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Ambrus: Alfred Adlers Individual Psychology


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AM88uS ZolLn:
A|fred Ad|er's Ind|v|dua| sycho|ogy - towards an |ntegrat|ve psychosoc|a|
foundat|on of the educat|on |n the 21
st
Century

1. Undes|rab|e effects of g|oba||zat|on and the cr|s|s of va|ues
nowadays we wlLness Lhe unprecedenLed expanslon of aggresslveness and crlmlnallLy, Lhe shocklng
spreadlng of devlaLlons from Lhe code of conducL, Lhe eLhnlcal and rellglous confllcLs. AL Lhe same Llme,
we are confronLed wlLh Lhe alarmlng decrease of Lhe quallLy of democracy, LogeLher wlLh Lhe exLenslon
of lndlvlduallsLlc and anarchlc behavlors.
under Lhe clrcumsLances of Lhe globallzaLlon and of Lhe rlslng plurallLy of values, Lhe value crlsls
manlfesLs lLself as a pollLlcal, soclal and moral crlsls, belng characLerlzed by a conLlnuous lncreaslng of
Lhe soclal Lenslon, Lhrough Lhe degradaLlon of Lhe values connecLed Lo famlly and communlLy llfe.
1he varlous culLural symbols, whlch have prevlously llnked people Lo cerLaln places, values and
communlLles, are belng conLlnually replaced ln Loday's world by Lhe unlversal symbols LhaL are belng
spread by dlfferenL mass medla. 1radlLlonal lnsLlLuLlons, such as: lamlly, School, and Church, have losL
Lhelr role of medlaLlng auLhenLlc values. 1hey have been replaced by publlc oplnlon whlch ls shaped by
de medla, whlch mosLly promoLes Lhe power of money, success and power as excluslve values (Ambrus
2003: 9).
Accordlng Lo 8lumenLhal (1991), we llve ln a dlscouraglng socleLy. 1hus, parenLs dlscourage Lhelr
chlldren ever slnce Lhelr flrsL flve or slx years. 1hen, golng Lo school, Lhe youLh are exposed Lo new
dlscouraglng experlences, whlch conLlnue up Lo a 'superlor level' ln Lhe hlgher educaLlon lnsLlLuLlons and
generally LhroughouL Lhe enLlre soclal llfe. We Lhlnk abouL Lhe oLher as a compeLlLor, a rlval or even an
enemy, lnsLead of percelvlng hlm as a force of equal value, wlLh Lhe same feellng of human dlgnlLy.
uue Lo dlscouragemenL and growlng reslgnaLlon, Lhe lndlvldual frequenLly experlences deep feellngs of
lnferlorlLy, showlng lncapaclLy and lncompeLence ln coplng wlLh real llfe lssues and adopLlng
counLerproducLlve ways of compensaLlon, maLerlallzed ln soclally undeslrable behavlors.
ulssoclal and anLl-soclal behavlors such as Lhe lncrease of vlolence, exLreme compeLlLlon and avldlLy,
sulclde, drug abuse, are unavoldable as long as socleLy does noL provlde lLs members wlLh Lhe
opporLunlLy Lo experlence Lhe feellng of belonglng Lo a communlLy, real soclal equallLy, respecL for
human dlgnlLy and emoLlonal warmLh.
As a consequence, Lhe essenLlal lssue ralsed wlLh exLreme acuLeness Loday ls relaLed Lo Lhe way ln whlch
globallzaLlon ls conducLed as an ob[ecLlve process due Lo Lhe Lechnlcal, Lechnologlcal and lnformaLlonal
developmenL and as a resulL of human acLlon. 1hls lssue also refers Lo how Lhe damaglng and
desLrucLlve effecLs of globallzaLlon can be prevenLed and excluded, how can be rendered more valuable
Lhe poslLlve effecLs whlch sLlmulaLe Lhe lmprovemenL of Lhe sLandard of llvlng and a beLLer and more
producLlve llvlng LogeLher as well, how Lhe managemenL of Lhese exLremely broad processes ls
conducLed, wheLher we wlll be able Lo succeed ln humanlzlng globallzaLlon.

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Moreover, a global duLy would be LhaL, Lhrough educaLlon and lnsLrucLlon, Lhe clLlzens Lo become more
able Lo cope wlLh Lhe greaL challenges of a conLlnually developlng world, knowlng Lhe facL LhaL learnlng
and pracLlclng Lhe democraLlc llvlng LogeLher and Lhe cooperaLlon beLween lndlvlduals and communlLles
ln a Lurope of clLlzens, communlLles and democraLlc values consLlLuLe Lhe uLmosL educaLlonal goal
(uelors 1996).
CloballzaLlon does noL necessarlly lmply Lhe culLural unlformlLy buL also Lhe creaLlon of conLexLs, whlch
favor Lhe respecL for dlfferences, Lhe plurallLy of values, and Lhe encouragemenL of solldarlLy, of an
eLhlcs of parLnershlp. lurLhermore, due Lo globallzaLlon, we are confronLed nowadays wlLh Lhe
consLlLuLlon of a worldwlde seL of values, of an lnLernaLlonal conLexL of soclallzaLlon lncludlng sysLems
of lndlrecL soclallzaLlon, such as organlzaLlons, socleLles, communlLles, lnformaLlonal sysLems. lL ls
assumable and posslble LhaL, Lhrough Lhe promoLlon of a worldwlde sysLem of deslrable values, Lhe
speclflc sysLems of values and culLures Lo become more open and muLually LoleranL and LhaL Lhe
Lenslons and confllcLs Lo be approached ln a dellberaLely democraLlc manner and from a global
perspecLlve (nagy 2000).
1he crlsls of values manlfesLed on mulLlple layers ln Lhe conLemporary world ls flrsL of all Lhe
consequence of Lhe severe malfuncLlons on Lhe socleLy level, characLerlzed by unllaLerallsm,
hyperLrophy or aLrophy of several values. 1hus, Lhe hyperLrophy of maLerlal consumpLlon and Lhe culL of
money reverberaLe negaLlvely on Lhe culLural values and Lhe splrlLual and emoLlonal relaLlonshlps. 1he
processes of globallzaLlon aLrophy Lhe values of speclflc culLures, desLroylng Lhe sysLems of dlrecL
soclallzaLlon represenLed by Lhe lnLerpersonal neLworks of connecLlon and belonglng, Lhe conLacL
groups and Lhe soclo-culLural envlronmenL (Ambrus 2004: 13).
1he values promoLlng soclal coheslon and democraLlc llvlng LogeLher are serlously quesLloned ln Lhe
8eporL for unLSCC elaboraLed by Lhe lnLernaLlonal CommlLLee for LducaLlon ln Lhe 21
sL
CenLury (1996).
1he creaLlon of rules of conducL 'on Lhe fly', Lhe moral relaLlvlLy and Lhe absence of a sLeadfasL eLhlcal
axls of values are domlnanL characLerlsLlc feaLures of Lhe conLemporary socleLy.

