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Forming Philosophical Communities of Inquiry in Early Childhood Classrooms
Forming Philosophical Communities of Inquiry in Early Childhood Classrooms
Forming Philosophical Communities of Inquiry in Early Childhood Classrooms
John:That boy in your class. It was just something he really wanted it to happen but
it couldn't happen. It was a fantasy.
Harry:Scientists could work hard and make up a formula to make someone into a
lion.
Thalia:The only kind of magic I've heard of are miracles.
Teacher:Is that something like Stuart's friend believing in something real hard?
Thalia:A little different. Like you're wishing something will happen but you know it
won't and all of a sudden it happens.
Sally:I think there might be a potion some day. I don't think it could happen. I mean
a potion to make someone a lion. But it might happen.
Harry:They might be able to not make him into a lion but make him look like a lion
with all the doctors working hard to do it.
Sally:You mean to look like a lion but not talking like a lion. Not roaring or
anything. But it wouldn't be magic. It'd be something to do with
science.
(Paley, 1981, pp. 198-200)
Within the short period of this transcribed discussion, and with the help of
Paley's skilled conversational midwifery, these students have introduced and
examined four definitions of magic. There are magic "tricks" which depend on
sleight of hand; "superhuman strength"; bringing things about by "believing in [one's]
mind"; miracles; and transformations brought about by scientific technology. In the
course of the exploration the issue of "real" magic versus the art of illusion is
considered, as well as the difference between magic and science.
There is a lot of thinking going on in this conversation. Paley's chief interest
here is in the gradual transformation of the kindergartners almost willful belief in
magical solutions to life's goals and problems, towards the more nuanced view of the
seven year old. A close look at the form of the conversation reveals that this gradual
social and personal process is being carried along by a powerful undergirding
structure: the forms of thinking and talking which are commonly called "critical
thinking skills." In this brief glimpse of young children thinking collaboratively, we
find them classifying and categorizing, formulating hypotheses, making
generalizations, providing instances and illustrations, working with criteria, working
with consistency and contradiction, grasping part-whole connections, predicting
consequences, and defining terms, to name a handful of skills traditionally identified
as "critical" (Lipman, 1991). Members of the group are also building on each other's
ideas, correcting their own ideas through dialogue, and working hard to produce a
FORMING COMMUNITIES OF INQUIRY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS KENNEDY 2
boy whose father is an inventor, and constructs a robot who looks and talks and
walks and behaves exactly like his son, and the troubles that everyone has telling
them apart. The teacher follows her short tale with a lead off question--is the robot a
person? When one child answers "No," the teacher asked her why not. Because he's
a robot, is the answer. The teacher asks, what is the difference between a robot and a
person? Another child chimes in, a person sleeps! But animals sleep too, says another
child, because I have a hamster in a cage and he sleeps a lot! Are animals persons?
queries the ever-alert teacher. No! is the chorused reply. So the teacher presses on:
what can we find that just persons, only persons do or have? she asks. They have
arms and legs! shouts an excited child; but almost immediately another child points
out that some animals have arms and legs. A discussion ensues about whether
animals have "all arms" or "all legs" or both. Monkeys are mentioned.
The teacher asks whether there is anything else which only persons have or do.
Talk! bursts out a young child. Do animals talk? asks the teacher. A chorus of yesses
and no's. Seeing that she is in the yes chorus, the teacher asks a young child who
seldom says much in these discussions to explain why she thinks that animals talk.
And so on.
By the end of the session, which could last anywhere from ten to thirty or more
minutes, the group may have established--with helpful summaries by the teacher--
one or more necessary conditions for calling someone (or thing!) a "person," or they
may not have decided on any. In either case, the teacher summarizes, and promises
they will talk about it again. She then suggests that some people may wish to draw
and dictate the robot story, or one like it. Perhaps she also has some props in the
dramatic play area which encourage playing stories with robots in them. For next
week's discussion she may tell another story, she may pick a children's book--The
Velveteen Rabbit (Williams, 1975), for example, or Pinnochio (Collodi, 1991), The
Steadfast Tin Soldier (Andersen, 1953), or The Gingerbread Man (Hauge, 1973)--or
tell a story with doll house figures and props, or act out a short skit with another
teacher (Edwards, 1986). She may stick with persons as theme, or present something
which suggests another topic. She may solicit direction from the group itself.
