunitweight).Afighterwithless masswillgenerallybemoremaneuverablethanafighterwithmoremass,evenifenergy packagesareequal,becausethelightercrafthasmorespecificenergy."Specificpower,"on theotherhand,isthethrustdividedbyweight,andthefighter'sabilitytogenerateexcess specificpoweraidsthecraftinmaintainingitsspecificenergylongerwhenforcedtoturnatan energydepletingrate.Typically,thefighterwithhigherenergy(energyfighter)willmakean "energymove"likean"outofplanemaneuver,"tomaintaintheenergyadvantage,whilethe fighteratanenergydisadvantage(anglesfighter)willmakean"anglesmove"suchasabreak turn,tryingtousetheopponent'senergytotheirownadvantage.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Incombat,apilotisfacedwithavarietyoflimitingfactors.Somelimitationsareconstant,such asgravityofanearbybody,structuralintegrity,andthrusttoweightratio.Otherlimitations varywithspeedanddistancefromabody(DFB),suchasturnradius,turnrate,andthespecific energyofthecraft.ThefighterpilotusesBSMtoturntheselimitationsintotactical advantages.Afaster,heaviercraftmaynotbeabletoevadeamoremaneuverablecraftina turningbattle,butcanoftenchoosetobreakoffthefightandescapebydivingorusingits thrusttoprovideavelocityadvantage.Alighter,moremaneuverablecraftcannotusually

choosetoescape,butmustuseitssmallerturningradiusathigherspeedstoevadethe attacker'sguns,andtotrytocirclearoundbehindtheattacker. BSMareaconstantseriesoftradeoffsbetweentheselimitationstoconservethespecific energystateofthespacecraft.Evenifthereisnogreatdifferencebetweentheenergystates ofcombatingspacecraft,therewillbeassoonastheattackeracceleratestocatchupwiththe defender.However,potentialenergycaneasilybetradedforkineticenergy,soaspacecraft withaDFBadvantagecaneasilyturnthepotentialenergyintospeed,byusinggravityasa slingshot.Insteadofapplyingthrust,apilotmayusegravitytoprovideasuddenincreasein speed,bydiving,atacostinthepotentialenergythatwasstoredintheformofhisDFB. Similarly,byclimbingthepilotcanusegravitytoprovideadecreaseinspeed,conservingthe spacecraft'skineticenergybychangingitintoDFB.Thiscanhelpanattackertoprevent anovershoot,whilekeepingtheenergyavailableincaseonedoesoccur.

TURN PERFORMANCE
Bothturnrate,(degreespersecond),andturnradius,(diameteroftheturn),increasewith speed,untilthe"cornerspeed"isreached.Atthispoint,thegrowingturnradiusbeginsto decreasetheturnrate,sothespacecraftwillreachitsbestturnperformanceatitsparticular cornerspeed.Cornerspeedisdefinedastheminimumspeedatwhichthemaximum sustainablegforceloadcanbegenerated(theloadatwhichpowerequalsdrag),andvaries withthefighter'sstructuraldesign,weight(includingaddedweightfrommissiles,cargo,etc...), andthrustcapabilities.Itoftenfallsintheareaof22504000kn(25894603mph;4166 7407km/h).Themaximumsustainableloadthespacecraftcangeneratealsovaries,butis typicallybetween5to8g's.Atthecornerspeed,thefightercanattainitsmaximumturnrate, flyingthecraftjustattheedgeofthetoleranceofthepilotandhiscompressionsuitcan handle.Belowthisspeed,thespacecraftwillbelimitedtoflyingatlowerg's,resultingina decreaseinturnrate.Ifthepilotattemptsto"pull"moreg's,thespaceframemayhandlethe force,butthepilotmaybegintoexperiencemoleculardestabilization.Ontheotherhand,if thefighterisflownaboveitscornerspeeditwillbeabletopullhigherg's,butdoingsomay causethethrustercomtrolsystemtobecomeconfused,andresultinanuncontrolledspin. ThisistheThrusterOverloadSpeed(TOS).Turningabovecornerspeedwhileatthemaximum sustainableloadwillresultinanincreaseinturnradiuswhich,respectively,willcausea decreaseinturnrate. "Instantaneousturnrate"describesturnswhichareabovethemaximumsustainableload. Theseturnscanbeashighas9g'sbeforethepilotbeginstoloseconsciousness(GLOC).These turnscanhaveaverysmallturnradius,butcausealossinenergy,eitherintheformofspeed orDFB.Therefore,theseturnsareunsustainable,causingthefightertoexceedthecapability ofitsthrusters,sometimesreachingTOSspeedinaslittleasaquarterturn.Tosomedegree theenergylossmaybecompensatedforbyincreasingthrust,knownasapplying"excess specificpower,"butthiscannotfullymakeupforthelosses.Thisusuallyoccursduringhard