2. 1he deter|orat|on of soc|a| behav|or amongst youth and the necess|ty of the
educat|on for va|ues |n the trans|t|on per|od
lL ls more and more slgnaled ln Lhe lnLernaLlonal speclal llLeraLure Lhe deLerloraLlon of moral sLandards
and Lhe lncrease of undeslrable behavlors amongsL Lhe youLh, agalnsL Lhe background of a low level of
moral aLmosphere ln schools and of a cllmaLe of dlsagreemenL and lnLer-group confllcLs.
1he serlous maLLers of Lhe global socleLy are manlfesL mosL evldenLly ln Lhe behavlor of lLs own youLh
and ln Lhe quallLy of school culLure, marked Loday by an lncreaslngly promlnenL moral decllne and a
crash or 'a collapse of Lhe youLh's characLer', maLerlallzed ln Lhe lncrease of esLrangemenL, vlolence,
crlmlnallLy and fanaLlclsm, Lhe severe recesslon of personal and clvlc responslblllLy, Lhe augmenLaLlon of
self-desLrucLlve behavlor, Lhe nlhlllsLlc and anarchlsL re[ecLlon of moral and legal sLandards (8owe 1992,
Llckona 1996, SchulLz eL al. 2001).
Alongslde Lhe famlly and Lhe oLher soclal lnsLlLuLlons whlch have an lnLenLlonal funcLlon of soclallzaLlon,
school bears Lhe responslblllLy of Lhe moral danger ln whlch Lhe youLh are lnvolved and lL has Lhe duLy
Lo lnLervene Lo amelloraLe Lhese serlous phenomena whlch endanger boLh Lhe psychlc healLh of Lhe

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young generaLlon and Lhe whole process of democraLlc valorlzaLlon, glvlng suggesLlons and sLraLegles
leadlng Lo Lhe elevaLlon of Lhe moral values.
We belleve LhaL nowadays nelLher Lhe sponLaneous soclallzaLlon, nor Lhe lnLenLlonal personallzaLlon
does have an efflclenL conLrlbuLlon Lo Lhe approprlaLe developmenL of Lhe soclal and personal
compeLence of youLh. under Lhese complex clrcumsLances, each socleLy and each communlLy should
expllclLly declde whlch values lL wanLs Lo promoLe for Lhe formaLlon of lLs nexL generaLlon and ln whlch
aLmosphere lL wanLs Lo brlng up lLs youLhs (Ambrus 2004).
lollowlng Lhe crash of boLh Lhe hlerarchy of values and soclallzaLlon sysLems developed by Lhe
LoLallLarlan reglme, ln Lhe LranslLlon perlod Lhere has noL been yeL maLerlallzed a new seL of values
clearly expllclL and essenLlally democraLlc, on whlch vlLal soclal acLlons could be founded. 1he coheslve
sysLems of soclallzaLlon approprlaLe for Lhe new conLexL have noL been formed yeL, due Lo an unsLable,
uncerLaln, Lensloned and LranslenL cllmaLe, whlch ls lnadequaLe for poslLlve underLaklng ln Lhe
clrcumsLances of greaL LransformaLlon, crlses and convulslons on a global scale.
1he LranslLlonal socleLy needs a new orlenLaLlon of values based on humanlsL LradlLlons and on Lhe
democraLlc perspecLlves of reconslderlng Lhe seLs of values accordlng Lo Lhe democraLlc plurallsm,
whlch does noL 'Lrace' cerLaln dlrecLlons or glves 'unfalllng' soluLlons buL whlch encourages Lhe clLlzens
Lo declde Lhemselves on Lhe dlrecLlon Lo be followed by means of Lhelr own efforL, renderlng valuable
Lhelr capaclLy of creaLlon and Lhe power of Lhelr lmaglnaLlon ln Lhe conLexL of an eLhlcal debaLe whlch
has a llvely moral LargeL.
School's conLrlbuLlon Lo Lhe esLabllshmenL of Lhese LransformaLlons and reorganlzaLlons ln socleLy's
value orlenLaLlon ls self-evldenL and Lhe lnLerculLural paradlgm consLlLuLes a soluLlon for Lhe lnLegraLlve
approach Lo Lhe Lransfer of auLhenLlc values and Lhe formaLlon of absoluLely necessary ablllLles ln a
world of exLremely fasL changes (Cuco; 2000).
Alongslde Lhe Lransfer of baslc knowledge and a seL of democraLlc values, Lhe educaLlon for values
lnvolves, ln LranslLlonal clrcumsLances, Lhe formaLlon of several hablLs and ablllLles lnslde Lhe school
whlch can render Lhe feellng of a real llfe, en[oylng auLhenLlc happlness and Lhe [oy of llfe.
ln Lhe condlLlons of LranslLlon, a prlorlLy of our school ls consLlLuLed by Lhe foundaLlon of a democraLlc
school culLure whlch would encourage Lhe moral soclallzaLlon of sLudenLs and would evenLually lead Lo
Lhe formlng of auLonomy, of moral ldenLlLy, and Lo Lhe elaboraLlon of Lhe value compeLence wlLh
sLudenLs, maLerlallzed ln Lhelr responslble lnvolvemenL ln solvlng Lhe problems occurred ln Lhe school
and soclal llfe.
!
1he presenL paper sLarLs from Lhe premlse LhaL Lhe baslc prlnclples of Lhe Alfred Adler's lndlvldual
sychology, namely: communlLy feellng, soclal equallLy, compensaLlon, encouragemenL and search for
meanlng ln llfe developed 'on Lhe useful slde of llfe', can consLlLuLe Lhemselves lnLo a psychologlcal
foundaLlon whlch adds value Lo soclal Lhlnklng and educaLlonal pracLlce, provldlng valuable reference
polnLs ln coplng wlLh human lssues.
1he cenLral Lheme of Lhe presenL paper ls Adler's approach Lo communlLy feellng and human equallLy as
funcLlonal premlses for a democraLlc soclal llfe and for an educaLlon by means of encouragemenL. 1he
compensaLlon of lnferlorlLy feellngs and Lhe search for meanlng ln llfe are analyzed wlLhln Lhe conLexL of
llfesLyle, whlch represenLs an lnLegraLlve and value-llke Adlerlan concepL.

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1he Adlerlan psychology approaches human lssues from a soclal perspecLlve, slnce people's
fundamenLal moLlvaLlon ls of a soclal naLure, relylng on Lhe deep human need Lo belong Lo a group of
people, Lo human socleLy. ln Lhe Adlerlan concepLlon, a loL of conLemporary lssues, such as: dellnquenL
behavlor, sulclde, psychoses, vlolence or wars, are equally relaLed Lo Lhe facL LhaL people sLlll have
dlfflculLles ln accepLlng oLhers as a human belngs of equal value, a loL of Lhem experlenclng Lhe Lerrlbly
frusLraLlng feellng of noL belonglng Lo any human communlLy.
Adler's psychology ls deflned as a psychology of values or as a 'psychology for democracy', glven Lhe facL
LhaL lL promoLes auLhenLlc values whlch sLrengLhen human solldarlLy and sLlmulaLes Lhe lndlvldual's
creaLlve power for Lhe common well-belng. ConsequenLly, Lhe Adlerlan psychology provldes soluLlons Lo
a greaL varleLy of soclal-human lssues of Lhe conLemporary world, as well as real posslblllLles Lo lmprove
Lhe lndlvldual's lnner splrlLual llfe and menLal healLh, and Lo reesLabllsh democraLlc soclal llvlng (SLeln
2002: 222).
1herefore, Lhe maln lssue LhaL people have Lo cope wlLh Loday ls how Lo llve LogeLher on Lhe same
planeL, lnLegraLlng Lhe pasL conLrlbuLlons wlLh Lhe presenL efforLs ln order Lo lmprove Lhe human
condlLlon ln Lhe conLemporary world and Lo provlde a beLLer llfe Lo Lhe fuLure generaLlons.

