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Application of Mineralogy To Soil Mechanics - Grim
Application of Mineralogy To Soil Mechanics - Grim
PUFFER, Director
DIVISION OF
THE
Chief
URBANA
146
APPLICATION OF MINERALOGY
TO SOIL MECHANICS
(1)
SOME FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PROPERTIES OF SOIL MATERIALS (2) THE COMPOSITION IN RELATION TO THE
PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN SOILS
BY
RALPH
(1)
E.
GRIM
Reprinted from Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, vol. 3, Rotterdam, 1948 Reprinted from Geotechnique, vol.
1,
(2)
no.
3,
The Geotechnical
URBANA, ILLINOIS
19 50
ORGANIZATION
STATE OF ILLINOIS
HON. ADLAI
E.
STEVENSON,
PUFFER,
Governor
Director
PUFFER, Chairman
W. H. NEWHOUSE,
Ph.D., Geology Ph.D., D.Sc, Chemistry LOUIS R. HOWSON, C.E., Engineering A. E. EMERSON, Ph.D., Biology LEWIS H. TIFFANY, Ph.D., Forestry GEORGE D. STODDARD, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D., L.H.D.
ROGER ADAMS,
(85914 2M 9-49)
ENID TOWNLEY,
Velda A. Millard Junior
Asst. to the Chief Morris, Secretary to the Chief Helen E. Berenice Reed, Supervisory Technical Assistant
M.S., Assistant
to the
Chief
B.S., Geological Assistant
Elizabeth Stephens,
Mc
Ruth
Jane Teller,
GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES
Arthur Bevan, Ph.D., D.Sc,
Coal
G. H. Cady, Ph.D., Senior Geologist and Head R. J. Helfinstine, M.S., Mechanical Engineer George M. Wilson, M.S., Geologist Robert M. Kosanke, M.A., Associate Geologist John A. Harrison, M.S., Assistant Geologist Jack A. Simon, M.S., Assistant Geologist Raymond Siever, M.S., Assistant Geologist Mary Barnes Rolley, M.S., Assistant Geologist Margaret A. Parker, B.S., Assistant Geologist Kenneth E. Clegg, Technical Assistant
Principal Geologist
GEOCHEMISTRY
Frank H. Reed, Ph.D., Chief Chemist Grace C. Johnson, B.S., Research Assistant
Coal
G. R. Yohe, Ph.D., Chemist and Head Donald R. Hill, B.S., Research Assistant B.S., Research Assistant
Joseph E. Dunbar,
Industrial Minerals
Machin, Ph.D., Chemist and Head Tin Boo Yee, M.S., Assistant Chemist Paulene Ekman, B.A., Research Assistant Grace C. Moulton, M.S., Research Assistant
J. S.
Oil
and Gas
Fluorspar
A. H. Bell, Ph.D., Geologist and Head Frederick Squires, A.B., B.S., Petroleum Engineer David H. Swann, Ph.D., Geologist Virginia Kline, Ph.D., Associate Geologist
Robert
James
Wayne
gineer
F.
Richard
Meents,
Chemical Engineering
H. W. Jackman, M.S.E., Chemical Engineer and
Lester W. Clutter,
Industrial Minerals
J.
E. Lamar, B.S., Geologist and Head Robert M. Grogan, Ph.D., Geologist Donald L. Graf, M.A., Assistant Geologist
Head W. Henline, M.S., Chemical Engineer Greenwood, B.S., Mechanical Engineer James C. McCullough, Research Associate
P.
B. J.
X-ray
Raymond
W.
F.
Physics
Clay Resources and Clay Mineral Technology Ralph E. Grim, Ph.D., Petrographer and Head William A. White, M.S., Associate Geologist
Kenneth B. Thomson, Ph.D., Physicist R. J. Piersol, Ph.D., Physicist Emeritus Janice Helen Howard, B.S., Research Assistant
Analytical Chemistry
Associate Geologist
Arthur Bevan, Ph.D., D. Sc, Acting Head Merlyn B. Buhle, M.S., Associate Geologist M. W. Pullen, Jr., M.S., Associate Geologist
Richard
F. Fisher, M.S., Assistant Geologist
Margaret J. Castle, Assistant Geologic Draftsman Robert D. Knodle, M.S., Assistant Geologist John W. Foster, B.A., Assistant Geologist
Engineering Geology and Topographic
O. W. Rees, Ph.D., Chemist and Head L. D. McVicker, B.S., Chemist Howard S. Clark, A.B., Associate Chemist Emile D. Pierron, M.S., Assistant Chemist William F. Loranger, B.A., Research Assistant Annabelle G. Elliott, B.S., Technical Assistant Alice M. Helmuth, B.S., Research Assistant Ruth E. Koski, B.S., Research Assistant Charles T. Allbright, B.S., Research Assistant
Mapping
MINERAL ECONOMICS
W. H. Voskuil, Ph.D., Mineral W. L. Busch, Assistant Mineral
Economist Economist
George
E.
