Appendix 2

ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Introduction
The term analytical dynamics is usually confined to the discussion of systems of particles moving under the action of ideal workless constraints. The most important methods are Lagranges equations which are dealt with in Chapter 2 and Hamiltons principle which was discussed in Chapter 3. Both methods start by formulating the kinetic and potential energies of the system. In the Lagrange method the Lagrangian (kinetic energy less the potential energy) is operated on directly to produce a set of second-order differential equations of motion. Hamiltons principle seeks to find a stationary value of a time integral of the Lagrangian. Either method can be used to generate the other and both may be derived from the principle of virtual work and DAlemberts principle. Virtual work and DAlemberts principle are regarded as the hndamentals of analytical dynamics but there are many variations on this theme, two of which we have just mentioned. The main attraction of these two methods is that the Lagrangian is a function of position, velocity and time and does not involve acceleration. Another feature is that in certain circumstances (cyclic or ignorable co-ordinates) integrals of the equations are readily deduced. For some constrained systems, particularly those with non-holonomic constraints, the solution requires the use of Lagrange multipliers which may require some manipulation. In this case other methods may be advantageous. Even-if this is not the case the methods are of interest in their own right and help to develop a deeper understanding of dynamics.

Constraints and virtual work

Constraints are usually expressed as some form of kinematic relationship between co-ordinates and time. In the case of holonomic constraints the equations are of the form

$ (qit) = 0
l < i < m

(M. 1)

and 1 5 j 5 r . For non-holonomic constraints where the relationships between the differentials cannot be integrated we have

ajidqi + c,dt = 0

(M.2)

282 Appendix 2 Differentiating equation (A2.1) we obtain

which has the same form as equation (A2.2). In the above equations we have assumed that there are rn generalized co-ordinates and r equations of constraint. We have made use of the summation convention. For constraint equations of the form of (A2.1) it is theoretically possible to reduce the number of co-ordinates required to specify the system from rn to n = rn -r, where n is the number of degrees of freedom of the system. Dividing equation (A2.2)through by dt gives
a,,ql + e, = 0

and this may be differentiated with respect to time to give

aj,qj + ajiqi +

i, =

or
aJlql = b]

where b, = -(h,,q, + 4). and t. By definition a virtual displacement is any possible displacement which satisfies the constraints at a given instant of time (i.e. time is held fixed). Therefore fiom equation (A2.3) a virtual displacement 6q, will be any vector such that
=

(A2.5) Note that a, h, b and c may, in general, all be functions of q, q

W.6)

There is no reason why we should not replace the virtual displacements 6q, by virtual velocities v, provided that the velocities are consistent with the constraints. The principle of virtual work can then be called the principle of virtual velocities or even virtual power. DAlembert argued that the motion due to the impressed forces, less the motion which the masses would have acquired had they been free, would be produced by a set of forces which are in equilibrium. Motion here is taken to be momentum but the argument is equally valid if we use the change of momentum or the mass acceleration vectors. This difference in motion is just that due to the forces of constraint so we may say that the constraint forces have zero resultant. If we now restrict the constraints to ideal constraints (Le. frictionless or workless) then the virtual work done by the constraint forces will be zero. In mathematical terms the sum of the impressed force plus the constraint force gives
F: + F T = rnf, and the impressed force alone gives
F: = m,a,

W.7)

(A2.8)
(A2.9)
(A2.10)

Therefore the constraint force is

Ff = rn,(fL - a,)

Now the principle of virtual work states that

Appendix2 283
or
~ m , ( t, a,).tir, =

(A2.11)

or
C ( m , t , - ~:)-ti= r, o

(A2.12)

Gausss principle
A very interesting principle, also known as the principle of least constraint, was introduced by Gauss in 1829. Gauss himself stated that there is no new principle in the (classical) science of equilibrium or motion which cannot be deduced from the principle of virtual velocities and DAlemberts principle. However, he considered that his principle allowed the laws of nature to be seen from a different and advantageous point of view. a s s m,and Referring to Fig. A2.1 we see that point a is the position of particle i having m velocity v,. Point c is the position of the particle at a time At later. Point b is the position that the particle would have achieved under the action of the impressed forces only. Gauss asserted that the fbnction

G =~m,bc,

+2

(A2.13)

will always be a minimum. For the small time interval At we can write

+ = v,At + - 1 ab, A t 2F -2 2 m,
and
ac, + = v,At

(A2.14)

+ -1 At
2

2(::-L

E:)

(A2.15)

Therefore
bc, = ac,

-+

ab, = - A t 2

2F: m,

(A2.16)

Fig. A2.1

284 Appendix 2

so that

(A2.17) Now let y be another point on the path so it is clear that $ is a possible displacement consistent with the constraints. The new Gaussian function will be
(G

mibci a Ff

AG) = x m i ( b c i + CY,)

+ 2

(A2.18) (A2.19)

Because m&? is proportional to the force of constraint and is a virtual displacement the principle of virtual work dictates that the third term on the right will be zero. The first term on the right is simply G so we have that
AG = X m i c y i 2
+2

o
+
AG)

(A2.20)
3

Therefore Gauss concluded that, since the sum cannot be negative, then (G that G must always be a minimum. The Gaussian could also be written in the form

G, so

(A2.21) G = ~ m l ( F : l m , )= 2 ~ m , ( r, izJ2 from which it is apparent that the true set of constraint vectors or the true set of acceleration vectors are those which minimize G. It must be emphasized that the constraint forces are workless and as such act in a direction which is normal to the true path.