turnsorevenharder"breaks."Onlybyturningthespacecraftatitsbest"sustainedturnrate" canthespacecraftmaintainitsspecificenergy.However,situationsincombatmayrequirea changeinenergy,andenergymayalsobeincreasedbypullinglessthanthemaximum sustainedgforceload.

PURSUIT CURVES
SuccessfulBSMrequiresgeometryasmuchasitdoesskillandstamina.Pilotsmustknowtheir craft'scornerspeed,aswellasoptimumanglesofbank(AOB)andanglesofattack(AOA), withoutconsciously thinkingaboutthem.Atthe sametime,pilotsmust remainconsciousofthe anglebetweenthe opponent'svelocity vectorandtheirown,called thetrackcrossingangle (TCA),whichisimportant whenaligningoravoidinga firingsolution.Most importantly,thepilotmust remainawareoftheangle offtail(AOT),whichisthe Figure1 anglebetweenflight vectors.AhighAOTcauses ahighrateofclosure,butmakesachievingasuitablegunssolutionnearlyimpossible. AcquiringalowAOT,(gettingontheenemiestail),candecreaseorevenreverseclosurerate, andisusuallytheprimarygoalbeforeanovershootoccurs.However,anuncooperative defendermaytrytotakeadvantageofthehighclosureratebyturningtoincreaseAOT, forcinganovershoot.Notethesepursuitcurves(Figure1) TheAOTisoftenestimatedbythepositionoftheattackingship'snoseinrelationtothe defender.AOTaregenerallygroupedintothreecategories,called"pursuitcurves"."Lead pursuit"occurswhenthenoseoftheattackerpointsaheadofthedefender,while"pure pursuit"happenswhentheattacker'snosepointsdirectlyatthedefender.Iftheattacker's nosepointsbehindthedefender,theconditionisknownas"lagpursuit".

LEAD PURSUIT
Theprimarypurposeforleadpursuitistoprovideclosure,evenwhenchasingafaster opponent.ThehighAOTpresentedduringleadpursuitallowstheattackertoquicklydecrease theforward,lateral,andverticalseparationbetweenspacecraft,simplybytravelingashorter path.However,leadpursuitcausestheAOTtoincreaseatarapidrate.Thiscausestheclosure ratetoincreaseaswell,and,inanattempttopreventanovershoot,theattackerwillhaveto pullanincreasinglytighterturnuponnearingthedefender. Anattackerinleadpursuitiswellwithinthedefender'srearview.Unlessthedefenderhas enoughofaspeedadvantagetoescapebyrelaxingtheturnanddroppingintoashallowdive, thedefenderwilllikelyturnsharplyinanefforttoincreasetheAOT,forcingtheattackerto turnevenharder,toovershoot,ortoperformamaneuveroutofthehorizontalplaneto compensate. Leadpursuitisusedduringgunattacks,becausethefastmotionofcombatrequiresthatthe spacecraft'scannons/lasersbeaimedatapointinspaceaheadofthedefender,wherethe enemywillbewhentheboltsarrive.Thisiscalled"leadingthetarget".Leadpursuitpresents theattackerwithdifficultyinmaintainingsightoftheopponent,asthenoseoftheattacking craftbecomesanobstructiontothepilot'sview.Leaddistancemustbemodifiedbasedonthe typeofcannonyouhaveequippedonyourship.Differenttypesofordinancetravelat differentrates,thereforechangingtheangleofattackrequiredforasuccessfultargetlead.

NOTE: Lead pursuit is an extremely important concept to understand when manning a turret, unless it is fitted with automated deflection sights.