The teacher in this classroom is conducting a philosophical community of
inquiry. It deserves to be called "philosophical" for two reasons. First, because it is a
kind of inquiry which focuses on the larger meaning of human experience--how our
thoughts work, what is and what has to be, the nature of persons, how to define right
and wrong, the good, the fair, the beautiful, and so on. It is a controlled, communal
form of wondering about the "big questions." We are also justified in calling it
FORMING COMMUNITIES OF INQUIRY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS KENNEDY 2
philosophical because it is, with the help of the teacher-facilitator, a continual process
of exploring the conditions of knowledge. Can we give reasons for what we think?
Are there good reasons and not so good reasons, and how do we determine? How do
we know what we know--what "person" means, for example? What sort of evidence
is necessary to make a claim that so and so or such and such is a person, and what
would it take to discount it? Philosophy has to do with how we know what we know,
and what we mean when we say something is "true" or not.
DISPOSITIONS AND SKILLS OF A PHILOSOPHICAL COMMUNITY OF
INQUIRY
The kind of thinking, talking, and feeling which is going on in this discussion
circle is associated with verbal, logical-mathematical, and personal modalities, or
intelligences (Gardner 1985). Through their own participation and the teacher's
skilled facilitation, young children are practicing dispositions like valuing taking
turns, feeling responsible for giving reasons and offering evidence for one's beliefs,
determining to respect persons even if we disagree with their ideas, and wanting to
build on each other's ideas. The skills of philosophical community of inquiry are
those usually associated with critical thinking, such as making generalizations and
then evaluating them through offering and evaluating confirming or disconfirming
examples, using criteria to guide our judgments (Lipman, 1988a).
In the example above, the child who bursts out Talk! when the teacher asks what
only persons do, is making a generalization which could be more formally state as
the proposition "All persons talk." As like as not, this proposition may immediately
bring to the mind of a child sitting across the circle someone she knows who is a deaf
mute, or a T.V. program or movie she saw in which a deaf mute played a part. Then
the job is to decide whether that constitutes a disconfirming example, i.e. whether it
proves that "all persons talk" must be changed to "some persons talk." Another child
may point out that deaf mutes can talk with their hands, leading us to call for a
definition of talking. This could lead to exercising the major critical thinking skill of
evaluating analogous relationships. Is talking with your hands just like talking with
your voice? Are the singing of birds and the talking of humans the same or different?
Can we say that birds "talk" the way we say humans talk? Ultimately, through this
often meandering process of comparison and exemplification, we are working
towards identifying some necessary conditions for being a person. If, for example, a
person could not talk and still be a person, then talking is not a necessary condition
for being a person.
Group philosophical dialogue involves two styles of thinking--the critical and
FORMING COMMUNITIES OF INQUIRY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS KENNEDY 2
young children can think logically. This prejudice seems to arise from a combination
of a lack of appreciation of the categorical logic which is found in perception,
experience, and language itself (Nelson, 1985), and from the incorrect interpretation
of Piaget's notion of "pre-operational" to mean "non-logical." In fact Piaget's theory
places the origins of logic in action, and if that is the case, then the young child is
thinking in logical structures from the beginning, whether in sensory-motor schemes
or concepts (Piaget, 1954; Langer, 1980). Cognitive scientists have been arguing for
at least 20 years that a fundamental logic is in place from the start of psychological
life (Fodor, 1975, Chomsky, 1985, Bower, 1989).
This is all too easy to say about children who are hardly speaking yet; but what
about 3 and 4 year olds? Are they able to apply general rules to specific cases, or
evaluate general rules by considering specific cases? Consider a 2-year old who lives
in a house with a dachshund, and sits for the first time, safe in her mother's arms,
before a Great Dane. She shouts, in awe and delight, "Doggie!" In doing so she is
implicitly applying a general rule to a specific case, as follows:
General rule: All dogs have four legs, fur or hair of some kind, a head shaped in a
certain way, and a certain manner of self-presentation ("dogginess").