3. A|fred Ad|er's Ind|v|dua| sycho|ogy - the psychosoc|a| bas|s for a democrat|c
soc|a| pract|ce and educat|on
Alfred Adler (1870-1937), an lllusLrlous represenLaLlve of Lhe vlenna school of psychoanalysls, ls known
as Lhe flrsL who, ln Lhe flelds of psychlaLry and psychology, drew aLLenLlon on Lhe declslve lmporLance of
soclal relaLlons ln Lhe lndlvldual's psycho-behavloral evoluLlon and menLal healLh, explalnlng
psychologlcal dlsorders by Lhe reallLles of soclal llfe, marked by exaggeraLed compeLlLlon and Lhe flghL
for superlorlLy.
AfLer almosL Len years of cooperaLlon, lreud and Adler spllL, Adler glvlng up Lhe presldency of Lhe
sychoanalyLlc SocleLy ln 1912, when he founded Lhe SocleLy of lndlvldual sychology.
1he concepL of 'lndlvldual sychology' (loJlvlJoolpsycboloqle, ln Cerman) can be mlsleadlng, slnce lL
does noL suggesL Lhe soclal foundlng of Lhe sysLem puL forward by Adler. lndlvldual sychology does noL
mean Lhe lndlvldual's psychology Laken ln lsolaLlon. Cn Lhe conLrary, lL ls by excellence a soclal
psychology whlch regards and undersLands Lhe lndlvldual wlLhln Lhe soclal conLexL ln whlch s/he llves
and develops. Alongslde Lhe lndlvldual's lssues, Lhe Adlerlan psychology conslders famlly, school
educaLlon, rellglon, [ob, as well as relaLlonshlps beLween soclal groups.
Adler underllnes Lhe lmporLance of formlng a cooperaLlon ablllLy beLween equal human belngs of Lhe
same soclal value, bellevlng LhaL 'ln solvlng all lssues relaLed Lo llfe and human exlsLence, Lhe ablllLy of
soclal cooperaLlon ls essenLlal, all lssues should be solved wlLhln Lhe sLrucLure of our human socleLy, so
LhaL we would always conslder manklnd's well-belng' (Adler 1938: 7).
ln Lhls respecL, educaLlon should prepare Lhe youLh for a deslrable soclal behavlor, for consLrucLlve and
producLlve relaLlonshlps wlLh llfe's lssues and challenges, so LhaL Lhe lndlvlduals would seek personal
slgnlflcance and self-achlevemenL 'on Lhe useful slde of llfe'. Accordlng Lo Adler, Lhe so-called lndlvldual
sychology ls lndeed soclal psychology (Adler 1969: 133).

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8y Lhe Lerm 'lndlvldual' Adler lnLended Lo emphaslze Lhe facL LhaL hls psychologlcal approach alms aL Lhe
psychology of Lhe unlque lo-JlvlJoos person, whlch cannoL be dlvlded beLween conLradlcLory
componenLs or forces, as ln Lhe lreudlan approach (lJ, eqo and sopeteqo) (uavldson 1991: 6).
ln Lhe 1930s, Adler promoLed hls concepLlons on Lhe occaslon of Lhe numerous vlslLs Lo Lhe Luropean
counLrles and Lo Lhe uSA, where he flnally seLLled and gave lecLures aL renowned unlverslLles. AfLer hls
deaLh whlch Look place ln 1937, many unlverslLles, Adlerlan psychology socleLles and lnsLlLuLes
developed Lhls psychologlcal movemenL whlch proved Lo be exLremely human and opLlmlsLlc.
1he Adlerlan psychology had a producLlve lnfluence upon Lhe developmenL of greaL fuLure psychologlcal
Lrends and Lheorles whlch lnclude Lhe Adlerlan prlnclples and ldeas ln Lhelr sclenLlflc sLrucLure, such as:
humanlsL psychology, ego psychology, Lhe Lheory of cognlLlve dlssonance, soclallzaLlon Lheory,
LransacLlonal analysls.
ln Lhe lnLellecLual cllmaLe of Lhe 1990s, followlng Lhe change of sclenLlflc paradlgm, Adler's orlglnal and
producLlve conLrlbuLlon Lo a beLLer undersLandlng of Lhe human belng and of hls/her relaLlons wlLh Lhe
world was redlscovered. Pe creaLed a wonderfully lnLegraLed and hollsLlc Lheory of human naLure and of
psycho-paLhology, a seL of psycho-LherapeuLlc prlnclples and Lechnlques, a vlslon of Lhe world and
human condlLlon, a phllosophy of llfe (SLeln-Ldwards 1998: 63).
1he value-llke lnLegraLlve characLerlsLlc of lndlvldual sychology also lles ln Lhe facL LhaL Adler's
prlnclples can be successfully applled Lo all domalns of soclal llfe and human relaLlons: famlly llfe, school
educaLlon, [ob, psychoLherapy, lnLernaLlonal relaLlonshlps.
Alfred Adler's psychology as a value-orlenLed psychology percelves Lhe human belng ln an opLlmlsLlc and
humanlsLlc manner, deemlng lL capable of cooperaLlon wlLhln an auLhenLlc soclal llvlng, of self-
lmprovemenL, self-developmenL and self-achlevemenL, as well as of effecLlve conLrlbuLlon Lo Lhe
common well-belng.
1he cenLral ldea of human naLure ln Adler's psychology ls represenLed by Lhe concepL of Lhe Soclal
Puman lnexLrlcably lnLerconnecLed wlLh oLhers and wlLh Lhe enLlre naLure (SLeln-Ldwards 1998).
Accordlng Lo Adler, personallLy ls shaped noL only by heredlLy and envlronmenL, buL also by Lhe
lndlvldual's capaclLy Lo lnLerpreL, lnfluence and creaLe Lhe evenLs of hls/her own llfe. ln oLher words, Lhe
lnherlLed poLenLlal wlLh whlch we were born ls less pracLlcally lmporLanL Lhan whaL we do wlLh lL, Lhan
how we explolL Lhls poLenLlal and our lnnaLe ablllLles. ln Lhls respecL, lndlvldual sychology consLlLuLes
lLself as a psychology of use and noL as a psychology of possesslon.
Accordlng Lo Adler, heredlLy and envlronmenL provlde only Lhe framework and Lhe lnfluences Lo whlch
Lhe lndlvldual responds wlLh hls/her creaLlve power, aL Lhe same Llme, resLrlcLlng Lhe lndlvldual's
capaclLy of cholce and creaLlvlLy (Ansbacher-Ansbacher 1993: 101).
ln accordance wlLh lreud's concepLlon, Adler belleves LhaL Lhe flrsL years have a declslve lnfluence on
personallLy developmenL, due Lo Lhe facL LhaL Lhe lndlvldual's percepLlon of hls/her own pasL and Lhe
lnLerpreLaLlon of hls/her early llfe evenLs ls concluslve.
As opposed Lo lreud, Adler conslders LhaL Lhe lndlvldual ls mosLly moLlvaLed by soclal reasons and less
by sexual conLenLs. Puman behavlor ls shaped by goals, havlng a Leleologlcal characLer, and Lhe cenLer
of personallLy lles ln Lhe consclous, noL ln Lhe unconsclous. 1he lndlvlduals chooses, decldes, Lakes
responslblllLy ln hls llfe developmenL, searchlng for Lhe llfe goal, makes efforLs Lo galn personal meanlng,
success and a superlor poslLlon ln llfe.

