School of thoughts

Nineteenth- Century Evolutionism

Unilineal Evolution: Taylor& Morgan
Edward B .Taylor was first professional anthropologist and Britain scholar. In 1871 he published major work on primitive Culture. At that time Great Britain was involved in imperialistic expansion in all over the world. Taylor had access to the description of non western society. The question faced by early anthropologists was Why societies at similar or different level of evolution and development? He tried to answer that question through unilineal evolution. Unilineal evolution is view that society evolve in a single direction toward complexity, progress and civilization. Taylor used accounts from Western observer to compare certain cultural elements from different societies including technology, family, economy, political organization, art, religion and philosophy. He organized this event into 3 stages savagery to barbarism to civilization. Theorist assumed that hunter & gatherers and other non western societies were living at a low level of existence then civilized societies of Europe. This was an ethnocentric view of social development. Westren societies were the centre of the civilized world and other non western societies were inherently inferior. Another 19th century anthropologist was Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) he belongs to America. He was particularly interested in kinship term used in different part of world. He observes that Iroquois kinship term is different from that of English, Latin, Greek and other European societies. He also notice that Iroquois kinship term were similar to those of the Ojibwa Indians, a group living in Midwestern United States. He assumes that human originally lived in primitive hordes in which sexual behavior was not regulated and people did not know who their father was? . Then brother sister marriage developed followed by matriarchal family structure. According to Morgan Private property is one of the critical differences between civilized societies and earlier society. He describes the savagery society as communistic in contrast to civilized society. Morgan believes that final stage of evolution began when male took control of economy and politics.

Unilineal Evolution: Criticism

The views of these nineteen century thinker are ethnocentric, contradictory and speculative. Unilineal evolutionist relied on nineteen century racist view of human development and misunderstandings of

biological evolution to explain societal difference. Morgan maintains a Lamarckian view of heredity. According to that human intelligence increase from generation to generation through the use of rational thought, which increase brain size? But this view rejected by scientific community.

Diffusionism
It is also a school of thought which established in early twentieth century. Culture traveling from one place to other place. Two major schools of diffusionism were Britain and German.

British Diffusionism
Smith and Perry studied Egyptian culture and they conduct their research in Egyptology for number of years. They believed that civilization originated from Egypt and diffuse to all over the world.

German Diffusionism
Wilhelm Schmidt and his follower argue that civilization diffusion is like a circle. Cultural trait spread away from in circle to other Region and people..

Strength
Diffusion has some validity to societal development .For example it help to explain the emergence of classical understand civilization of Egypt, Greece, Phoenicia and Rome.

Limitations
The diffusionism assumes that some people are not sufficiently original to develop their own culture. And culture traits in the same geographical vicinity will inevitable spread from one society to other. However anthropologist fined that diffusion is not a predictable process.

Historical Particularism
That theory led by US Anthropologist Franz Boas and it proposed an alternative answer to why societal similarities and differences existed? Boas has great effect on the development of anthropology both in U.S and internationally. Boas criticized the unilineal evolutionist. He criticized their attempt to propose stages of evolution through which all society develop. He also said that nineteenth century scheme of evolution is based on insufficient empirical evidence. Boas fieldwork experience guides him to conclude that each society has its own unique historical development. One aspect of his view is that no society is evolved as higher as or lower than other. Boas is one of the first scientist in the united state that demonstrate that brain size and cranial capacity of human were not directly linked to intelligence.

Functionalism
Functionalism is the study that society consists of institution that serves fundamental purpose for people instead of focusing on origin and evolution of society. British functionalist explored the relationship among different institution and how these institutions work for the welfare of the society.

Structural-Functionalism
The functionalism that associated with Radclife Brown is referred as Structural-Functionalism. His research had completed in Africa and on Andaman Island. He focused on the structure of society as reflect in the differing institutions that function to facilitate the society.

Psychological Functionalism
Malinowski functionalism focused on how society functioned to serve the individuals interest or need. He did his major ethnographic study in Trobiand Island.

The limitation of functionalism

Functionalism failed to explain that why societies are different and similar. That is not concerned with the origin of the institute but they focused on how these institution works for the welfare of society. For example they could not explain that why British society experience rapid technological change whereas other societies did not although they both have similar needs. They also did not explain the social and culture changes. However this school of thought influences research in anthropology. It encourages the collection of valuable ethnographic data by focusing on the detailed specific functions of institutions within existing societies.

Twentieth-Century Evolutionism
Leslie White suggests a new twentieth century perspective on the evolution of society. which also referred as neo-evolution. Whites suggestion of cultural evolution explained in the level of societal development by examining difference in the technology and energy production. For example his theory that hunting gathering society had not developed complex social and cultural system because they depend on human energy for production.

Steward and Cultural Ecology

Stewards cultural ecology framework divided a social and culture stem into two different sphere cultural core and secondary feature. The culture core consist of those element s most closely related to subsistence, the environment, technology and economic arrangement. The other characteristics such as social organization, politics, or religion are secondary feature.

The Strength of Neo_ evolutionism

The twentieth century evolution differed from nineteenth century in several ways. They did not assume unilineal direction of society. They are not ethnocentrically biased. They did not assume social and cultural complexity toward was always equated with progress as did the nineteenth century.

Criticism of Cultural Ecology

Different anthropologists critics that cultural ecology only highlight the role of environment and did not give any importance to political or historical factors. And cultural ecology reduces human behavior to simple adoption to external environment.

Cultural Materialism
Developed by Marvin Harris in expansion of 20th century evolution focused on technology, environmental and economic factors. Cultural materialists divide all social and cultural system into the infrastructure, structure, and superstructure. The infrastructure includes mode of production and reproduction and the practices employed for expanding or limiting basic subsistence production. The structure consists of domestic economy like family structure etc .The superstructure includes philosophy, art, music, religion, science etc. As infrastructure changes, the structure and superstructure may change accordingly.

Marxist Anthropology
Marxist anthropology also referred as dialectical materialism. Dialectical materialism view the relationship among the infrastructure, structure, super structure as continues interactive process in which each element influence the others in a historically dynamic process. Marx theorized that society had evolved through various stages: the tribal, the Asiatic, the feudal and finally the capitalist stage. Marx proposed that specific mode of production within a society influences the other characteristics of society.

Theoretical Application of Marxism

Marx anthropologists do not view the society as static, harmonious system as do the functionalists, but rather as continually in conflict and in stat of transformation.

False Consciousness
This is an ability of none lite group to perceive their own interest within society. Marx believes those powerful groups manipulate the cultural values and religion to maintain their privileged status in society. These institutions convince the powerless people that they are responsible for their own deprivation. But they never realize that their situation is due to unequal and unjust system.