Ekblaw, Ph.D.,
Geologist
and Head
Nina Hamrick, A.M., Assistant Mineral Economist Ethel M. King, Research Assistant
EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION
Gilbert O. Raasch, Ph.D., Associate
in Charge
Geologist
Subsurface Geology
L. E.
Workman, M.S., Geologist and Head Elwood Atherton, Ph.D., Associate Geologist Donald B. Saxby, M.S., Assistant Geologist Robert C. McDonald, B.S., Research Assistant
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LIBRARY
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E.
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PUBLICATIONS
Dorothy E. Rose, B.S., Technical Editor M. Elizabeth Staaks, B.S., Assistant Editor Meredith M. Calkins, Geologic Draftsman
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Ceramics,
George W. White, Ph.D., University of Illinois Ralph K. Hursh, B.S., University of Illinois
August
1,
Mechanical Engineering, Seichi Konzo, M.S., University of Illinois Topographic Mapping in Cooperation with the United States Geological Survey. This report is a contribution of the Clay Resourses and Clay Mineral Technology Division.
1949
CONTENTS
Page
SOME FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PROPERTIES OF SOIL MATERIALS THE COMPOSITION IN RELATION TO THE PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN SOILS
.
5
.
13
GRIM
of composi-
Soil
may
4*)
1 )
Clay-mineral composition
tive
the
rela-
is
ad-
some
2)
Nonclay-mineral compositionthe relative abundance of each mineral and the size-grade distribution of its
particles.
made up
of flake-shaped
and
as
aggregates
of
book-like
masses
of
flakes
3)
Electrolyte content
(Ref. 4). Much of the water is adsorbed on the basal plane surfaces of such units.
4)
5)
Organic
kind.
content
the
orientation
(Fig.
1)
in
the
first
layers
The
first
water mole-
and
these
silicification.
Not
given
all
of
factors
apply in
any
soil
is
portance
Current
researches
the
writer's
laboratory and
certain
with that of the oxygen layers in the of the clay mineral units. The orientation tends to propagate itself through layers of water some molecules in thickness outward from the surfaces of the clay minStarting with this concept of the erals. structure of the adsorbed water, a satisfits
surface
ponents which
commaterials frequently exert a tremendous influence on properties, even though they are
elsewhere
that
have shown
ma-
may
be present in
soil
can be evolved.
The
addi-
can there-
material.
mass or sheet of oriented water molewould be rigid like ice rather than fluid, and therefore the initial adsorbed water would not be fluid. But as larger amounts of water are added to dry clay, the layers of oriented water molecules become thicker and thicker. Because the force orienting the water molecules is the struccules
of these
com-
it
ponents and offers an explanation of their action on the basis of present concepts of
the structure of soil materials.
It will serve
mineral surfaces.
are given
at
end of paper,
p.
11
on the clay Further the presence of adsorbed ions and molecules on the clay mineral surfaces would tend to restrict the growth of the oriented water. Therefore, at some distance from the clav mineral sur-
grow
[5
Silica layer
of clay
mineral
Oriented water
-o-Qr-
o-Qr-
molecules
Silica
layer
of clay mineral
1. Schematic sketch of orientation of adsorbed on the basal surfaces of the clay small circles circles represent oxygen atoms small black or shaded circles silicon atoms and Jefferson).
Fig.
water
molecules
minerals.
faces,
the
it
is
rather abrupt.
If
this
is
true there
the
plastic
oriented,* that
they would be
fluid.
should
be
sharp
break
in
Oriented
about
all
water
would
develop
from
when
dry
soil
3,
material.
that
of
another
as
(Figs.
4)
is
show
this.
The
rigid
that there
bond
when
Ex-
amounts of water the adsorbed layers would become thicker until a thickness was reached at which orientation was nil or imperfect. Such water, having fluid properties, could Acact as a lubricant between the flakes.
place.