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1hroughouL hls/her llfe, Lhe lndlvldual ls faced wlLh alLernaLlves, Lhus explolLlng hls/her cognlLlve and
creaLlve capablllLles, and Lakes declslons as a free self-deLermlned agenL, ln accordance wlLh Lhe
personal goals lncluded ln hls/her llfesLyle.
1he Leleologlcal concepLlon of human behavlor dlffers essenLlally from Lhe bellef ln whlch behavlor ls
'caused' by cerLaln lnLernal or exLernal forces, as well as by rewards and punlshmenLs. 1hus,
undersLandlng Lhe causes of cerLaln behavlor ls less lmporLanL Lhan undersLandlng Lhe goal Lowards
whlch Lhe person acLs. 1he mosL lmporLanL goal for Lhe person as a soclal belng ls Lhe goal Lo belong.
ln Adler's percepLlon, Lhe consclous and Lhe unconsclous are ln Lhe servlce of human personallLy, belng
used ln Lhe search of personal goals.
Adler's personallLy Lheory ls fuLure-orlenLed, wlLhouL denylng or dlmlnlshlng Lhe lmporLance of pasL
experlences and lnfluences. 1he lndlvldual Lakes declslons accordlng Lo pasL experlences and Lo hls/her
presenL slLuaLlon and llfesLyle, chooslng and agreelng on whaL ls Lrue ln hls/her case, on hls/her
behavlor and lnLerpreLaLlon of evenLs. 1hls process does noL exclude dlsLorLlons and errors, belng
sub[ecLlve by excellence. ?eL, Lhe lndlvldual's soclal behavlor ls shaped by sysLemaLlc dlsLorLlons, a facL
proven by soclal psychology research.
lndlvldual sychology as sub[ecLlve psychology emphaslzes Lhe slgnlflcanL facLors of behavlor, such as:
values, bellefs, aLLlLudes, goals, lnLeresLs, reasons and Lhe lndlvldual's percepLlon of reallLy. 1hls
'sub[ecLlve reallLy' lncorporaLes Lhe lndlvldual's concluslons regardlng Lhe self, oLhers and llfe.
Adler's psychology approaches psycho-behavloral expresslons from a cognlLlve perspecLlve. 1hus, Lhe
lndlvldual's percepLlon of llfe and Lhe world ls more lmporLanL LhaL Lhe way Lhey are ln reallLy.
AnoLher fundamenLal hypoLhesls of lndlvldual sychology ls relaLed Lo Lhe lndlvlslble, unlque naLure of
personallLy, whlch can be undersLood and developed only as a compleLe hollsLlc enLlLy. 8eachlng
maLurlLy wlLh hls Lheory on human personallLy, Adler sLresses LhaL lL has become unlversally accepLed
LhaL all lndlvldual's behavlors are unlquely sLrucLured, LhaL Lhe lndlvldual as an enLlLy llves, dles and acLs
ln close connecLlon wlLh hls/her llfe's lssues (Adler 1964: 96).
Accordlng Lo Lhls prlnclple, Lhe lndlvldual acLs as an enLlLy ln whlch LhoughLs, feellngs, acLlons, dreams,
memorles and even physlologlcal sLaLes lead ln Lhe same dlrecLlon. ersonallLy ls a sysLem ln whlch Lhe
whole ls more and dlfferenL from Lhe sum of lLs consLlLuenLs. 1hls enLlLy represenLs Lhe lndlvlslble unlLy
of personallLy.
ln order Lo undersLand Lhe lndlvldual, Lo know hls/her personallLy, we have Lo sLudy lndlvlduallLy as a
whole, and noL ln lLs lsolaLed consLlLuenLs. ln Lhls bellef, cognlLlve acLlvlLy, emoLlonal sLaLes, aLLlLudes,
characLer, verbal and nonverbal behavlor are expresslons of Lhe unlque personallLy, whlch reflecL Lhe
lndlvldual's plan of llfe.
AnoLher aspecL of Lhe hollsLlc personallLy bellef, boLh ln soclal and professlonal pracLlce, ls Lo percelve
Lhe person as an lnLegraLed consLlLuenL of soclal llfe, emphaslzlng Lhe lnLer-personal relaLlonshlps more
Lhan Lhe lndlvldual's lnner psycho-dynamlcs.


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4. Character|st|c features of |nfer|or|ty fee||ngs and psychodynam|cs of
compensat|on
ln lndlvldual sychology, Lhe lnferlorlLy feellngs are generaLed by negaLlve psychodynamlcs,
represenLlng erroneous self-evaluaLlons and belng manlfesLed ln a low self-value, Lhe lndlvldual
experlenclng less or more lnLensely lmperfecLlon, weakness, deflclency, lncerLlLude, frusLraLlon.
lnferlorlLy feellngs are generally human, unlversal, occurrlng ln Lhe personallLy developmenL process and
can be percelved as normal, naLural, belonglng Lo human naLure. 1he blologlcal and soclal lnferlorlLy
feellngs can be defeaLed and even explolLed by Lhe lndlvldual lf s/he employs hls/her self-creaLlve
power, produclng culLure acLs durlng Lhe self-achlevemenL and adapLlng process. Accordlng Lo Adler,
our enLlre human culLure ls based on lnferlorlLy feellngs (Adler 1938: 33).
A serles of negaLlve feellngs occurrlng ln concreLe llfe slLuaLlons, such as anxleLy, sadness, despalr,
shame, fear, blocklng, dlsgusL, 'enrlch' our emoLlonal llfe and can become a conslderable force, able Lo
defeaL our own person and overcome llfe's hardshlps, sLlmulaLlng psychlcal developmenL.
1he lnLenslLy of Lhe lnferlorlLy feellngs depends on Lhe lndlvldual's lnLerpreLaLlon, on hls/her
lnLerpreLaLlon of hls/her self-value, as compared wlLh Lhe oLhers. As an unpleasanL experlence of
lmperfecLlon, Lhese feellngs are usually hldden, concealed by Lhe lndlvldual ln hls/her wlsh Lo avold
fallure and humlllaLlon.
Cvercomlng Lhe lnferlorlLy feellngs as a mlnus slLuaLlon by sLrlvlng for superlorlLy, LogeLher wlLh Lhe
endeavor Lowards a plus slLuaLlon, consLlLuLe naLural llfe componenLs, glvlng Lhe psychologlcal premlses
whlch are lndlspensable for human developmenL (Ansbacher-Ansbacher 1993: 117).
lrom Lhls opLlmlsLlc vlewpolnL, Lhe lnferlorlLy feellngs are noL abnormal or paLhologlcal ln Lhemselves.
lnsLead, Lhey represenL a challenge, a chance, even a propulslve force whlch moLlvaLes Lhe lndlvldual ln
Lhe dlrecLlon of producLlve self-achlevemenL.
8y way of conLrasL, lerguson (1999: 12) sLaLes LhaL Lhe lnferlorlLy feellngs can be a drlvlng force
moblllzlng a large varleLy of devlanL and anLl-soclal behavlor. 1hus, Lhe lndlvldual acLs agalnsL Lhe
communlLy or agalnsL hls/her own self.
urelkurs (1989: 23) draws aLLenLlon Lo Lhe facL LhaL nelLher Lhe absence noL Lhe presence of lnferlorlLy
feellngs can consLlLuLe a rellable lndlcaLor of Lhe lndlvldual's psychosoclal value. ln Lhls respecL, many
exLremely valuable people wlLh remarkable success suffer from deep lnferlorlLy feellngs, whereas many
menLally-dlsabled people or persons wlLh severe psychlcal dlsorders show no Lrace of lnferlorlLy
feellngs.
ln Adler's oplnlon Lhe lnferlorlLy feellngs are consldered 'erroneous feellngs' or even 'a pre[udlce agalnsL
our own self', whlch are born ln a relaLlonal envlronmenL LhaL promoLes Lhelr occurrence and
perpeLuaLlon, based on Lhe wrong self-evaluaLlon. 1herefore, Lhe common underesLlmaLlon of our own
self consLlLuLes boLh Lhe cause and Lhe consequence of lnferlorlLy feellngs, whlch can become more
lnLense and more comprehenslve (urelkurs 2000: 7).
ln a cllmaLe characLerlzed by cooperaLlon and lnLerpersonal equallLy, ln whlch compeLlLlon and verLlcal
amblLlon are reduced Lo Lhe deslrable llmlLs, lnferlorlLy feellngs would noL be lnevlLable. lnsLead, Lhe
need Lo belong, pro-soclallLy, Lhe developmenL of values and personal meanlng would Lake prlorlLy ln an
encouraglng psychosoclal conLexL (Ambrus 2003: 16).

