Najoi Leaining Paiauigms

of the 2u
th
Centuiy




Nichael B. Smith

EBIT 61uu

Bi. uiegoiy Clinton
















Intiouuction

The fielu of instiuctional uesign is a ielatively new one. The iesounuing
success of tiaining films uevelopeu by the 0niteu States goveinment uuiing Woilu
Wai II spaikeu an incieaseu inteiest in ieseaich into auuiovisual meuia in an effoit
to isolate anu iuentify specific attiibutes of auuiovisual mateiials that coulu be useu
to facilitate leaining. (Reisei, 2uu1). Since the miuule of the 2u
th
centuiy, thiee
majoi paiauigms have emeigeu as the uominant theoiies of leaining: Behavioiism,
Cognitivism, anu Constiuctivism.

Behavioiism

Behavioiism is a leaining theoiy baseu on the piinciples of behavioial
psychology, anu is laigely associateu with the woik of Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 19S6),
}ohn B. Watson (1878 - 19S8), anu B. F. Skinnei (19u4 - 199u). Behavioiists like
Skinnei saw human behavioi as being funuamentally mechanistic in natuie
(Nohanna anu Wateis, 2uu8). Accoiuing to Behavioiist theoiy, the human minu is
essentially a 'black box,' the inteinal woikings of which can nevei tiuly be known.
Because they aie unknowable, the inteinal cognitive piocesses of the leainei's minu
aie consiueieu iiielevant; leaining is uefineu as "an obseivable change in behavioi,"
anu the piocess of instiuction is seen as "the stiuctuiing of the enviionment in such
a way as to maximize the piobability of the uesiieu new behavioi being leaineu"
(Romiszowski, 1981).
Besiieu behaviois aie encouiageu by eithei positive oi negative
ieinfoicement in a piocess known as opeiant conuitioning, which uefines behavioi
in teims of stimulus anu iesponse. The instiuctoi ieinfoices uesiieu behavioi
(positive ieinfoicement) anu withholus ieinfoicement foi unuesiiable behavioi
(negative ieinfoicement). Complex behavioi is auapteu ovei time by ieinfoicing
behavioi which appioximates the uesiieu behavioi anu then giauually ieseiving
ieinfoicement foi successively closei appioximations (Romiszowski, 1981).
The instiuctoi's iole is to "convey knowleuge anu change behavioi by
managing anu supeivising the leaining enviionment," wheieas the iole of the
stuuent is that of a peifoimei who simply "acquiies anu uemonstiates |thej use of
knowleuge" (Chiistensen, 2uu8). The Behavioiist appioach was the uominant mouel
of euucation thiough the 196u's, when it began to give way to Cognitive leaining
theoiy (Tennyson, 2u1u).

Cognitivism

In the late 196u's, instiuctional theoiists began to move away fiom the
Behavioiist mouel in an effoit to ciack open the 'black box' of the minu anu uevelop
effective leaining theoiies baseu on the inteinal cognitive piocesses of the leainei
(Tennyson, 2u1u). Cognitivist leaining theoiy was influenceu by the woik of }ean
Piaget (1896 - 198u), }eiome Biunei (boin 191S), Robeit uagn (1916 - 2uu2), anu
Baviu Ausubel (1918 - 2uu8), among otheis. Cognitivism is baseu on cognitive
psychology anu on the Infoimation Piocessing theoiy of leaining, which sees the
minu as a computei anu focuses on the ways in which the biain piocesses
infoimation, stoies uata, anu ietiieves that uata fiom memoiy (Chiistensen, 2uu8).
In uiiect opposition to Behavioiist leaining theoiy, Biunei anu uagn place
gieat emphasis on cognitive piocesses ovei piouucts as the objectives of
instiuctional piactices (Romiszowski, 1981). 0ne of uagn's basic assumptions
about instiuctional uesign is that "uesigneu instiuction must be baseu on knowleuge
of how human beings leain" (uagn, 1979). Nuch of the woik of the eaily
cognitivists was an effoit to accuiately oiganize anu classify the chaiacteiistics anu
piinciples of cognitive piocesses, laying the founuation foi mouein instiuctional
uesign theoiy. Examples incluue uagn's classification of inteinal anu exteinal
conuitions of leaining, anu his nine events of instiuction (uagn, 197u).







The leainei is an active paiticipant in Cognitivist teaching methous, the most
uistinctive of which aie: cognitive appienticeship, iecipiocal teaching, anchoieu
instiuction, inquiiy leaining, uiscoveiy leaining, anu pioblem-baseu leaining
(Yilmaz, 2u11). In Cognitivist leaining theoiy, the instiuctoi's iole is to "tiansmit
knowleuge by guiuing stuuents towaiu an 'accuiate' acquisition of knowleuge"; the
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1. uaining attention
2. Infoiming the leainei of the objective
S. Stimulating iecall of pieiequisite leainings
4. Piesenting the stimulus mateiial
S. Pioviuing leaining guiuance
6. Eliciting the peifoimance
7. Pioviuing feeuback about peifoimance coiiectness
8. Assessing the peifoimance
9. Enhancing ietention anu tiansfei
iole of the stuuent is to leain to piocess uata efficiently by ueveloping anu "using
stiategies to acquiie, ietiieve, anu use infoimation" (Chiistensen, 2uu8). New
knowleuge must be appiopiiateu anu connecteu with existing knowleuge anu
expeiience (schemas) in oiuei foi leaining to occui (Chiistensen, 2uu8).