Particular case: This creature before me has four legs, fur or hair, a head shaped a
certain way, and a "doggy" self-presentation. Therefore, although it is bigger
than any such creature I've ever seen, it is probably a dog.
Another example: a father stands before a fence, holding his child of 3, and
examining a horse, who is standing on the other side of the fence. The horse lifts his
head over the fence and towards the two humans, and its lips draw back slightly,
exposing large teeth. The child asks her father, "Does he eat people?" In this case the
child appears to be thinking, albeit unconsciously, in classic syllogistic form, in
which there are two premises and a conclusion, and a carry over relationship from
one class to another:
All animals with large teeth are carnivores.
All carnivores are potentially dangerous to people.
Therefore: All animals with large teeth are potentially dangerous to people.
The little girl's information is incorrect--she has not yet made the critical
distinction between the sharp teeth of carnivores and the blunt teeth of herbivores--
but her reasoning is not. It is spontaneous and structural and semi-conscious: if you
asked the child to state the syllogism, she would not have a clue what you were
asking for, but this fact does not make the pattern of her reasoning any less
syllogistic. This is possible because the basis of reasoning is the spontaneous mental
FORMING COMMUNITIES OF INQUIRY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS KENNEDY 2
and humans, children and grownups, danger and safety (Kennedy, 1993). Teachers
can prepare discussion plans which focus on these issues, which they can use to steer,
to clarify, or even to redirect the discussion. The question of what's an accident is an
important one for the young children, whose concept of causality is still closely tied
to purpose (Piaget, 1929, Carey, 1985). The following discussion plans, taken from a
set developed for Peter Rabbit (Kennedy, 1994) focuses on this issue. The teacher
holds these questions in reserve, and uses them only when they seem appropriate,
whether because the issue of accidents has been raised by the children themselves, or
because she feels it is worth introducing the issue herself.
ACCIDENTS
Was it an accident that Peter's father was killed and eaten by Mr. McGregor?
Was it an accident that Peter went to Mr. McGregor's garden?
Was it an accident that Peter lost his coat and shoes?
Did Peter go to Mr. McGregor's garden on purpose?
How can you tell if something is an accident?
How can you tell if something is on purpose?
BY ACCIDENT OR ON PURPOSE?
The sun rises in the morning
The sun comes out from behind a cloud
A train wreck
Someone gets angry
It starts raining
A doctor hurts someone with a needle
You were born
It gets dark
Numerous other children's books lend themselves to philosophical inquiry
(Matthews, 1980, 1988), in particular the works of Arnold Lobel (1971, 1975, 1977,
1978, 1979). In addition to such texts, teachers can make up stories and skits
themselves which evoke the questions they are interested in having children explore
together, for example the story which focused on the notion of persons above, or the
skits developed in Edwards (1985). There are also texts with accompanying
discussion plans developed specifically for purposes of doing philosophical
community of inquiry in early childhood, (Lipman, 1988b; Lipman & Gazard, 1988).
For example The Doll Hospital (Sharp, 1994), developed for young children in
preschool settings, tells the story of Jesse and her doll. The story is arranged in short
episodes, which are designed to stimulate wonder about philosophical issues. The
FORMING COMMUNITIES OF INQUIRY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS KENNEDY 2
teacher typically reads to the children, solicits questions, and writes them on chart
paper or chalkboard, which is an opportunity for experience with language in print.
Through collecting the questions in this way, the children themselves are
constructing the discussion agenda, and the teacher encourages children to decide
which question to start the discussion with.
In the dialogue that follows, participants ask for and give reasons for their
thinking, built on each others ideas, and, with the help of the teacher, "follow the
argument where it leads," through its self-correcting movement. The teacher
introduces all or parts of discussion plans which focus on specific issues which have
been raised by the text, which move the group toward the examination of overarching
regulative ideas.i Finally, the teacher encourages further response to the questions in
other "languages" or expressive modalities, such as the telling or writing of stories,
drawing and painting, dramatic play, puppetry, music, model play with sand or
blocks, block building, and so forth.