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As far as Lhe orlgln of Lhe lnferlorlLy feellngs ls concerned, we should menLlon Lhe facL LhaL Lhelr
occurrence ls always preceded by a confronLaLlon, a comparlson beLween Lhe own self and Lhe
surroundlng people and ob[ecLs, flrsLly wlLh Lhe home's physlcal reallLy and wlLh Lhe oLher famlly
members, secondly wlLh all Lhe people we meeL LhroughouL our llves, and Lhen wlLh all earLhly reallLles
and Lhe lmmenslLy of Lhe unlverse.
1he lndlvldual who doubLs hls/her own values and forces always overesLlmaLes Lhe oLhers' capaclLles,
llfe's hardshlps and naLure's LhreaLs, glvlng Lhem lmaglnary, flcLlLlous feaLures and dlmenslons. 1hus, we
form an lnner world of meanlngs and undersLandlng, a sub[ecLlve psychologlcal reallLy and we acL more
accordlng Lo our convlcLlons and aLLlLudes and less ln conformlLy wlLh Lhe ob[ecLlve reallLy's daLa.
Moreover, whaL happens ln reallLy becomes less lmporLanL Lhan our percepLlon abouL lL.
urelkurs (1989: 20-21) dlsLlngulshes beLween Lhree maln Lypes of lnferlorlLy feellngs, whose creaLlve
employmenL have a ma[or lnfluence on Lhe progress of humanlLy. 1he flrsL Lwo Lypes of lnferlorlLy
feellngs concern humanlLy ln lLs enLlreLy, encouraglng people Lo creaLe and dlverslfy Lhelr culLure,
whereas Lhe Lhlrd Lype affecLs Lhe lndlvldual.
8lologlcal lnferlorlLy feellngs have lead Lo Lhe esLabllshmenL of human groups and Lo Lhe developmenL
of lnLellecLual capaclLles. As a consequence, man has become Lhe masLer of naLure, ln splLe of lnlLlally
belng lLs helpless vlcLlm. ln Llme, Lhe lndlvldual 'enrlched' wlLh Lhe cosmlc lnferlorlLy feellng,
acknowledglng hls/her humbleness ln Lhe unlverse and comlng Lo undersLand Lhe llmlLs of hls/her
earLhly llvlng by deaLh, hls/her lnevlLable dlsappearance. eople have searched for and found exLremely
valuable compensaLlons ln rellglon, phllosophy and arLs, almlng Lo eLernlLy and perfecLlon, Lo an alllance
wlLh Lhe supreme LranscendenLal belng.
1he feellng of soclal lnferlorlLy affecLs Lhe lndlvldual probably ln Lhe mosL palnful way, due Lo Lhe facL
LhaL lL drlves Lhe lndlvldual away from Lhe communlLy, Lurns hlm/her agalnsL oLhers, makes hlm/her
seek revenge for hls/her lnferlor poslLlon. 1hls Lype of lnferlorlLy feellng has negaLlve repercusslons on
Lhe developmenL of communlLy feellng and lmpllclLly on Lhe lndlvldual's menLal healLh, glven Lhe
promoLlon of compeLlLlon and superlorlLy - lnferlorlLy feellngs ln socleLy. 1hus, no one can develop
hls/her need Lo belong and personallLy lf s/he feels desplsed, re[ecLed, lefL aslde or pushed lnLo an
lnferlor poslLlon.
1he paLhologlcal form of lnferlorlLy feellngs ls represenLed by Lhe so-called lnferlorlLy complex whlch
means 'a dead end' Lo any psychologlcal developmenL lf lL ls llved sub[ecLlvely as a depresslng and
paralyzlng lnablllLy or lncapaclLy feellng. Pavlng Lhe deep convlcLlon LhaL s/he lacks any personal value,
Lhe lndlvldual no longer hldes hls/her deflclencles and lmperfecLlon. lnsLead, s/he openly proves Lhe
lnefflclency, lack or 'lllness', lsolaLlng hlm/herself from llfe's reallLles, from any common acLlvlLy and
lnLer-human relaLlonshlps.
Accordlng Lo Adler (1964: 96), Lhe lnferlorlLy complex, as a permanenL manlfesLaLlon of Lhe
consequences of lnferlorlLy feellngs, LogeLher wlLh Lhe lnslsLence on Lhls feellng, can be explalned by Lhe
greaL deflclencles ln soclal communlLy feellng. Whereas lnferlorlLy feellngs lead Lo dlfferenL forms of
compensaLlon, almlng Lo surmounL Lhese negaLlve emoLlons, Lhe lnferlorlLy complex represenLs a
passlve poslLlon, reslgnlng any efforL, Lhe lndlvldual's lsolaLlon lnLo a depresslve sLaLe, admlLLlng LoLal
defeaL.

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?eL, ln our oplnlon, Lhe lnferlorlLy complex ls noL a faLallLy, 'an lncurable dlsease'. Cn Lhe conLrary, lL can
be defeaLed lf Lhe lnferlorlLy feellngs whlch generaLe lL are producLlvely reshaped wlLhln a poslLlve
compensaLlng efforL, whlch would be encouraged sysLemaLlcally.
lnferlorlLy feellngs are a form of sLlmulaLlon for compensaLlon, as a sLrong ascendlng lmpulse, of
elevaLlon from an lnferlor poslLlon whlch ls dlsadvanLaglng, unfavorable or 'mlnus' Lo a superlor
poslLlon, more advanLageous, favorable, 'a plus'.
ln Lhls respecL, Lhe lndlvldual ln a poslLlon of lnferlorlLy percelves hls/her own self as dependenL, unable,
weak, lnferlor, helpless, lsolaLed, shy, anxlous, uncerLaln, lnapproprlaLe, dlsadvanLaged, doubLlng,
lmperfecL, unlmporLanL, value-less. 8y way of conLrasL, Lhe person ln a poslLlon of superlorlLy ls
lndependenL, sLrong, superlor, able, approprlaLe, compeLenL, self-assured, perfecL, lmporLanL, valuable,
courageous, deLermlned.
ln Lhls compensaLlng psychodynamlcs from 'mlnus' Lo 'plus', Lhe sub[ecLlve percepLlon of Lhe slLuaLlon
plays Lhe mosL lmporLanL parL. Sub[ecLlve percepLlon lnvolves approachlng Lhlngs, phenomena and
people from an lndlvldual polnL of vlew and from one's own framework, adopLlng one's own 'cognlLlve
map' of Lhe world (Mosak 1979: 47).
ln Lhls compensaLlng efforL, Lhe lndlvldual can reach useful, even excepLlonal achlevemenLs, by a
producLlve compensaLlon ln parLlcular domalns. lor lnsLance, courage and Laklng responslblllLy lead Lo
an efflclenL pro-soclal llfesLyle, characLerlzed by balance and menLal healLh.
1he compensaLlng efforL and Lhe sLrlvlng for superlorlLy characLerlzes all human belngs, belng presenL
boLh ln Lhe psychologlcal llfe of 'normal' healLhy people, and ln LhaL of Lhe dlsabled or menLally
dlsordered ones. Moreover, Lhls compensaLlng efforL Lakes place on Lhe physlcal level, as well as on Lhe
psychologlcal level, ln a hollsLlc unlLy whlch provldes self-efflclency and achlevemenL of lnner harmony
(8eecher-8eecher 1990: 226).
Adler sLaLes LhaL 'Lhe search for compensaLlng' lnferlorlLy feellngs can leave reallLy, evolvlng on 'Lhe
useless slde of llfe', ln Lhe world of flcLlon, ldeal lmages and unreal wlshes, leadlng Lo an lnefflclenL,
counLerproducLlve and neuroLlc llfesLyle (Ansbacher-Ansbacher 1993: 233).
CvercompensaLlon, whlch generaLes Lhe so-called complex of superlorlLy over people and envlronmenL,
ls manlfesLed ln Lhe paLhologlcal search for power, pursulL of lmaglnary success, falLh ln own supra-
human capaclLles, exLremely deflclenL communlLy feellng, cooperaLlon lncapaclLy, and devlanL behavlors
[usLlfled by prlvaLe loglc. Such manlfesLaLlons of overcompensaLlon are lncluded ln Lhe 'useless slde of
llfe', endangerlng boLh Lhe lndlvldual's menLal healLh and communlLy well-belng.
lnferlorlLy feellngs can be overcompensaLed on Lhe 'useful slde of llfe' as well, leadlng Lo ouLsLandlng
performance, acLs of culLure or sclenLlflc resulLs.
CvercompensaLlon ls a resulL of Lhe lnferlorlLy feellngs' sLlmulaLlng lnLermedlaLlon, whlch can follow an
exLremely complex rouLe. 1herefore, lnferlorlLy ln a cerLaln fleld ls overcompensaLed ln a compleLely
dlfferenL domaln, for example physlcal lnferlorlLy can be overcompensaLed by exLremely hlgh
lnLellecLual, sclenLlflc or arLlsLlc performance.
1he Adlerlan concepLlon relaLed Lo Lhe sLrlvlng for superlorlLy and personal slgnlflcance ls compaLlble
wlLh AllporL's growLh Lheory, wlLh Carl 8oger's developmenL drlve, wlLh WhlLe's compeLence Lheory,
wlLh Lhe Lheory of self-achlevemenL puL forward by A. Maslow and Lhe model of search for meanlng,
advanced by v.L. lrankl.