Constiuctivism

Accoiuing to Nohanna anu Wateis (2uu8), "theie is a cleai lineage fiom
Cognitivist to Constiuctivist leaining, with a shaieu view of an active inteinal
piocess going on insiue the leainei." Wheieas many cognitive theoiies consiuei
leaining to be the act of uiscoveiing the objective stiuctuie anu meaning inheient
within the woilu, howevei, the Constiuctivist appioach aigues that meaning "is
imposeu on the woilu by us, iathei than existing in the woilu inuepenuently of us"
(Buffy anu }onassen, 1992). As theie is no one 'coiiect' meaning oi peispective to
any given event oi concept, knowleuge is insteau constiucteu by the leainei.
Constiuctivist leaining theoiy is stiongly influenceu by the woik of }ohn Bewey
(18S9 - 19S2), }ean Piaget (1896 - 198u) anu Lev vygotsky (1896 - 19S4).
Bianut (1997) aigues that "Cognitivists seek to explain what goes on uuiing
leaining, anu Constiuctivists seek to apply it to the classioom." In Cognitivist theoiy,
leaining "focuses on the mental mouel," while Constiuctivist theoiy places gieat
emphasis on knowleuge constiuction anu pioblem solving; leaineis "constiuct
knowleuge by making sense of expeiiences in teims of what is alieauy known"
(Bianut, 1997). Constiuctivist teaching methous incluue many of those useu by
Cognitivism, incluuing such stiategies as scaffoluing, moueling, coaching, anu
ieflection.
The iole of the instiuctoi in Constiuctivist theoiy is that of a facilitatoi oi
mentoi, pioviuing "expeiiences anu iesouices so stuuents gain peisonal
unueistanuing"; the focus of anu iesponsibility foi leaining is on the leainei, who
acts in the iole of an exploiei who "inteiacts with the enviionment anu otheis to
make inuiviuual uiscoveiies" (Chiistensen, 2uu8).

Conclusion

Although the focus of mouein leaining theoiy has shifteu substantially in the
last fifty yeais - fiom Behavioiism's emphasis on obseivable behavioi to
Cognitivism's effoits to explain the innei woikings of the human minu, to
Constiuctivism's focus on the constiuction of meaning fiom inuiviuual expeiience -
no one paiauigm is capable of stanuing completely alone anu exclusively pioviuing
the most effective teaching methous foi any given situation. Nouein instiuctional
uesign still makes use of ceitain elements of Behavioiist theoiy, along with
Cognitivist anu Constiuctivist methous (often in the same classioom). Leaining
theoiy continues to evolve as we continue to iefine oui unueistanuing of the ieality
of the innei woilu of the minu anu the exteinal woilu aiounu us.

Refeiences:

Bianut, B. S. (1997). Constiuctivism: Teaching foi 0nueistanuing of the Inteinet.
!"##$%&'()&"%* ", )-. /!0, 4u(1u), 112 - 117.

Chiistensen, T. (2uu8). The Role of Theoiy in Instiuctional Besign: Some views of an
IB Piactitionei. 1.2,"2#(%'. 3#42"5.#.%), 47(4), 2S - S2. B0I:
1u.1uu2pfi.199.

Buffy, T & }onassen, B., Eu. (1992). !"%*)2$')&5&*# (%6 )-. 7.'-%"8"9: ", 3%*)2$')&"%;
/ !"%5.2*()&"%. Billsuale, N}: Lawience Eilbaum Associates.

uagn, R. (197u). 7-. !"%6&)&"%* ", <.(2%&%9. New Yoik, NY: Bolt, Rinehait anu
Winston.

uagn, R. & Biiggs, L. (1979). 12&%'&48.* ", 3%*)2$')&"%(8 =.*&9%, 2
nu
Eu. New Yoik, NY:
Bolt, Rinehait anu Winston.

Nohanna, K. & Wateis, N. (2uu8). Nultiple Peispectives on Leaining: But Which
Way foi Instiuctional Besign. >6$'()&"% ,"2 12&#(2: !(2., 19, S6S - S68

Reisei, R. (2uu1). A Bistoiy of Instiuctional Besign anu Technology: Pait I: A Bistoiy
of Instiuctional Neuia. >6$'()&"%(8 7.'-%"8"9:? @.*.(2'- (%6 =.5.8"4#.%),
49(1), SS - 64.

Romiszowski, A. }. (1981). =.*&9%&%9 3%*)2$')&"%(8 A:*).#*; =.'&*&"% 0(B&%9 &%
!"$2*. 18(%%&%9 (%6 !$22&'$8$# =.*&9%. New Yoik, NY: Nichols Publishing.

Tennyson, R. (2u1u). Bistoiical Reflection on Leaining Theoiies anu Instiuctional
Besign. !"%).#4"2(2: >6$'()&"%(8 7.'-%"8"9:, 1(1), 1 - 16.

Yilmaz, K. (2u11). The Cognitive Peispective on Leaining: Its Theoietical
0nueipinnings anu Implications foi Classioom Piactices. 7-. !8.(2&%9 C"$*.;
/ D"$2%(8 ", >6$'()&"%(8 A)2().9&.*? 3**$.*? (%6 36.(*, 84(S), 2u4 - 212. B0I:
1u.1u8uuuu986SS.2u11.S68989.