Abstract The demand for the use of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP) in rehabilitation of deteriorating infrastructure is increasing worldwide.

The design characteristics of reinforced concrete or steel members can be enhanced significantly by epoxy bonding CFRP laminates to the critically stressed tension areas. There is, however, a concern regarding possible galvanic corrosion when carbon and steel are bonded together. Dezincification of brass is a form of selective corrosion that happens when zinc is leached out of the alloy leaving a weakened porous copper fitting. This commonly happens in chlorinated water or in water that has high levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Signs of dezincification are white powdery zinc oxide coating the surface of the fitting, or yellow brass that turns red. Selective corrosion can be a problem when it weakens a fitting, leaving it vulnerable to failure and eventual leaks. This paper presents the result of a study on the galvanic corrosion between CFRP laminates and steel. The case studies detailed in this report gives an overview of mechanism for galvanic corrosion and selective leaching. Introduction Since my work is primarily in construction management and quality of New Steel bridges, I wanted to proceed researching corrosion causes and preventative systems in steel structures. According to the National Bridge Inventory (NBI) update in 1998, the number of substandard highway bridges in the United States of America is more than 172,600. It is noted that this figure does not even include railroad and pedestrian bridges (FHWA 2000). The cost for rehabilitation and repair in most cases is far less than the cost of replacement. Furthermore, repair and rehabilitation usually take less time than replacement, reducing service interruption time. Considering the limited resources available to mitigate this problem. The primary reasons for deterioration of the bridges include corrosion, fatigue, increase in dead load, and permitted live load. Corrosion is among the major factors affecting the long term serviceability of bridges, particularly those located in cold regions where deicing salts and other aggressive chemicals are used. The reduction of the cross-sectional area of a bridge member caused by oxidation decreases the load-carrying capacity of that member. Corrosion can also occur as a result of galvanic action. Any non-uniformity in the material can develop a corrosion cell and accelerate the deterioration process. The latter problem is more critical in connections and cover plates if different plate materials are used. Fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) materials have been used successfully in a number of repair and rehabilitation applications. The excellent tensile and fatigue strength, light weight, and high corrosion resistance of these materials makes them an attractive candidate for structural application in substandard steel bridges. There is, however, a major issue concerning this strengthening technique: the possibility of galvanic corrosion between carbon and steel. In this study, the galvanic corrosion between steel and a CFRP sheet will be investigated. Since carbon fibers have metallic characteristics, the steel-carbon system may have a tendency to form a galvanic cell, and corrosion can occur at a higher rate. The use of carbon-fiber composites with steel structures requires a thorough understanding of the phenomenon of galvanic corrosion. In theory, as long as two materials have not contacted each other, a corrosion cell will not initiate. However, in case of direct contact between carbon fibers and steel in the presence of an electrolyte, the wet corrosion cell could accelerate the corrosion of steel and create possible blistering and subsequent delamination or debonding.

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Corrosion. Corrosion has been defined as degradation of a metal by an electrochemical reaction with its environment (Trethewey and Chamberlain 1995). The phenomenon of corrosion can be explained in a basic wet corrosion cell as shown in Fig. 1, it has four essential components: the anode, cathode, electrolyte, and electrical connection. In the absence of any one of these components, the corrosion reaction will stop. A brief description of each of these components is given below. Anode: location where corrosion of metal takes place. The metal loses electrons and becomes the ion in the solution, or it may form an insoluble product. M Mz+ + zeCathode: part that usually attracts the electrons created in the anode. The electrons are consumed by the reactions at the cathode. Such reactions can be the formation of a metal film, reduction of oxygen, or evolution of hydrogen. Nz+ + ze- N Electrolyte: solution with sufficient conductivity for transferring the ions.

Electrical connection: connection necessary between the anodic and cathodic sites for corrosion to take place. In cases in which the anode and cathode are not part of the same material, a physical connection is necessary for the current to flow and the corrosion to occur.

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CASE 1 Galvanic corrosion when carbon and steel are bonded together. In order to investigate the galvanic corrosion between carbon and steel and to evaluate the galvanic corrosion rate, a paper in the Journal of Composites for Construction (Tavakkolizadeh and Saadatmanesh 2001) demonstrates experiments where Carbon fibers washed in different solvents and tested in different electrolytes directly related to the corrosion rate. Comparison between the corrosion rates of samples with different thicknesses of epoxy coating in different electrolytes provides a thorough understanding of the phenomenon and assists in developing techniques to eliminate the galvanic corrosion problem. The results of the experiment indicated 1. The existence of the galvanic corrosion when there is a direct contact between a CFRP laminate and steel substrate, the corrosion rate of steel increases by a factor of 24 and 57 in a deicing salt solution and seawater, respectively. 2. Galvanic corrosion only initiates when there is direct contact between two dissimilar metals in the presence of an electrolyte. Measures can be taken to eliminate one or both of these parameters and to eliminate this problem. The use of a nonconductive layer of fabric between carbon and steel, an isolating epoxy film on the steel surface, and a moisture barrier can be considered as a few preventive alternatives.