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S. 1he concept of commun|ty fee||ng and |ts re|evance to educat|on
ln Lhe anLhropologlcal concepLlon of Adler's Lheory, communlLy feellng (soclal feellng, soclal lnLeresL,
soclal sense or ln Cerman Cemeloscboftsqefobl) consLlLuLes Lhe focal polnL ln Lhe LheoreLlcal and
pracLlcal approach Lo human llfe, Lo menLal healLh and Lo Lhe democraLlc school pracLlce.
ln a hollsLlc undersLandlng, communlLy feellng ls no longer a mere feellng, buL lL becomes an evaluaLlve
aLLlLude Lo llfe and human exlsLence ln lLs enLlreLy, Lhe fundamenLal psychosoclal process Lhrough whlch
Lhe lndlvldual explolLs hls lnner forces and Lhus reaches self-achlevemenL.
CommunlLy feellng develops as a consequence of Lhe human belng's soclal need Lo belong Lo a soclal
communlLy whlch provldes hlm/her wlLh an ldenLlLy and hls/her quallLy of soclal belng. 1hls aLLlLude
lnvolves LhoughL processes, emoLlons and acLlon-llke behavlors relaLed Lo Lhe lndlvldual's poslLlon ln
communlLy and hls/her slgnlflcance ln llfe, glven Lhe facL LhaL every human belng possesses an lnnaLe
poLenLlal Lo develop Lhls aLLlLude 'for and wlLh Lhe communlLy' (lerguson 1999: 3).
Accordlng Lo urelkurs (1989: 9), Lhe communlLy feellng does noL have a flxed rlgld goal, lnsLead, lL alms
aL Lhe lndlvldual's aLLlLude Lo llfe, aL hls wlsh Lo cooperaLe wlLh oLhers and Lo conLrol llfe slLuaLlons.
lrom Lhe vlewpolnL of soclal compeLence, Lhe communlLy feellng represenLs Lhe expresslon of our
cooperaLlng and compromlse-based undersLandlng capaclLles.
1he lndlvldual acknowledges and experlences Lhe communlLy feellng aL cerLaln levels. ln Lhe flrsL place,
aL Lhe emoLlonal level, Lhe communlLy feellng ls expressed by Lhe deep need Lo belong Lo a communlLy.
1he lndlvldual ls able Lo empaLhlze wlLh oLhers and Lo accepL boLh Lhe pleasanL and Lhe unpleasanL
aspecLs of llfe. ln Lhe second place, aL Lhe cognlLlve level, Lhe lndlvldual can admlL Lhe necesslLy of
lnLerdependence wlLh Lhe oLhers, reallzlng LhaL lndlvldual well-belng wlll depend on Lhe common well-
belng. ln Lhe Lhlrd place, aL Lhe behavloral level, Lhese cognlLlve and emoLlonal consLlLuenLs Lurn lnLo
acLlons whlch alm aL self-developmenL and also aL cooperaLlon wlLh Lhe oLhers.
ln Adler's oplnlon, Lhere ls no fundamenLal confllcL beLween self and socleLy, beLween lndlvlduallLy and
soclal relaLlons, or beLween personal and soclal lnLeresL. Self-developmenL and Lhe developmenL of Lhe
soclal feellng poslLlvely lnfluence each oLher. 1hus, lf Lhe self-developmenL ls efflclenL, Lhe lndlvldual
succeeds ln esLabllshlng poslLlve relaLlonshlps wlLh oLhers. Moreover, lf Lhe ablllLy Lo esLabllsh
consLrucLlve lnLer-personal relaLlonshlps ls well developed, Lhe lndlvldual wlll be able Lo employ LhaL
experlence ln hls/her own developmenL (Culslnger-8laLL 1994: 104).
Cn Lhe conLrary, Lhe deflclency or lack ln communlLy feellng leads Lhe dlscouraged lndlvldual Lo Lhe
useless slde of llfe, adopLlng a counLerproducLlve and desLrucLlve llfesLyle.
As a consequence, lL can be sLaLed LhaL communlLy feellng represenLs a slgnlflcanL lndlcaLor of Lhe
lndlvldual's soclal adapLaLlon and menLal healLh, as well as a slgn of human llfe LogeLher and democracy
aL Lhe socleLal level. 1hus, a well developed communlLy feellng dlmlnlshes Lhe lndlvldual's level of
lnferlorlLy feellngs, allenaLlon and lsolaLlon. Cn a soclal level, Lhe communlLy feellng seLs Lhe framework
for a dlgnlfled llfe whlch ls worLh llvlng.
1hls complex feellng should become naLural, acLlng as a genulne corollary of llfe, prevenLlng and LreaLlng
palns and sufferlngs and leadlng humanlLy Lo a level on whlch communlLy feellng, solldarlLy and human
equlLy wlll no longer represenL quesLlons and doubLs buL dally llfe reallLles.

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Adler draws aLLenLlon Lo Lhe facL LhaL explolLlng Lhe lnnaLe poLenLlal of communlLy feellng requesLs
group processes whlch can asslsL Lhls developmenL, such as: cooperaLlon, muLual LrusL, respecL for
lndlvldual dlgnlLy, sharlng responslblllLles, Laklng common declslons as well as Lhe lndlvlduals' soclal
equallLy (Adler 1938: 10).