PURE PURSUIT
Likeleadpursuit,purepursuitisusedtoprovideclosure.However,closureisnotasrapid,nor istherateofincreaseinAOT.Thisisnotaseffectiveagainstafastermovingopponent,sothe attackermayneedtoacceleratetomaintainpurepursuit.Purepursuitisusedwhenacquiring amissilelock.Itbothplacestheattackerfurtheraftofthedefenderandpresentsthedefender withthesmallestamountofsurfaceareatosee.Thiscomplicatesevasiveaction,sinceonly thefrontoftheattackingspacecraftisinview.

LAG PURSUIT
Lagpursuitisusedtostoporreverse closurerateandtodecreaseAOT, whileallowingtheattackerto maintainorincreaseforward separation(alsocallednose/tail separation,ornosetotail).Following outsidethedefender'sturnradius, theattackercanmaintainorincrease energywhileforcingthedefenderto turnatanenergydepletingrate. "Hotside"lagoccurswhenthereisa Figure2 largeamountofforwardseparation betweenspacecraft,showingthetopsideofthedefendingfighter.(Figure2)Thisputsthe attackerinthedefender'srearview,andthecommondefenseistotightentheturn."Cold side"lagoccurswhenthereislittlenosetotailseparation,leavingthebellyofthedefending fighterinview.Thisputstheattackerinthedefender'sblindspot,andthecommondefenseis toreversetheturn.Unlessthedefenderismarkedlymoremaneuverable,andlateral separationisjustright,lagpursuitcannotbemaintainedforlong,causingtheAOTtodecrease untilasuitablefiringsolutionispresented.

OUT-OF-PLANE MANEUVERS
Maneuversarerarelyperformedinthestrictlyverticalorhorizontalplanes.Mostturns containsomedegreeof"pitch"or"slice."Duringaturninanobliqueplane,apitchturnoccurs whenthespacecraft'snosepointsawayfromthenearestbody,causinganincreaseinDFB.A sliceturnhappenswhenthenosepointstowardthenearestbody,causingadecreaseinDFB. Thepurposeisnotonlytomakethespacecraftharderforanenemytotrack,butalsoto increaseordecreasespeedwhilemaintainingenergy.Anoutofplanemaneuverenhances

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thiseffect,bydivertingthefighterintoanewplaneof travel.Increasingthepitchorslicecanquicklyprovide achangeinspeed,whichcanjustasquicklybe reversedbyreturningtotheoriginalplaneoftravel. (Figure3)Outofplanemaneuversarenotonlyused toprovideareductioninturnradius,butalsocauses thefightertoflyalongerpathinrelationtothe directionoftravel.AmaneuversuchasahighYoYois usedtoslowclosureandtobringthefighterintolag pursuit,whilealowYoYoisusedtoincreaseclosure andtobringthefighterintoleadpursuit. Duringanoutofplanemaneuver,theattacker'snose nolongerpointsatthedefender.Instead,thecraftis rolleduntilitsliftvector,(animaginarylinerunning verticallyfromthecenterofthespacecraft, perpendiculartoitswings),isalignedeitheraheadof, directlyat,orbehindthedefender,usingrollrateinsteadofturnratetosettheproperpursuit curve.Thecraft'svelocityvector,(animaginarylineinthedirectionofmotion)willbepulledin thedirectionoftheliftvector.

Figure3

DISPLACEMENT ROLLS

Ausefultypeofoutof planemaneuveremployed todecreaseAOTare variousbarrelrollscalled displacementrolls,inorder toshiftthespacecraft laterallyfromitsprojected flightpathontoanewflight path.(Figure4)By controllingtherollratethe pilotcancontrolthedegree ofdisplacement.An

Figure4

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attackerfollowingamoremaneuverableopponentmaybecomestuckinlagpursuit,(outside thedefender'sturnradius),unabletoachieveafiringsolution.Bydisplacingtheturn,thetwo spacecraft'sflightpathswilleventuallycross.TheAOTwillthendecreaseuntilthenoseofthe attacker'sspacecraftpointsmomentarilyatthedefender,andthenaheadofthedefender.A displacementrollisagoodtacticwheneverareductioninturnradiusisneeded,buta decreaseinturnrateisallowed.

POSITIONING
TherearethreebasicsituationsinaircombatmaneuveringrequiringBSMtoconverttoa favorableresult,whichareneutral,offensive,anddefensive.Mostrelativemaneuverscanbe groupedintooneofthesethreecategories.