CASE 2 Corrosion of brass in drinking water with high alkalinity

In Danish drinking water installations, brass has been the most commonly used material for fittings such as stop valves and control valves; dezincification resistant (DZR) brass of the type CuZn36Pb2As being the dominating alloy. DZR brass has traditionally been considered sufficiently corrosion-resistant to be used in all Danish water types, and previous experience has been good. However, today, an increasing number of severe water damage caused by corrosion of DZR brass in areas with hard, high conductivity ground water has increased the focus on corrosion of copper alloys and, as a consequence, recommendations have changed. In the Copenhagen area and other areas with similar water quality, Brass is the common denominator for a large variety of copper-zinc alloys with more than 50 % copper. The main types of brass are defined by the alloy crystal structure: -brass with a copper content above approximately 63 %. -brass has single phased micro structure with crystals only. Zinc is found as solid solution in copper. +-brass with copper content between approximately 54-63 %. +-brass has a two-phased microstructure with +crystals. -brass with a copper content between approximately 50-54 %. -brass has single-phased microstructure with -crystals only.

In +-brasses dezincification may occur in the zinc-rich -phase dissolving the -phase selectively. During dezincification both copper and zinc dissolve. Copper redeposits leaving the original shape more or less intact but now porous and without the original mechanical strength. In soft water types dezincification often forms pure white and very voluminous zinc corrosion products. Subsequent dezincification in these Page 3 of 5

water types is often referred to as meringue corrosion. In most Danish water types dezincification usually form very thin layers of discoloured corrosion products. Dezincification selectively removes zinc from the alloy, leaving behind a porous, copper-rich structure that has little mechanical strength. An in-service valve suffering from dezincification has a white powdery substance or mineral stains on its exterior surface. The valve may exhibit water weeping from the valve body or stem/bonnet seal. Why Dezincification Occurs? Copper-zinc alloys containing more than 15% zinc are susceptible to dezincification. Zinc is a highly reactive metal, as seen in its galvanic series ranking. This reactivity stems from the fact that zinc has a very weak atomic bond relative to other metals. Simply, zinc atoms are easily given up to solutions with certain aggressive characteristics. During dezincification, the more active zinc is selectively removed from the brass, leaving behind a weak deposit of the porous, more noble copperrich metal. Conditions favoring dezincification are contact with slightly acid or alkaline water. Not highly aerated, low rates of flow of the circulating liquid, relatively high tube-wall temperatures and permeable deposits or coatings over the tube surface. Dissimilar metal corrosion v/s Selective attack A potential difference usually exists between two dissimilar metals when they are immersed in a corrosive or conductive solution. If these metals are placed in contact (or otherwise electrically connected), this potential difference produces electron flow between them. Corrosion of the less corrosion-resistant metal is usually increased and attack of the more resistant material is decreased, as compared with the behavior of these metals when they are not in contact. The less resistant metal becomes anodic and the more resistant metal cathodic. Usually the- cathode or cathodic metal corrodes very little or not at all in this type of couple. Because of the electric currents and dissimilar metals involved, this form of corrosion is called galvanic, or two-metal, corrosion. It is electrochemical corrosion, but we shall restrict the term galvanic to dissimilar-metal effects for purposes of clarity. Selective leaching is the removal of one element from a solid alloy by corrosion processes. The most common example is the selective removal of zinc in brass alloys (dezincification). Similar processes occur in other alloy systems in which aluminum; iron, cobalt, chromium, and other elements are removed. Selective leaching is the general term to describe these processes, and its use precludes the creation of terms such as dealuminumification, decobaltification, etc. Parting is a metallurgical term that is sometimes applied, but selective leaching is preferred.

Conclusions Galvanic corrosion can be prevented through a number of methods:

Select metals/alloys as close together as possible in the galvanic series. Avoid unfavorable area effect of a small anode and large cathode. Insulate dissimilar metals wherever practical

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Apply coatings with caution. Paint the cathode (or both) and keep the coatings in good repair on the anode. Avoid threaded joints for materials far apart in the galvanic series.

Dealloying, selective leaching and graphitic corrosion can be prevented through the following methods:

Select metals/alloys that are more resistant to dealloying. For example, inhibited brass is more resistant to dezincification than alpha brass, ductile iron is more resistant to graphitic corrosion than gray cast iron.

Control the environment to minimize the selective leaching Use sacrificial anode cathodic protection or impressed current cathodic protection

References

Asbjrn Andersen, Frank Fontenay, Lisbeth Rischel Hilbert, FORCE Technology, Denmark, 2011 Mohammadreza Tavakkolizadeh, Hamid Saadatmanesh, National Science Foundation, 2011 Trethewey, K. R., and Chamberlain, J. (1995). Corrosion for students of science and engineering, Wiley, New York.

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