CONCLUSION: THE COMMUNITY OF INQUIRY AND THE
DEMOCRATIC PERSONALITY
Every classroom, from early childhood to postgraduate, has the potential for
becoming a community of inquiry. The developmentally appropriate early childhood
classroom is structurally closer to a community of inquiry than the traditional
classroom, because it operates according to individual student initiative and
principals of emergent curriculum, rather than exclusive teacher control and pre-set
curriculum (Kennedy, 1994). It is a dialogical, horizontal structure, rather than a one-
directional, vertical one.
Every community of inquiry--whether of art, history, dance, science, politics,
economics, etc.--has the potential for becoming a philosophical community of
inquiry, because every discipline has a philosophical understructure which can be
explored. The philosophy of art has to do with how art means to us when we make
or behold it, how we define art, how we judge good and bad art, and so forth. The
philosophy of science concerns how we determine what a scientific "fact" is,
admissible and inadmissible evidence in making scientific "proofs," the larger, non-
scientific paradigms which guide scientific practice, and so forth. In other words, the
philosophical dimension of any field of inquiry has to do with its larger meaning
dimensions, the "big questions" which it inspires in us when we really to try to
inquire into what it is and how it works. In keeping with the concept of the "spiral
curriculum," or the proposition that "the foundations of any subject may be taught to
anybody at any age in some form" (Bruner,1966), the "philosophy of" this or that can
FORMING COMMUNITIES OF INQUIRY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS KENNEDY 2
be done by young children at their particular level. For example, the discussion
about magic quoted above is an example of young children doing philosophy of
science, because the participants are evaluating claims about the power to manipulate
nature through technologies of one sort or another in a critical manner.
Above and beyond the educational implications of community of inquiry, the
process is a training ground for the skills and dispositions associated, not just with
creative and critical thinking, but with the autonomous, democratic personality
(Sharp, 1991). The constant dual encouragement both to think for oneself and to
think "in community" forms the basis for a way of solving social problems and
dealing with conflict which is both autonomous and socially engaged. The high value
placed on working through issues as a group, on giving and asking for reasons, and
the emphasis on evaluating logical arguments, not the persons who hold them,
provides a fundamental context for the learning of tolerant, non-biased attitudes
towards others, and for the formation of healthy self-concept (Lago, 1990). As
children become skilled in the discourse of CI, they are able to apply its form of
social problem solving to issues of fairness, equity, or personal conflict which arise in
the community of the classroom. CI provides the discourse setting for a moral
community.
Community of inquiry theory and methodology represents a form of pedagogy
and a model of classroom practice which is both consonant with the most advanced
early childhood theory, and also embodies the aspirations of the 20th century
Western reform movement in education, which is directed towards the evolution of a
citizen who is capable of what Barber (1984) has characterized as "strong
democracy." The "strong" democratic personality is individuated and autonomous,
but also highly collaborative, and holds a "conflict model" rather than an "order
model" of social process (Chesler & Crowfroot, 1975), meaning she feels it is
possible to use conflict in the interests of positive change and development. The
community of inquiry's emphasis on the social construction of knowledge, and on
truth as a process rather than a given; its emphasis on group process, on
collaboration, problem-solving, and emergence, make of it a developmentally
appropriate form of education for the cultural and social goal of the democratic
personality. Recent advances in our understanding of children's thinking have
allowed us to see that it is not too early, provided we are sensitive to young children's
limitations and lack of experience, to start toward this goal in the early years. Nor
should we forget how deeply we as adults stand to be enriched as we assist at young
children's collaborative construction of meaning.
FORMING COMMUNITIES OF INQUIRY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS KENNEDY 2
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MORE CHILDREN'S BOOKS FOR PHILOSOPHICAL DISCUSSION
Asch, F. (1982). Happy birthday moon. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Asch, F. (1985). Bear shadow. New York: Simon & Schuster.
FORMING COMMUNITIES OF INQUIRY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS KENNEDY 2