NEUTRAL
Neutralpositionsgenerallyoccurwhenbothopponentsspoteachotheratthesametime. Neitherthepilotnortheopponenthavetheadvantageofsurprise.Neitherhastheabilityto pointthenoseoftheirspacecraftattheopponentwithsufficientrangetoemployforward firingordnance(missiles/guns/lasers)priortotheopponentpresentingathreatofasimilar manner.Eachisfocusedonconvertingtoanoffensivesituationwhileforcingtheiropponent intoadefensive.

OFFENSIVE
Anoffensivepositiongenerallyoccurswhenthepilotgetssightoftheopponentfirst.Withthe advantageofsurprise,thepilotcanmaneuverintoabetterpositiontoattacktheopponent, makingitmoredifficultfortheenemytoevadetheattack.Commontacticsincludeincreasing DFBandattemptingtoplacethefighterdirectlybetweenthesunandtheopponent.Thishelps putthepilotinadominantposition,primarilyconcernedwithprosecutingtheiradvantagefor akill. Anoffensivepositionisgenerallydefinedastheabilitytogetaboveorbehindtheenemy.The pilotisabletocreateanenergyadvantage,providingtheabilitytoswoopdownonthe opponentandspraytheareawithordinancewhileusingthespeedtoclimbbacktoasafe

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DFB.Theattackeralsohasanorientationrelatedadvantage,beingabletopresstheattack whileavoidingtheenemy'sweapons.

DEFENSIVE
Adefensivepositionusuallyoccurswhenthepilotspotstheattackerlate.Usuallybelowor aheadoftheopponent,thepilotisinaweakposition,primarilyconcernedwithdenyingashot totheopponentandconvertingtoaneutralposition.Thesecondarygoaliseithertoescapeor toachieveadominantposition.Iftheattackerisatanenergydisadvantage,thedefenderwill likelyusethespeedtodisengage,but,iftheattackerismovingmuchfaster,thedefenderwill usuallymaneuverinordertoforceadangerousovershoot.Adangerousovershoothappens whenanattackerfliesoutinfrontofthedefender,causingtheirrolestobereversed.
NOTE: In the unlikely event of being engaged by another fighter in deep (intersystem) space, your best bet is generally to make the jump to subluminal speed, as many of the tactics outlined in this handbook do not apply in deep space.

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 BASIC SHIP MANEUVERING CONCEPTS Onceanattackergetsbehindadefender,therearethreeproblemstosolveinorderto prosecutethekill.Theattackermustbeabletogetintothesamegeometricplaneasthe defender,getinrangewithoutovershooting,andbeabletoleadthetarget.Thedefenderwill usuallyturnaggressivelytospoiltheattacker'ssolution.

TURN CIRCLE
Spacecraftturnincircularmotions,followingacircumferencearoundacentralpoint.The circumferenceisoftenreferredtoasthe"bubble,"whilethecentralpointisoftencalledthe "post."Anychangeinthegforceloadonthecraftcausesachangeinthebubble'ssizeaswell asachangeinturnradius,movingthepostinrelationtothefighter.Becauseaspacecraft turningatitsmaximumloadcannotturnanytighter,anyspacecraftlocatedbetweensucha fighteranditspostismomentarilysafefromattack.Itisinthisareawhereanattackingfighter willusuallytrytopositionitself. Onceinsidethedefender'sbubble,theattackerwillbeinleadpursuitandmayhavean opportunityforalucky"snapshot"hit.Iftheattackercanmaneuverontothedefender'sflight pathbeforeanovershootoccurs,theattackerwillbeabletostoporreverseclosurerate.The mostdesirablepositionis,followingthedefender'sflightpath,adistanceequaltooneturn radiusbehindtheopponent.Thisposition,fromwhichtheattackerwillbeabletosafely maintaincommandofthefight,istermedthe"controlpoint."Thecontrolpointliesinthe heartofanimaginary,coneshapedarea,calledthe"controlzone,"anditiswithinthiszone thattheattackerwillhavebothsufficienttimeandrangetoreacttothedefender's countermeasures.

OVERSHOOTS
Duringadogfight,theterm"overshoot"referstosituationsinwhichtheattackereither crossestheenemy'sflightvectororpassesthedefender,endingupinfront. Passingthedefenderisreferredtoasa"winglineovershoot".Alsocalleda"39line overshoot"ora"dangerousovershoot,"thisoccurswhenanattackingspacecraftapproaches toofastandaccidentallycrossesthedefender'swingline,(animaginarylinepassingthrough thecenterofthespacecraftatthe3oclockand9oclockpositions).Awinglineovershootis usuallyreferredtoas"flyingoutinfront"andcauses"rolereversal,"puttingtheattackerin rangeofthedefender'sweapons,andtheattackersuddenlybecomesthedefender.