Gibbs-Appell equations
The Gibbs-Appell formulation is also based on acceleration and starts with the definition of the Gibbs function S for a system of n particles. This is

s = z -rn,al2 2
r=l

1=3n

(A2.22)

Clearly
(A2.23)

If the displacements are expressible in terms of m generalized co-ordinates in the form

x, = x,(ql

. . . qmt)
ax, + -ddt
J

(A2.24)

then, as in the treatment of Lagranges equations,

axi dx, = -dq
aqj

(A2.25)

at

and
xi = - q . aqj

&, . + ax, at
J

(A2.26)

Appendix2 285

We shall consider the differentials of the generalized co-ordinates to be the sum of two groups: the first group dq,(i from 1 to m-r), and the second group dyj ( j from m-r+l to m).The difference between the two groups is that dq can be integrated to give q whereas dy cannot be integrated. The velocities are expressed as q; and fi. The latter group is formed from quasi-velocities, so called because they satisfy the constraints but are not necessarily associated with any identifiable displacement. Quasi-velocities can be chosen in much the same way as generalized co-ordinates are chosen, that is they must satisfy the constraints. The number of quasi-velocities must be no smaller than the number of non-holonomic constraint equations but all velocities can be considered to be quasi and it is common practice to do so. The quasi-velocities can be expressed in terms of the generalized velocities as

= Ui,& + g, and for linear equations inversion gives

qi = v..y. + h; r/l
A,%. + B; = 0

y;

(A2.27) (A2.28) (A2.29)

Substituting this expression in equation (A2.5) leads to a constraint equation of the form and differentiating with respect to time gives
Ag$

+ (A,$ + B,)

=0

(A2.30) (A2.3 1) (A2.32) (A2.33)

Now from equation (A2.28)we have dq, = vr/dr, + h,dt Therefore a virtual displacement, for which time is held constant, is 6% = VIJ6Y. Similarly the constraint equation (A2.6) for virtual displacements becomes
A,6X = 0

If the Gibbs function is expressed in terms of the generalized co-ordinates then the usual generalized force Q is
Qi

a s =a4i

(A2.34)

The total virtual work done by the generalized forces is

6W = Q,Sqj = Qj(vi,6y,)= q 6 ~

(A2.35)

where r is the quasi-generalized force and is related to the usual generalized force by (A2.36) r; = QivU

Other methods
A further development has been proposed which is also based on acceleration. One form of

Gausss principle, equation (A2.2 I), gives

G = mi(fi - ai)*

(A2.37)

286 Appendix 2

so that

(G + AG) = m , ( f , - ai +
Thus AG = m ; ( 6 f i2)

Sf$

(A2.38)

(A2.39) Now from the constraint equation (A2.5) and changing to upper case to avoid confusion with other terms A,.?. r l , = Bi (A2.40)

+ 2mi(f; -

~;)*6i'~

so if Si'; satisfies the constraints then Ajj(i'; + 6 f i ) = B,

from which it follows that = 0 rl

(A2.41)
(A2.42)

Since any set of values for 6Yi which satisfy the constraints may be used it follows that in equation (A2.39)
m i ( f i - Uj).6Yi = 0 (A2.43) (A2.44)

The new method is expressed by a 'fundamental equation' which in matrix form is

( Y ) = (a) + [ M ] - " ~ ~ [ A ] [ M ] - " ~ ~ ~ { (B ) [A](a)}

where the superscript + signifiesthe pseudo-inverse or Moore-Penrose inverse; (i')is the actual column vector of accelerations and (a)is the column vector of the unconstrained system. The pseudo-inverse of any matrix [A], square or non-square, is such that it satisfies the following conditions
[AI[AI+[Al = [AI [Al+[AI[~I+= [AI' and [A][A]+ and [A]'[A] are both symmetric. We now write equations (A2.43), (A2.40) and (A2.42) in matrix form. Thus (6P)T[M]{(i') - ( a ) } = 0

(A2.45) (A2.46) (A2.47)

It is known that {[Xl[Yl}' = [ y I ' [ x ] ' , easily shown to be

and the pseudo-inverse of a column matrix (Y) is

(A2.48)

Therefore inverting equation (A2.47) gives

(GP)T[A]+ = (0) (A2.49) In order to show that the 'fundamental equation' satisfies both the constraint equation and the principle of virtual work it is convenient to express the acceleration vectors in a weighted form. The following definitions will be used

Appendix2

287

(A2.50)

(A2.5 1)

[ A ] = [A][M]-/2

Premultiplying equation (A2.45)by at (A2.53) = (a) + [A-I+{(B) - [AI(a)} We shall now demonstrate that this equation satisfies the constraint equation. Equation (A2.46) can be written as

(A2.52) and using the above weighted terms we arrive

(e)

[A][M]-[M](i.) = (B)

or

[A-Kt) =

(m
[A-I(a))

(A2.54)
(A2.55)

Thus substitution into (A2.53) followed by a slight rearrangement gives

((e) - (a)} = [Al+{[A_l(e) The pseudo-inverse is defined such that

Premultiplying both sides by [ A _ ] leads to

[4l{(t) - (a)> = [AI[AI+[AI{(L) - (a)} [AI[Al+[Al= [AI

(A2.56) (A2.57)

Therefore the constraint equation is satisfied. To show that the principle of virtual work is satisfied we premultiply equation (A2.55) by and rearrange it to give

( W T { ( E ) - (a)) = (6e)T[A1+{(B) - [AI(@))

(A2.58)

The left hand side is zero because of equation (A2.45) and the right hand side is zero because of equation (A2.49). Thus the equality is proved The fundamental equation therefore satisfies the constraints and basic equations of analytical dynamics. Any advantage that this method may have is that the constraint equation is not affected by whether the constraints are holonomic or not. The disadvantage is that the unconstrained accelerations have first to be determined. For systems involving only particles, such that the mass matrix is diagonal, the unconstrained accelerations are readily found and some advantage may be obtained.