6. 1he soc|a| (|nterpersona|) equa||ty - pre-cond|t|on of democrat|c atmosphere
and cooperat|on |n schoo|
Achlevlng human soclal equallLy represenLs a slne qua non premlse of assurlng Lhe acLlve characLerlsLlc
of communlLy feellng, and of democraLlc llvlng LogeLher. Accordlng Lo urelkurs (2000. xlll.) funcLlonal
lnLerpersonal equallLy means LhaL each and every lndlvldual ls enLlLled Lo declde on hls/her own acLlons,
on self-deLermlnaLlon. Soclal equallLy does noL lmply Lhe unlformlLy of human belngs, on Lhe conLrary, lL
recognlzes Lhe facL LhaL people are unlque lndlvlduallLles, wlLh an unmlsLaken and lnflnlLe lnner worLh,
havlng Lhe same unlversal rlghL Lo be LreaLed wlLh respecL and dlgnlLy.
ln Adler's oplnlon, 'equallLy ls Lhe lron-clad loglc of soclal llvlng', whlch blesses Lhose who follow lL and
punlshes Lhose who flghL lL or lgnore lL. eople wlll develop Lhelr cooperaLlon capaclLy and communlLy
feellng only lf Lhey acknowledge Lhe facL LhaL desplLe exlsLlng lndlvldual dlfferences, Lhey are noL
essenLlally dlfferenL from Lhe oLhers, havlng an equal value on a soclal level as equal human belngs, wlLh
Lhe same fundamenLal need Lo belong (urelkurs 1989: 3).
Soclal llvlng and educaLlon assumes Lhe exlsLence of lnLerpersonal relaLlonshlps based on Lhe prlnclple
of human equallLy and muLual respecL, as a solld psychosoclal foundaLlon whlch lmproves Lhe human
condlLlon ln a world of anxleLy, fear and dlscouragemenL.
luncLlonal soclal equallLy allows Lhe lndlvldual Lo acL as a free agenL, responslble for hls/her own deeds
and for Lhe soclal sphere ln whlch s/he acLs, no longer belng a dependanL or a vlcLlm, buL Lhe compeLenL
shaper of hls/her own desLlny.
SLlll, ln soclal pracLlce, Lhe soclal equallLy prlnclple and Lhe soclally equlvalenL sLaLus are rarely
recognlzed and applled, owlng Lo Lhe lndlvldual's fear Lo reach an lnferlor poslLlon ln Lhls way. 1hus, Lhe
fear of geLLlng an lnferlor value prevenLs Lhe lndlvldual from admlLLlng LhaL oLhers have Lhe same value,
Lrylng lnsLead Lo prove hls/her superlorlLy over Lhem.
lndlvldual sychology approaches Lhe equallLy of people from an axlologlcal and psychosoclal vlewpolnL,
Lhe concepL of equallLy galnlng slgnlflcance only ln a soclal conLexL. An auLhenLlc experlenclng of equal
value of oLher human belngs, whlch represenLs Lhe pracLlcal achlevemenL of soclal equallLy, ls lmpeded
by Lwo ma[or obsLacles LhaL acL ln close lnLerdependence, namely soclal lnferlorlLy feellng and a
compeLlLlve cllmaLe. ln order Lo compensaLe an overwhelmlng feellng of soclal lnferlorlLy, Lhe lndlvldual
frequenLly chooses compeLlLlon. Wlshlng Lo achleve Lhe deslred soclal sLaLus, s/he wlll aLLempL Lo
become superlor by domlnaLlon.
ln Lhe conLemporary world whlch promoLes a sysLem based on compeLlLlon and soclal domlnance, many
people experlence soclal lnferlorlLy feellngs, noL belng acqualnLed wlLh Lhe democraLlc pracLlce of soclal
equallLy. Llvlng Lhe soclal lnferlorlLy, LogeLher wlLh a low level of self-esLeem, prevenL Lhe lndlvldual
from parLlclpaLlng ln communlLy llfe and from maklng a conLrlbuLlon Lo lLs well-belng (Ambrus 2009: 49).

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Applylng Lhe human equallLy prlnclple and LreaLlng all human belngs as havlng an equal and lnflnlLe
lnner value remaln challenges Lo all socleLles LhaL wanL Lo become auLhenLlcally democraLlc, ln splLe of
Lhe lnexlsLence of a real soclal equallLy-based socleLy.
1hls conLrlbuLlon ls carrled ouL by encouraglng Lhe appllcaLlon of Lhe soclal equallLy prlnclple Lo dlfferenL
spheres of soclal llfe, such as: marrlage, famlly educaLlon, school educaLlon, [ob and psychoLherapeuLlc
processes. All Lhese psycho-soclal conLexLs can consLlLuLe 'laboraLorles of soclal equallLy' ln whlch Lhe
domlnanL lnLeracLlve paLLern would be cooperaLlon, provldlng LhoughL and acLlon-llke experlences
relylng on a common seL of values and prlnclples and avoldlng superlorlLy - lnferlorlLy or domlnaLlon
relaLlonshlps.
1he developmenL of Lhe soclal equallLy feellng and Lhe cooperaLlon capaclLy represenLs an essenLlal
condlLlon for an effecLlve psycho-hyglene and psycho-prophylaxls, resLralnlng sLress, neuroLlc sLaLes and
devlanL behavlors by psychlcal unblocklng, encouraglng pro-soclallLy and lmpedlng cerLaln desLrucLlve
feellngs, such as: haLred, envy, secLarlanlsm, fundamenLallsm and fanaLlclsm.

7. Lncourag|ng the pro-soc|a| ||festy|e |n schoo| educat|on
Accordlng Lo Adler (1969), llfesLyle represenLs Lhe lndlvldual's personal way of percelvlng, undersLandlng
and coplng wlLh llfe's lssues, of achlevlng hls/her personal alms by speclflc behavlors. ln hls deflnlLlon,
llfesLyle consLlLuLes Lhe lndlvldual's 'sLyle of acLlon, Lhlnklng and percepLlon', characLerlsLlc for hls/her
own self.
Accordlng Lo Mosak (1971: 77), llfesLyle represenLs 'Lhe cognlLlve map' whlch helps Lhe lndlvldual Lo
adopL Lhe speclflc operaLlons whlch enable hlm Lo cope wlLh llfe Lasks. 1hls cognlLlve framework ls made
up by a seL of concepLs and bellefs relaLed Lo our self and Lo Lhe world ln whlch we llve, belng a speclflc
lndlspuLable modus vlvendl.
ln Schulman's (1973: 24) lnLerpreLaLlon, llfesLyle lllusLraLes Lhe lndlvldual's 'golden rule', noL a mere
collecLlon of rules, buL Lhe organlzlng of all Lhe rules ln a cognlLlve behavloral paLLern or plan.
AcLually, llfesLyle consLlLuLes a means Lo defeaL lnferlorlLy feellngs, and, aL Lhe same Llme, Lhe
lndlvldual's llfe sLraLegy ln hls/her search for personal meanlng. LlfesLyle cannoL be separaLed or
deLached from Lhe person, slnce lL expresses Lhe psychologlcal unlLy, almlng aL Lhe lndlvlslble
personallLy (Lombardl 1973: 62).
LlfesLyle, as a LoLal llfe aLLlLude, ls used by people Lo fllLer Lhe lnpuLs and Lhe speclflc answerlng
reacLlons, Lo lnLerpreL Lhe surroundlng world, Lo draw concluslons and Lo make declslons relaLed Lo our
own self and llfe. As a dynamlc consLrucL conslsLenL wlLh Lhe self, llfesLyle represenLs an omnlpresenL
psychologlcal reallLy, whlch lnLegraLes Lhe consclous and Lhe unconsclous, Lhe verbal and Lhe non-
verbal, Lhe cognlLlve, emoLlonal and behavloral processes.
LlfesLyle shapes lLself ln early chlldhood unLll Lhe age of 6 or 7, buL lL sLays funcLlonal LhroughouL
adulLhood, lnfluenclng Lhe lndlvldual's way of acLlon and hls/her relaLlonshlps. LlfesLyle becomes flxed
aL Lhe adulL age, belng conslsLenL wlLh Lhe self and very reslsLanL Lo change. SLlll, slgnlflcanL changes ln a
deslrable dlrecLlon can be achleved, encouraglng Lhe search for consLrucLlve goals LhaL are ln
accordance wlLh Lhe exlsLlng reallLles of llfesLyle.