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Whentheattackercrossesthedefender'sflightpath,thesituationiscalleda"flightpath overshoot."Thishappenswhenanattackerfailstocontrolclosureandcrossesthedefender's flightpathfrombehind.Althoughnotnecessarilydangerous,itispossibleforaflightpath overshoottocausetheattackertoflyoutinfrontofthedefender.Moreoften,however,it greatlyreducestheattacker'sangularadvantageoverthedefender. Flightpathovershootsare dividedintotwocategories,called"controlzoneovershoots"and"incloseovershoots." A"controlzoneovershoot"occurswhentheattackercrossesthedefender'sflightpathfrom behindthefrontedgeofthecontrolzone.Afteracontrolzoneovershoot,thedefenderwill continueturninginthesamedirectiontoretaintheacquiredangularadvantage,tryingto preventtheattackerfromgettingagoodaim. An'"incloseovershoot"happenswhentheattackerovershootsthedefender'sflightpath aheadofthecontrolzone.Thisgivesthedefendertheopportunitytoreversetheturnand possiblytocauseawinglineovershoot,allowingthedefendertomoveinbehindtheattacker andreversetheirroles. CIRCLE FLOW Spacecraftcanturneithertowardsorawayfromeachother.Howtheopponentturnsin relationtotheotherdeterminestheflowofthefight.Iftwofightersmeetheadon,theywill usuallymakeaveryclose,neutralpass,calleda"merge".Afterthepass,bothfightersmay turntoengage.Ifthetwofightersturninthesamedirection,(i.e.:bothturntothenorth), theywillbetravelingtowardeachotheralongthesameturncircle.Thistypeofengagementis knownas"onecircleflow".Ifthespacecraftturninoppositedirections,(i.e.:oneturns sunwardbuttheotherturnsshadeward),theywillmoveawayfromeachother,flyingaround toengageeachotheronseparateturncircles.Thisiscalled"twocircleflow." Onecircleflowwillresultinanothermerge,unlessanangularadvantagecanbeobtained. Duringonecircleflow,thefighterwiththesmallerturnradiuswillhavetheadvantage.Pilots willoftenpitchupoutofplanewhileincreasingthrust,tohelpminimizeturnradius.Because itdoesnotreallymatterwherethetwofightersmeetinthecircle,turnrateisoflittle importanceduringonecircleflow.Therefore,itisoftencalledaradiusfight.Anoutofplane maneuver,suchasadisplacementroll,isaviableoptionforreducingturnradius. Twocircleflowwillalsoresultinanothermerge.Intwocircleflow,turnradiusisoflittle importance,becausewhatmattersiswhichfightercangetbacktothemergingplacefirst. Twocircleflowisaturnratefight,andtheangularadvantageusuallygoestothecraftwith thehigherturnrateatitscornerspeed.Pilotswilloftensliceturninordertomaximizetheir turnrate. Athirdoptioniscalledverticalflow,inwhichoneorbothfightersturntowardthevertical plane.Ifbothfightersgoupordown,thefightbecomesonecircleflow.Ifonefightergoesup

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ordown,whiletheotherturnshorizontally,itisreallyamodifiedversionofonecircleflow. However,ifonefightergoesupwhiletheothergoesdown,itbecomestwocircleflow. Inbothtypesofflow,theclosestpossiblemergeisdesirabletokeeptheenemyatanangular disadvantage.Althoughcircleflowisoftendescribedusingneutralmerges,theconcept appliesanytimetwospacecraftmaneuverinrelationtoeachotherandthenearestbody.For instance,the"flatscissors"isanexampleofonecircleflow,whilethe"rollingscissors"isan exampleoftwocircleflow.

Figure5

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 MANEUVERS

COMBAT SPREAD
The combat spread is the most basic of maneuvers used prior to engagement. A pair of attacking spacecraft will separate, often by a distance of one mile on the x-axis by 1500 feet on the y-axis. The fighter with the lower DFB becomes the defender, while the wingman flies above in "the perch" position. The defender will then attempt to lure their opponents into a good position to be attacked by the wingman.

