1

CE5107 Pile Foundation

Department of Civil Engineering
National University of Singapore
Pile Driving Analysis &
Dynamic Pile Testing
Y K Chow
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One-Dimensional Wave Propagation in Pile
Equilibrium equation (compression as positive)
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ =
c
c
dx
x
P
P P
t
u
m
2
2
dx
x
P
t
u
Adx
c
c
=
c
c

2
2
A P o =
x
u
c
c
= c
= density of pile material
A = cross-sectional area of pile
For a one-dimensional rod Axial strain is given by
or
where
(2)
(1)
(3)
13
Axial stress-strain relationship
x
u
E E
c
c
= c = o
Hence from Eqns

(1) to (4)
2
2
2
2
x
u
EA
t
u
A
c
c
=
c
c

2
2
2
2
2
x
u
c
t
u
c
c
=
c
c

=
E
c
Eqn

(5) is generally known as the one-dimensional wave equation. c

is the celerity

or speed of sound in the material, or is simply referred
to as the wave speed.
For constant E and A, this gives
2
2
2
2
x
u
E
t
u
c
c
=
c
c

or
where
(4)
(5)
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Typical wave speeds:
2 6 6
/ 10 40 10 30 m kN to E =
3
/ 4 . 2 m t =
s m to c / 4000 3500 ~
2 6
/ 10 207 m kN E =
3
/ 83 . 7 m t =
s m c / 5100 ~
Time taken to travel from pile head to pile toe and back to the pile head:
c
L
t
2
=
Concrete pile :
s t 01 . 0
4000
20 2
=

= s t 0078 . 0
5100
20 2
=

=
Concrete :
Steel :
Where L = pile length
For example, take L = 20 m
Steel pile :
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General solution to 1-D wave equation
f
1
(x-ct) = wave propagating in (+)ve

x-direction (forward / downward)
) ( ) (
'
2
'
1
ct x f ct x f
x
u
+ + =
c
c
( ) ( ) ct x f ct x f u + + =
2 1
f
2
(x+ct)= wave propagating in (-)ve

x-direction (backward / upward)
Proof:
) ( ) (
' '
2
' '
1
2
2
ct x f ct x f
x
u
+ + =
c
c
) ( ) (
'
2
'
1
ct x cf ct x cf
t
u
+ + =
c
c
) ( ) (
"
2
2 "
1
2
2
2
ct x f c ct x f c
t
u
+ + =
c
c
Substitute Eqn

(7) into Eqn

(5),
- (6)
- (7)
| | ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
"
2
"
1
2 "
2
2 "
1
2
ct x f ct x f c ct x f c ct x f c + + = + +
The expressions are identical

on both sides of the equation, hence
satisfying the wave equation
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( ) ct x f u =
1
( ) ( ) | | t t c x x f u A + A + =
1
Consider a forward / downward propagating wave at a given time, t
At time t+At , the wave has moved a distance Ax
But Ax = cAt
Hence u = f
1
(x-ct) , i.e. wave shape remains unchanged, the wave has merely
advanced a distance Ax = cAt
Solutions for velocity and stress :
( ) ( ) ct x h ct x f E
x
u
E = =
c
c
= o
1
'
1 ) ( ) (
1
'
1
ct x g ct x cf
t
u
v = =
c
c
=
Obviously, v and

also propagate with velocity c and do not change in shape in the
absence of material damping
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Solution of 1-D Wave Equation
2
2
2
2
2
t
u
x
u
c
c
c
=
c
c
( ) ( ) | + + + = ) ( ,
2 1
ct x f ct x f t x u
ct x y y f ct x f Let = = ); ( ) (
1 1
Wave equation :
General solution :
'
f
y
f
; c
t
y
;
x
y
1
1
1 =
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
ct x z z f ct x f Let + = = + ); ( ) (
2 2
'
2
2
; ; 1 f
z
f
c
t
z
x
z
=
c
c
+ =
c
c
=
c
c
'
2
'
1
: f f
x
u
Strain =
c
c
= c
'
2
'
1
: cf cf
t
u
v velocity Particle + =
c
c
=
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
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No upward propagating wave, i.e. f
2

(x+ct) = 0
+ c = = c
'
1
f
+ = = v cf v
'
1
c
v v
+ =
+ c
+
=
c
No downward propagating wave, i.e. f
1

(x-ct) = 0
| c = = c
'
2
f
| = + = v cf v
'
2
c
v v
=
| c
|
=
c
(5)
(6)
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Downward wave

: F = EA

= -

EA f
1

Z
c
EA
v
F
= = + :
Upward wave

: F = EA

= -

EA f
2

Z
c
EA
v
F
= = | :
where Z = pile impedance
(7)
(8)
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Assuming the pile material remains elastic, the net force and net
velocity at any location at a given time can be obtained by
superposition of the downward and upward waves:
F = F

