1- Varieties of language:

Q1/ Linguistic items are subject to variations between different varieties. One can find clear differences between the items of pronunciation in different accents. What are the reasons behind such differences? A/ 1- Pronunciation is less liable to standardization since the latter is closely connected to writing which is more fixed. 2- Pronunciation seems to have a different social function from other types of items. For example, despite the great influence the US has over Britain, its influence over the British English is restricted almost entirely to vocabulary and appear to have had no effect at all on the pronunciation of even the most susceptible groups like teenagers. 3- It may be inferred that pronunciation and other items play different roles in the individual act of identity to which reference was made above. It could be that we use pronunciation to identify our origins or imply that we originated from some group. In contrast we might use morphology, syntax and vocabulary in order to identify our current status in society, such as the amount of education we have had.

Q2/ What is the most common process through which new words are inserted in a language? Define it and state the reasons behind the occurrence of such phenomenon. A/ One of the most common sources of new words in a language is the process simply labeled borrowing, that is, the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout its history, English has adopted a vast number of words from other languages, including croissant (French), piano (Italian) and yogurt (Turkish). The reasons behind the occurrence of such phenomenon are: 1- One reason for using a word from another language is to pretend to be a native speaker with whatever social characteristics associated with the stereotype for its "double prestige", since each language has a distinctive symbolic value for people who use it because of its links to particular kinds of people or situations. 2- Another reason is that there is no other available word (although some countries reject loan words because of their foreign associations and tend to invent native words).

Q3/ What kind of modifications are applied to borrowed items in order to become part of the borrowing language? A/ 1- It is common for items to be assimilated to the items already in the borrowing variety, with foreign sounds being replaced by native ones. For example, the word restaurant lost its uvular r when it was borrowed from French to English. 2- On the other hand, assimilation need not be total, it can be partial and it is very common between English and other languages. In restaurant many English speakers still have a nasal vowel at the end, which wouldn't have been there had the word not borrowed from French. 3- Borrowed items can be completely unassimilated. The completely unassimilated loan-words include items bearing no resemblance to the foreign words on which they are based. Such items are called loan translations or calques (which are literal translations of the original words). For example, the English superman is a loan translation of the German Ubermensch.