DEFENSIVE SPLIT
A pair of fighters encountering one or two attackers will often use a defensive split. The maneuver consists of both defenders making turns in opposite directions, forcing the attackers to follow only one spacecraft. This allows the other defender to circle around, and maneuver behind the attackers.

BREAK
Spottinganattackerapproachingfrombehind,thedefenderwillusuallybreak.Themaneuver consistsofturningsharplyacrosstheattacker'sflightpath,toincreaseAOT(angleofftail).The defenderisexposedtotheattacker'sgunsforonlyabriefinstant(snapshot).Themaneuver workswellbecausetheslowermovingdefenderhasasmallerturnradiusandbiggerangular velocity,andatargetwithahighcrossingspeed(wherethebearingtothetargetischanging rapidly)isverydifficulttoshoot.Thiscanalsohelptoforcetheattackertoovershoot,which maynotbetruehadtheturnbeenmadeawayfromtheattacker'sflightpath.

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BARREL ROLL ATTACK

Thecountertoabreakisoftenadisplacementrollcalledabarrelrollattack.(Figure6)Abarrel rollconsistsofperformingarollandaloop,completingbothatthesametime.Theresultisa helicalrollaroundastraightflightpath.Thebarrelrollattackusesamuchtighterloopthan theroll,completingafullloopwhileonlyexecuting3/4ofaroll.

Figure6

Theresultisavirtual90degreeturn,usingallthreedimensions,inthedirectionoppositeof theroll.Rollingawayfromthedefender'sbreak,theattackercompletestherollwiththe spacecraft'snosepointedinthedirectionofthedefender'stravel.

HIGH-SIDE GUNS PASS

IftheattackerhasasignificantDFBadvantage,ahighsidegunspassisusuallyprudent. Sometimescalleda"swoop",plusavarietyofothernames,itconsistsofapowereddive towardtherearquarterofalowerflyingopponent.Shootingwiththecannonsinasingle, highspeedpass,theattackerusesexcesskineticenergytodisengagefromthefightinazoom climbbacktoasafeDFB,restoringthepotentialenergy.Thisallowstheattackertosetup anotherattackanddiveagain.Surpriseisoftenakeyelementinthistypeofattack,andthe attackerswilloftenhideinthesunorasteroidbelt,stalkingtheiropponentsuntilagood opportunityispresented.Ahighsidegunspassisaveryeffectivetacticagainstamore maneuverableopponent,wheretheturningbattleofadogfightisbestavoided.

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IMMELMANN
An Immelmann trades velocity for DFB during a 180 degree change in direction. The spacecraft performs the first half of a loop, and when completely inverted, rolls to the upright position. The Immelmann is a good offensive maneuver for setting up a highside guns pass against a lower DFB, slow moving opponent, going in an opposite direction. However, an Immelmann is a poor defensive maneuver, turning the defender into a slow moving target.

SPLIT-S
The opposite of an Immelmann is the Split-S. This maneuver consists of rolling inverted and pulling back on the stick, diving the spacecraft into a half loop, which changes the spacecraft's direction 180 degrees. The split-s is rarely a viable option in combat as it depletes kinetic energy in a turn and potential energy in a dive. It is most often used to set up a high-side guns pass against a lower but fast moving opponent that is traveling in the opposite direction. Also, the split-s is sometimes used as a disengagement tactic.

PITCHBACK
A pitchback, also called a Chandelle, is an Immelmann that is executed in some plane other than the vertical. Basically just a pitch turn, the fighter will be at some angle of bank before performing the half loop and roll. Unlike the Immelmann, a pitchback depletes less kinetic energy and is harder for an adversary to track.

WINGOVER
A wingover is a maneuver used to provide a fast, 180 degree turn with a very small turn radius. It consists of a quarter loop into a vertical climb, letting the speed fall as DFB increases, and then a flat-turn over the top, diving to complete a quarter loop at the original DFB, but going in the opposite direction. The wingover is similar to a stall turn, but the fighter does not actually stall, which makes the wingover more difficult for an enemy to track. Unlike an Immelmann or a split-s, the wingover also manages energy by conserving both velocity and DFB.