+ F

(9)
v = v

+ v

(10)
From Eqns

(7) and (8)
F

= Z v
F

= -

Zv

(11)
By combining Eqns

(9)

(11), we can separate the downward
wave from the upward wave if we know the total (net) force and
velocity at a particular point along the pile
2 2
Zv F
F
Zv F
F

|=
+
+=
2 2
v z F
v
v z F
v

|=
+
+=
(12)
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Boundary Conditions
The following boundary conditions are considered:
(i) free end
(ii) fixed end
Stress free boundary condition, i.e. net force
at b, F
b
= 0
0 |= + + = F F F
b
+ |= F F
A downward propagating compressive wave
is reflected at the free end as an upward
propagating tensile wave.
Implications:
Tensile stresses will develop during easy driving (e.g. in soft clay)

potential
problems for concrete piles and at the joints if splicing is poor. Solution:
Control drop height of hammer.
or
Free end
(iii) impedance change
(iv) external soil resistance
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Force at b,
+ |= + + = F F F F
b
2
A downward propagating compressive wave is reflected at the fixed end as an
upward compressive wave. At the fixed end, the compressive stress is doubled.
Implications:
Potential problems with toe damage when driving piles into very hard stratum
(rock), particularly when overburden soil is soft.
Boundary condition, v
b
= 0
0 |= + + = v v v
b
+ |= v v
Z
F
Z
F +
=
|

+ |= F F
or
Fixed end
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r i t
F F F + =
c
EA
Z =
Impedance
r i t
v v v + =
Let subscripts
i denote incident wave
r denote reflected wave
t denote transmitted wave
Impedance change
At interface b, the net force and net
velocity is given by the superposition
of the incident and reflected wave
F
b

= F
i

+ F
r
v
b

= v
i

+ v
r

(18)
This is equal to the transmitted force and velocity:
(19)
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Relationship between transmitted and reflected waves with the
incident wave:
r i t
v v v + =
1 1 2
Z
F
Z
F
Z
F
r i t
=
( )
r i t
F F
Z
Z
F or =
1
2
Let

= Z
2

/Z
1

, then F
t

=

( F
i

F
r

)
From Eq

(19),

F
r

= F
t

F
i
Hence, F
t

=

[ F
i

(F
t

F
i

) ]
or

(

+ 1)F
t

= 2

F
i
i t
F F
1
2
+ |
|
= (20)
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|
|
.
|

\
|

+ |
|
= = 1
1
2
i i t r
F F F F
i r
F F
1
1
+ |
|
=
Then,
or
(21)
Hence, from Eqn

(20),
i t
v Z v Z
1 2
1
2
+ |
|
=
i t
v v
1
2
+ |
=
or
(22)
Similarly from Eqn

(21)
i r
v Z v Z
1 1
1
1
+ |
|
=
i r
v v
| +
|
=
1
1
(23)
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Notes :
If an incident wave meets a section with a smaller impedance (| <
1) , the reflected velocity wave is of the same sign

as the incident
wave.
If an incident wave meets a section with a larger impedance (| >
1) , the reflected velocity wave is of the opposite sign

as the
incident wave.
The characteristic of the reflected wave and transmitted wave is

entirely a function of the ratio of the impedance of the 2 sections.
The analysis for pile with a change of impedance is useful for :
(a) interpretation of pile integrity
(b) selection of pile follower/dolly
1.
4.
3.
2.
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t r i b
F R F F F + = + =
At the interface b, the net force and net
velocity is given by
t r i b
v v v v = + =
External Soil Resistance
Consider now the effect of an external soil
resistance (R) on the wave propagating in
the pile. The soil resistance is usually in the
form: R = ku

+ cv
(24)
(25)
From Eqns

(25) & (11),
Z
F
Z
F
Z
F
t r i
=
t r i
F F F = or (26)
From Eqns

(24) & (26)
2
) (
R
F or F F R F F
r r i r i
= + = + (27)
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From Eqn

(26)
2
R
F F
i t
=
(28)
The effect of an external soil resistance (R) on the propagating wave is to create a
reflected wave of the same type as R with magnitude R/2 and a transmitted wave
(due to soil resistance) of opposite type as R, also with magnitude R/2.
From the relationship between force and velocity [Eqn

(11)]
Z
R
Z
F
v
r
r
2
= =
(29)
Note that this reflected velocity has a similar effect compared to when an incident
wave meets a section with an increase in impedance ( see Eqn

(23) with

> 1 )
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The objective of the low strain test is to provide an
assessment of the integrity of the pile, i.e. whether
there are any changes in sectional properties along
the pile.
Low Strain Test