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ln llfesLyle's psychodynamlcs, Lhe manner ln whlch characLerlsLlc lnferlorlLy feellngs can be compensaLed
ls essenLlal, whereas Lhelr presence or absence ls less lmporLanL. 8lologlcal or soclal lnferlorlLy feellngs
can be defeaLed, compensaLed elLher ln a poslLlve dlrecLlon, on Lhe useful slde of llfe or ln a negaLlve
dlrecLlon, on Lhe useless slde of llfe.
lf Lhe lndlvldual LrusLs hls/her own values and forces and also Lakes courage Lowards llfe's lssues, Lhe
poslLlve compensaLlon leads Lo a consLrucLlve, producLlve and healLhy llfesLyle. 1hls llfesLyle ls
characLerlzed by a hlgh level of communlLy feellng and also by Lhe lndlvldual's susLalned efforLs Lo self-
developmenL and self-lmprovemenL.
8y way of conLrasL, lf dlscouragemenL and lack of LrusL ln one's self and llfe are lnLense, Lhe
compensaLlon of lnferlorlLy feellngs wlll follow a negaLlve dynamlcs. lL wlll resulL ln a counLerproducLlve,
lnefflclenL, unhealLhy, neuroLlc llfesLyle characLerlzed by a low level of communlLy feellng, dlssoclal
aLLlLudes, dlssaLlsfacLlon and exaggeraLed self-proLecLlon (Ambrus 2009: 34).
1he lndlvldual ls free Lo choose Lhe dlrecLlon ln whlch Lhe compensaLlng efforL and Lhe llfesLyle's soclal
orlenLaLlon wlll develop. 1hus, Lhe power Lo choose Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe compensaLlng process and Lhe
llfesLyle esLabllshmenL represenL a sLrong lnner force whlch Lhe lndlvldual can employ ln order Lo
achleve peace and lnLernal harmony and lead a happy and producLlve llfe.
ro-soclal llfesLyle developmenL assumes Lhe culLlvaLlon of communlLy feellng, whlch makes posslble
Lhe successful solvlng of ma[or llfe lssues. ln Lhe clrcumsLances of approprlaLe menLal healLh, accordlng
Lo Adler (1938: 239), Lhe human ls confronLed wlLh Lhree maln llfe Lasks, namely: work and vocaLlon,
socleLy and frlendshlps, sex and love.
urelkurs and Mosak have exLended Lhls seL of ma[or llfe Lasks wlLh Lwo addlLlonal Lasks, namely geLLlng
along wlLh oneself and flndlng a meanlng ln llfe, ln oLher words a relaLlonshlp wlLh Lhe unlverse, wlLh Lhe
LranscendenLal, as a Lask whlch ls splrlLual by excellence (Shulman-urelkurs 1978: 133).
1he lndlvldual wlLh an egocenLrlc llfesLyle Lhlnks ln superlorlLy - lnferlorlLy Lerms, acLs lmpulslvely and
furlously, llves ln Lhe pasL, searches for causes, excuses and preLexLs, and adopLs a pesslmlsLlc aLLlLude.
8y way of conLrasL, Lhe pro-soclal llfesLyle ls characLerlzed by a hlgh level of communlLy feellng, llvlng ln
Lhe presenL and fuLure orlenLaLlon. 1he lndlvldual who has adopLed Lhls llfesLyle has seL and followed
producLlve personal goals, llvlng ln harmony wlLh oLhers, belng capable of lovlng Lhem as human belngs
of equal value and refuslng Lhelr undeslrable acLlons.
Moreover, Lhe pro-soclal person who ls splrlLually developed acLs wlLh Lhe purpose of helplng oLhers
and becomes more and more capable of good deeds, maklng fewer mlsLakes. ln hls/her efforL, Lhls
person becomes lncreaslngly beLLer, s/he belleves ln llfe, ln oLhers, ln socleLy and also ln Lhe own self,
achlevlng lnner freedom and more obvlous splrlLual developmenL.


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8. I|na| cons|derat|ons
Alfred Adler's lndlvldual sychology, as an lnLegraLlve-hollsLlc soclal psychology, provldes valuable and
acLlon-llke landmarks whlch prove Lo be exLremely useful ln lmprovemenL of Lhe human condlLlon,
under Lhe clrcumsLances of Lhe conLemporary world whlch ls severely affecLed by Lhe globallzaLlon
processes and by communlcaLlon crlsls.
Adler's ldeas have had a producLlve lnfluence on Lhe developmenL of subsequenL psychologlcal Lheorles,
anLlclpaLlng a psychosoclal perspecLlve on undersLandlng human naLure and behavlor. Lven nowadays,
Lhey poslLlvely affecL Lhe preoccupaLlons whlch alm Lo lmprove Lhe lndlvldual's menLal healLh and soclal
lnLegraLlon.
1he concepL of a soclal human belng lnLerconnecLed wlLh oLhers, wlLh Lhe enLlre naLure adds an
lnLegraLlve prlnclple Lo soclal Lhlnklng and educaLlonal pracLlce, whlch ls able Lo lmprove Lhe efflclency
of Lhls approach, by promoLlng a hollsLlc perspecLlve on llfe and human lssues.
1he opLlmlsm and fuLure orlenLaLlon of Adler's Lheory, Lhe explolLaLlon of Lhe lndlvldual's creaLlve force
and Lhe compensaLlon of lnferlorlLy feellngs 'on Lhe useful slde of llfe' creaLe a psychologlcal framework
whlch encourages Lhe developmenL of democraLlc and pro-soclal personallLy sLrucLures.
1ogeLher wlLh Lhe fundamenLal human needs Lo belong and soclal equallLy, Lhe concepL of communlLy
feellng represenLs Lhe connecLlon beLween Adler's anLhropologlcal concepLlon and educaLlon,
approachlng human lssues wlLhln Lhe framework of an lnLegraLlve perspecLlve.
As a value-llke approach Lo human naLure whlch ls exLremely anchored ln llfe's psychosoclal reallLles,
Adler's psychology lndlcaLes from an encouraglng perspecLlve Lhe value landmarks Lowards an ldeal
socleLy, characLerlzed by communlLy feellng, human solldarlLy, soclal equallLy and a hlgh splrlLual level.
1he sysLemaLlc developmenL and employmenL of communlLy feellng and soclal cooperaLlon ln dally llfe,
as well as Lhe lmplemenLaLlon ln school pracLlce of Lhe lnLerpersonal equallLy democraLlc prlnclple
consLlLuLes a challenge for Lhe conLemporary world. lurLhermore, Lhe conslsLenL respecL for human
dlgnlLy whlch relles on admlLLlng Lhe equal and lnflnlLe value of all human belngs requlres common
efforLs based on an auLhenLlcally humanlsLlc seL of values.
ln Lhls respecL, employlng Lhe lndlvldual's hldden human poLenLlal and encouraglng hls/her creaLlve
force, ln cooperaLlon wlLh oLher human belngs, are exLremely necessary, wlLh Lhe purpose Lo provlde
Lhe lndlvldual's lnner harmony and a democraLlc soclal llfe of all human belngs.


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