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LOW YO-YO
The low Yo-Yo is one of the most useful maneuvers, which sacrifices DFB for an instantaneous increase in speed.(Figure 7) This maneuver is accomplished by rolling with the nose low into the turn, and dropping into a steeper slice turn. By utilizing some energy that was stored in the vertical plane, the attacker can quickly decrease range and improve the angle of the attack, literally cutting the corner on the LowYoYo opponent's turn. The pilot then pulls back on the Figure7 stick, climbing back to the defender's height. This helps slow the spacecraft and prevents an overshoot, while placing the energy back into DFB. A defender spotting this maneuver may try to take advantage of the increase in AOT by tightening the turn in order to force an overshoot. The low Yo-Yo is often followed by a high Yo-Yo, to help prevent an overshoot, or several small low Yo-Yos can be used instead of one large maneuver.

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HIGH YO-YO

The high Yo-Yo is a very effective maneuver, and very difficult to counter.(Figure 8) The maneuver is used to slow the approach of a fast moving attacker while conserving the velocity energy. The maneuver is performed by reducing the Figure8 angle at which the spacecraft is banking during a turn, and pulling back on the stick, bringing the fighter up into a new plane of travel. The attacker then rolls into a steeper pitch turn, climbing above the defender. The trade-off between velocity and DFB provides the fighter with a burst of increased maneuverability. This allows the attacker to make a smaller turn, correcting an overshoot, and to pull in behind the defender. Then, by returning to the defenders plane, the attacker restores the lost speed while maintaining energy.

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LAG DISPLACEMENT ROLL

Alagdisplacementroll,also calleda"lagroll",isamaneuver usedtoreducetheangleofftail bybringingtheattackerfrom leadpursuittopure,orevenlag pursuit.(Figure9)Themaneuver isperformedbyrollingupand awayfromtheturn,then,when thespacecraft'sliftvectoris alignedwiththedefender, pullingbackonthestick, Figure9 bringingthefighterbackinto theturn.Thismaneuverhelps preventanovershootcausedbythehighAOTofleadpursuit,andcanalsobeusedtoincrease thedistancebetweenspacecraft.

HIGH YO-YO DEFENSE

To prevent an overshoot, an attacker in lead pursuit may need to correct with an outof-plane maneuver. If the lateral separation is excessively high, the attacker will probably use a displacement roll. However, if the lateral separation is low enough, the attacker will likely use a high Yo-Yo. The high Yo-Yo defense can be a good tactic in these situations. The maneuver is performed when the attacker rolls away from the turn to begin the correction. The defender will begin to relax the turn by easing off of the stick, called "unloading", which causes both turn radius and speed to increase, restoring the fighter's lost energy. If the defender maintains the same angle of bank, the subtle maneuver will be very difficult for the attacker to spot. When the attacker completes the out-of-plane maneuver, the defending fighter has regained some of its energy. This allows the defender to, once again, turn harder into the attack, regaining an angular advantage over the higher energy attacker. If the attacker is surprised by the maneuver, a high Yo-Yo defense might even cause an overshoot.

UNLOADED EXTENSION
An unloaded extension is a disengagement (bug out) maneuver often used by the pilot whenever there is enough energy and separation. The maneuver consists of slipping into a steep, straight dive and applying full thrust. Removing all g-force load from the

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spacecraft, and allowing it to be caught in the nearest bodys gravitational field causes it to accelerate at a very high rate, allowing the pilot to vastly increase range, or "extend", and possibly to escape. If a defender breaks suddenly, causing the attacker to overshoot, the defender may reverse the turn and move in behind the attacker. An unloaded extension is usually the attacker's best option, using the energy advantage to escape the slower moving defender. An unloaded extension is usually not recommended against a higher energy opponent. However, in many circumstances, such as when an attacker performs a high Yo-Yo too steeply, an unloaded extension is a viable option for the defender.

SCISSORS Thescissorsareaseriesofturnreversalsandflightpathovershootsintendedtoslowthe relativeforwardmotion(downrangetravel)ofthespacecraftinanattempttoeitherforcea dangerousovershoot,onthepartofthedefender,orpreventadangerousovershootonthe attacker'spart.Thedefender'sgoalistostayoutofphasewiththeattacker,tryingtoprevent agunssolution,whiletheattackertriestogetinphasewiththedefender.Theadvantage usuallygoestothemoremaneuverablespacecraft.Therearetwotypesofscissormaneuvers, calledflatscissorsandrollingscissors.