Pile Integrity Test
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Intact Pile
Defective
Pile
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Data Analyser
2 inch diameter
test hammer
Accelerometer
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View showing the full hammer
View showing the impact
surface of hammer
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cracks in pile
pile joints (driven piles)
changes in pile section
high skin friction
overlapping reinforcements (heavily reinforced piles)
Early reflections in integrity tests may be caused by:
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Limitations :
Advantages :
Many piles can be tested in a day at low cost
No pre-selection of piles required
Minimal preparation required

mainly trimming of pile head
Major defects can be easily detected
No information on bearing capacity of pile
Minor defects may not be easy to detect

Cannot estimate pile length for long piles

low energy hammer
impact gets damped out
Debris at pile toe not easily detectable
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One-dimensional wave equation model with soil resistance:
Wave Equation Model
( ) t P
x
u
EA u k
t
u
c
t
u
A
s s
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

2
2
2
2
pile
inertia
soil
damping
soil
stiffness
pile
stiffness
Conceptually, the soil is represented as a spring and dashpot.
The inclusion of the soil increases the complexity of the problem. Hence, the
above equation is generally solved using numerical methods:
finite difference method
finite element method
method of characteristics
Modelling

of the pile is relatively straight forward. The main difficulty is
modelling

the soil behaviour.
Note: More sophisticated 3-D wave equation model (Chow, 1982) is available
that can simulate the pile and soil (especially) in a more rational manner but
commercially 1-D wave equation computer program continues to be used
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Typical quake

value,

Q
u
( ) Jv R R
D
+ = 1
Soil Models
) 5 . 2 ( 1 . 0 mm in Q
u
=
Soil resistance during driving
( ) mm to in to Q
u
10 5 . 2 4 . 0 1 . 0 =
Typical damping coefficient,
(a) Smith (1960) Model
Shaft :
Toe :
Soil type J
shaft
J
toe
Clay
Sand
0.656
0.164
0.033
0.492
( ) m s J /
Parameters to define curve:
R
u

= max static resistance of soil spring
Q
u

= quake

value

limiting elastic displacement
J = damping coefficient
R = static soil resistance
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(b) Lee et al. (1988) Model
s s
G k 75 . 2 =
s s s
G r c t =
0
2
Shaft (per unit length of pile shaft) :
Pile toe :
s
s
t
v
r G
k

=
1
4
0
s
s s
t
v
G r
c

=
1
4 . 3
2
0
Developed at the National University of Singapore. Theory based on
vibrating pile in an elastic continuum.
where
G
s
= soil shear modulus

s
= soil density
v
s
= soil Poissons ratio
r
0
= pile radius
The expressions above have physical representations (stiffness and radiation
damping) and are characterized by parameters that can be determined in the
laboratory.
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Pile Drivability Analysis
Pile drivability analysis is essential for the selection of appropriate
hammer for the installation of piles.
Static Soil Resistance at time of Driving (SRD or R
u

)
The soil resistance at time of driving will determine the depth to
which a pile can be driven.
R
u

=

f
s

A
s

+ q
b

A
b
where
f
s

= unit shaft friction during driving
A
s

= shaft area
q
b

= unit end bearing pressure
A
b

= gross cross sectional area of pile toe
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Unit shaft friction (f
s

)
Clay: f
s

= c
r
Remoulded

undrained

shear strength (c
r

)

generally estimated from liquidity index
based on Skempton

& Northey

(1952) or using following formula from Wood (1990):
c
r

= 2 x 100
(1-LI)

kPa
where liquidity index , LL = liquid limit, PL is the plastic limit,
PI is the plasticity index, and w is the water content. Alternatively, c
r

= c
u

/S where S
is sensitivity of clay

as a rule of thumb a value of 3 is sometimes used.
Sand: K
v

tan

(similar to static value)
Unit end bearing pressure (q
b

)
Generally assumed to be similar to static bearing capacity theory:
Clay: q
b

= 9 c
u

Sand: q
b

= N
q

where N
q

= f()
(Brinch

Hansen)
PI
PL w
PL LL
PL w
LI

=

=
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Cap Block and Pile Cushion Behaviour
Hysteretic behaviour

of cap block and pile cushion.
Hysteresis (a measure of energy loss):
input energy
output energy
ABC Area
BCD Area
e = =
2
where e = coefficient of restitution
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Initial Condition for Computer Program
Most computer programs use an initial velocity

assigned to the ram as the
starting condition. Potential energy of ram is converted to kinetic
energy:
h g m e v m
f
=
2
2
1
where e
f

= efficiency of hammer
f
ghe v 2 =
This efficiency, e
f

, is not

to be confused with the measured energy in the pile
Definition of Pile Penetration per blow (Set)
Smith (1960)s soil model:
Pile penetration per blow =
max

Q
u
Most computer programs stop computation when the pile toe velocity
becomes zero.
NUS computer program (and soil model) compute the true set, i.e.

gives the
final penetration of the pile toe when it comes to rest.
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Driving Stresses
The wave equation program also gives the driving stresses in the

pile. The
maximum driving stresses should be kept within reasonable limits.
Drivability Curves: Blow count versus Depth
The blow count versus depth curves should be produced for various
hammers to determine suitable hammers to be used for the pile installation
Set-up or Relaxation

The driving of piles in clay (particularly soft clay) results in the generation
of excess pore water pressure. Subsequent consolidation will result in
gain in soil strength. Thus if the driving process is interrupted, the soil will
exhibit set-up effects, hence driving will be more difficult.