With
increasing
reached.
trusion
fluid
is
water
present.
compression
strength
sand-clay-water
mixtures
strength
is
(Fig.
cording to
when
there
is enough water to supply all the rigid water that can develop on available surfaces and a little more water that has poor or no orientation to act as a lubricant between flakes (Fig. 2). Large amounts of additional water provide much fluid water and
limits which probably correspond to the maximum amount of rigid Additional water that can be adsorbed. amounts of adsorbed water are at least partially unoriented with attendant large
row moisture
time factor
may
be involved in the
In
soil
materials,
the
development of some plastic properties. For example, the compressive strength of some sand-clay-water mixtures increases
gradually within short periods of time in
oriented
to
nonoriented
The
explanais
that a certain
amount
of time
re-
in
of
water,
of
course,
exists
oriented completely.
EFFECT ON SOIL-WATER SYSTEMS
NON PLASTIC STATE
PLASTIC STATE
Clay
mineral
Oriented
water
molecules
/ \ -- \ -^-x ^ \/
Nc-n oriented
water molecules
Clay
mineral
Fig. 2.
Schematic
laboratory.
effect
The
of the
Na+
clays as
compared
Ca++
or
H+
effect of
some chemicals on
The
on
deter-
of
the
treating
to
agents
be
mined, but the present data indicate that it is small. This is to be expected since the
"Limits" for these natural clays are low and the exchange capacity for illite and kaolinite are also low (20-40 and 3-15 respectively).
Illite
cloy
|
(NaP0
Sodium
montmorillonite .... 8 percent water.. "slurrv"
.
3) G
percent
Viscosity in centipoises
10
0.2 0.4
48 23
18
* c
1000
/
\
X
\
Not
all
\
\
4)
amounts of magnesium and boron are known to alter clay-bonding Small amounts of sodium, properties. hydrogen, and aluminum as exchangeable
to phosphates small
Moisture
in
Table
presents
Atterberg
Limits
for
Fig.
3.
Relation
the
power necessary
The
latter
an auger machine,
Atterberg Limits
Plastic Limit
*
Liquid Limit
Plastic Indi
Materials Studied
-d
<L>
t3
t3
rt 0J
C
\D
d Ph E
54
63
o E
C/3
O
Ph
OS
<L>
rt <u
fc
rt
o Ph &
C/3
n E
O Ph
rt
4-J
<u
O Ph E
286
56
n E
C/3
Montmorillo n ite
1.
Na +
exchangeable base
base
97
50 77
48
700 340
124
118
250
142
395
603
52
200
65
347
2.
Wyoming Ca ++ exchangeable
72
82
119
3.
36
Mississippi
Illite
4.
5.
25
23
26
21
24
36 29
35
36
31
11
5
12
10
10
Kao Unite
6.
7.
Georgia
Union County,
111
30 37
35
32
35 58
68
68
21
33
36
Natural mixtures
8.
Illite
plus plus
10%
montmorillonite
111.
26
27
28 35
31
25
58
61
52
61
61
48
32
25
25
33
27
23
Greene County,
9. Illite
5%
montmorillonite
111.
36
33
34
31
62 74
67
27
Grundy County,
10.
Kaolinite plus
10%
montmorillonite
39
65
65
32
34
43
23
Georgia
Chemical
added
to
tempering
water
in
such
quantity
that
A
of
understood,
the
exchangeable
Na+
to
favors
that they
influence
orientation
of
the
adsorbed
water
nites
with
gradual
transition
non-
water molecules.
ness to
The
influence
may
be in
oriented water.
In sodium montmorillo-
which good orientation can develop, or the abruptness of the transition from
oriented to nonoriented water.
tion of the phosphate unit (Ref.
at least
good orientation may extend through 100 molecular layers. When cal-
Calcium-
that
would about
fit
tion of the
itself
water molecules.
The
phosphate
Hollo ysite
da)
any water associated with it would not tend to fit into the oriented water associated with
the clay surfaces.
The
result
would be
it
to
^^ ^-^ =^r^ y/ y
I
s~ V
Ilite
clay
Kaolinite clay
1
between
viscosity.
flakes
which
in turn
would reduce
Fig. 4.
1.6
2.5
3.5
Relation of compression strength to tempering water and sand-clay mixtures containing 6 percent clay.
erals,
is
whereas that of
Na+
as
montmorillonite
montmorillonite
and
is
Ca ++ or H + much as twenty
illite.
Clearly
partic-
montmorillonite
ularly
the component,
is
when
Na +
present,
with
the
usually encountered.
to
The
gineering problems
ing with a
soil
clear.