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FLAT SCISSORS

Figure10

Flat scissors, also called horizontal scissors, usually occur after a low speed overshoot in a horizontal direction.(Figure 10) The defender reverses the turn, attempting to force the attacker to fly out in front and to spoil aim. The attacker then reverses, trying to remain behind the defender, and the two spacecraft begin a weaving flight pattern.

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ROLLING SCISSORS

Figure11

Rollingscissors,alsocalledverticalscissors,tendtohappenafterahighspeedovershootfrom above.(Figure11)Thedefenderreversesintoaverticalclimbandintoabarrelrolloverthe top,forcingtheattackertoattempttofollow.Theadvantageliesinthespacecraftthatcan pullitsnosethroughthetoporbottomoftheturnfaster.Inbattleswithspacecraftthathave athrusttoweightratiooflessthanonethespacecraftwillquicklyloseDFB,anddisintegrating intothenearestbodysatmospherebecomesapossibility.AccordingtoauthorMikeSpick, "Disengagementfromaverticalrollingscissorsisbestmadewithasplitsandalotofhope."

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GUNS DEFENSE
Gunsdefensemaneuvering,or"gunsD",isthelastresortforadefenderthatfailsto outmaneuvertheattacker.GunsDisaseriesofrandomchangesinthedefendersflightpath, intendedtospoiltheattacker'saimbypresentingaconstantlyshiftingtarget,and,hopefully, tomaneuveroutoftheordinancestream(hose).Itconsistsofarbitraryspeed changes,yaws,skids,slips,pitchups,androlls,andisoftenreferredtoas"jinking."Because theattackermustaimaheadoftheopponent,theprimarygoalingunsDistodisorientthe attacker'saimbykeepingthenosepointedinadifferentdirectionthanthevelocityvector(the directionoftravel),andisveryeffectiveatpreventingtheattackerfromachievingasuitable gunssolution.However,gunsDmaneuveringstillleavesthedefendersusceptibletostray bulletsand"luckyshot"hits,anddoeslittletoimprovetherelativepositionalsituation.Thus, itisonlyemployedasalastditchdefensiveeffortwhennothingelseworks.

HIGH-G BARREL ROLL A high g barrel roll is a last-ditch defensive maneuver, performed when the attacker has achieved a suitable guns solution, in order to cause an overshoot.(Figure 12) The high g barrel roll is performed much more aggressively than a normal barrel roll. Range is critical to the success of the roll, and the defender will usually turn very hard, or employ other measures to draw the opponent very close before performing the roll. The roll is executed by applying hard backstick pressure, creating the high gforces, and adding hard rudder input to assist the ailerons in rolling the fighter. A high g barrel roll can be performed "over-the-top", or it can be performed "underneath", which is accomplished by rolling upside-down and beginning the maneuver from the inverted Figure12 position. The high g barrel roll is an energy-depleting maneuver that rarely causes the attacker to fly out in front, but usually will result in a flightpath overshoot, a flat scissors, or, at the very least, will temporarily disrupt the attacker's aim.

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DEFENSIVE SPIRAL

Figure13

A defender that fails to outmaneuver the attacker can quickly become "out of velocity and ideas". The defensive spiral is a maneuver used by the defender when the kinetic energy becomes depleted and other last-ditch maneuvers cannot successfully be implemented. The maneuver consists of dropping the nose low during the turn and going into a spiral dive, using gravity to supply the energy needed to continue evasive action. The defensive spiral becomes a rolling scissors performed straight down.(Figure 13) The defender's goal is to stay out of phase with the attacker until the ground is dangerously close. The advantage usually goes to the spacecraft that can decelerate quicker, and the defender will often cut the power and extend the speedbrakes in an effort to force an overshoot. If this attempt is unsuccessful, the defender will usually pull out of the dive at the last possible second, hoping to cause the attacker to crash into the ground.

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

DistancefromBodyAreplacementforaltitudewhenreferringtoplanetaryspacecombat. Thegravitationalfieldofanearbybodymaybeusedtoatacticaladvantage,andexploitedas potentialenergy. MolecularDestabilizationAnoccurrenceatincrediblyhighGforces,whichcausesthe individualmagneticfieldsatthemolecularleveltobegintolosestability.Thiscancausemany typesofphysicaldamage,includingdisintegration. SunwardTowardtheclosestsuninanygivenstarsystem. ShadewardAwayfromtheclosestsuninanygivenstarsystem.

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