Driving in dense sand may give rise to an opposite phenomenon

relaxation. A decrease in driving resistance is possible.
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Methods used to estimate the pile bearing capacity :
Dynamic Pile Testing (High Strain Test)
(a) Efficiency of piling hammer in driven piles
(b) Driving stresses in driven piles
(c) Assessment of pile integrity
(d) Bearing capacity and load-settlement response of pile
(a) Case Method
(b) Stress-Wave Matching Technique
Objectives

To obtain:
Test method: During the impact of the hammer, the stress waves are
measured using strain transducers and accelerometers mounted on
the pile (at least 1 diameter away from the pile head

not an issue
with offshore piles as driving is above water during the testing). The
force trace is obtained from the strain measurements. From the
acceleration trace, the velocity trace is obtained by numerical
integration.
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Case Method
( ) ( )
)
`

|
.
|

\
|
+ +
)
`

|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
c
L
t v t v
Z
c
L
t F t F R
2
2
2
2
1
1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) R t F J R R
c s
=
1
2
Assuming that all the soil damping

is concentrated at the pile toe, the
static component or bearing capacity of pile under static load is given by
Suggested damping factor, J
c
From the force and velocity versus time curves, the total soil resistance
(includes both static and dynamic components) is given by
Sand :

0.1

0.15 ;
Silt :

0.25

0.4 ;
Clay : 0.7

1.0
Correct

J
c
value obtain from correlation with static load test or stress wave
matching analysis.
Silty

Sand :

0.15

0.25
Silty

Clay :

0.4

0.7
where t
1

is generally taken as the time when F(t
1

) is maximum and Z is the pile
impedance (= EA/c)
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Available computer programs :
Stress-Wave Matching Technique
The force-time history or velocity-time history is used as a boundary
condition in a wave equation computer program. For instance, if the
velocity-time history is used as the input, the wave equation program
computes the force-time history and this is compared with the measured
values. The soil resistance, soil stiffness and damping values are
adjusted iteratively until the computed and measured values agree
closely or until no further improvements can be made. When this stage
is reached, the soil parameters used in the wave equation model are
assumed to be representative of those in the field. The bearing capacity
of the pile and the load-settlement response are then determined.
CAPWAPC
TNOWAVE
NUSWAP
78
Notes:
1.

The test results are representative of the conditions at the time of
testing. For instance in the case of driven piles tested at the

end of
driving in clay soils, the capacity obtained is generally a lower bound.
Pile should be retested a few days after pile installation to allow set-

up to occur.
2.

If the impact energy used during testing is insufficient to move

the
pile adequately, the pile capacity obtained may be a lower bound.
The capacity obtained is actually the mobilised

static resistance.
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References
Chow, YK (1982) Dynamic behaviour

of piles, PhD Thesis, University of
Manchester, UK
Chow, YK, Radhakrishnan, R, Wong, KY, Karunaratne

and Lee, SL (1988)
Estimation of pile capacity from stress-wave measurements, Proc 3
rd

International Conference on the Application of Stress-Wave Theory on Piles,
Ottawa, pp 626-634.
Chow, YK, Yong, KY, Wong, KY and Lee, SL (1990) Installation of long piles
through soft clay, Proc 10
th

Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Taipei,
pp 333-338.
Lee, SL, Chow, YK, Karunaratne, GP and Wong, KY (1988) Rational wave
equation model for pile driving analysis, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
ASCE, 114, No 3, pp 306-325.
Lee, SL, Chow, YK, Somehsa, P, Kog, YC, Chan, SF and Lee, PCS (1990)
Dynamic testing of bored piles for Suntec

City Development, Prof Conference
on Deep Foundation Practice in Singapore,.
Skempton, AW and Northey, RD (1952) The sensitivity of clay, Geotechnique, Vol

3, No 1.
Smith, EAL (1960) Pile driving analysis by the wave equation, Journal for Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 86, SM4, pp 35-61.
Smith, IM and Chow, YK (1982) Three-dimensional analysis of pile drivability, Proc
2
nd

International Conference on Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling, Texas,
Austin, pp 1-19.
Wong, KY (1988) A rational wave equation model for pile driving analysis, PhD
Thesis, National University of Singapore.
Wood, DM (1990) Soil behaviour

and critical state soil mechanics, Cambridge
University Press.