If
one
is
deal-
Sample
10
in
contains
addition
10
to
percent
kaolinite.
montmorillonite
The presence of montmorillonite causes little change in the Plastic Limit, but increases the Liquid Limit about twofold so that the Plastic Index is increased four to six times
by only 5 percent montmorillonite.
In general terms,
it
appears that
soil
materials
vironments
slight
are
in
lattice
changes
may
For
about 9.5
them.
would be destroyed by changes in amount or movement of groundwater, and by changes in the amount of adsorbed Ca++ that would follow construction using Portland cement in a soil
The
amounts
is
of water, particularly
when sodium
the
exchangeable base.
faces of
Na +
The
the
to
of
tremendous
soil
effects
on
growth
addition
oriented
water molecules.
has
properties
of
materials
adjacent
In
montmorillonite
capacity
high
milli-
base-exchange
morillonite
(about
are
100
to
calcium
provided
by
the
concrete
itself
so that
montcarry
apt
water.
The
its
soil
The
plastic
due
to
property of breaking
down
into
White
minerals that compose them (Ref, 3), and (Ref. 14) has recently carefully
measured the Atterberg Limits of pure clayThe Attermineral samples (Table 2). berg Limits of kaolinite and illite are roughly the same. Sample 7 is relatively finer grained than sample 6, indicating the order of magnitude of the increase in the "Limits," particularly the Liquid Limit, as
the particle size of
creases.
Where soil materials are composed of a mixture of montmorillonite and other clay minerals, the components may be present either as mixtures of discrete aggregate
particles of the individual clay minerals or
as
few unit
erals.
montmorillonite with
kaolinite
or
illite
de-
The
is
properties
about
effect
proportional
to
the
about three times that of kaolinite or illite. The Liquid Limit for montmorillonites
carrying
amount
latter
of montmorillonite present.
In the
as
case, in
the
is
much
greater as
is
Ca ++ and/or
H>
is
about three
shown
min-
The
explanation
kaolinite
occur in
soil
10
not
much
If,
smaller units in
of
found to be true (Refs. 6, 8) and is one the effects on soil properties of the
adsorbed organics.
however, layers
Jordan
(Ref.
10)
has
recently
shown
the kaolinite or
notably mont-
which the aggregates can break up in the Obviously, under such presence of water. conditions, relatively few such planes would cause relatively great breaking up of the clay mineral particles with attendant great
increase in plastic properties.
morillonite, when carrying adsorbed organic molecules of particular kinds are organophilic
Such clay
presence
gels.
of
suitable
gels
organic
liquids
forming
Such
show almost no air-drying, and have very low bearing power. Organic-clay mineral
complexes are undoubtedly to be found in nature. Swamps, bogs, and slough fillings would be probable places, and soils containing
in soils
as discrete particles
bits of leaves,
such
fragments of wood,
is
and
striking
and un-
spores,
usual properties.
that
It
in the colloidal
or molecular state.
that
has
long been
known
organic
can increase the plastic properties of clay. The exact nature of the organic material
in soils
in
is
soil
materials
is
presented that
based
still
work
several
on the oriented configuration of the water molecules initially adsorbed by the clay It mineral components of such materials.
is
by the clay minerals. The findings go a long way in explaining the manner in which organic material is present in soils and its
influence on soil properties.
shown
ularly
the
Atterberg
the
Limits,
may vary
of
greatly
because of
presence
small
sur-
faces of
amounts of certain chemical components, and an explanation is offered based on the effect of such components on the orientation of the water molecules. It is shown that relatively small amounts
of montmorillonite
units, that
may
cause a relatively
sorb water.
MacEwan
those
great increase
soil
in
materials.
is
The
structure
of
it
is
montinter-
shown
with polar groups are favored and that both montmorillonite and halloysite may adsorb organics between the unit cells. Grim, Allaway, and Cuthbert (Ref. 6) have shown that the clay minerals illite and kaolinite also have some adsorpthat
tion capacity for organics.
morillonite
such that
when
it
forms
break-down
of
the
clay
mineral
particles
plasticity.
on the same surfaces that can adsorb water, a decrease or elimination of water adsorbing capacity would be an expected result of the This has been adsorption of organics.
Certain kinds of organic molecules and Such some clay mineral may form gels. components probably explain the unusual and extreme properties in some peculiar
soil
materials.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
1.
11
Bragg,
W.
L.,
Gieseking,
change
Mechanism of cation exmontmorillonite-beidelliteSoil nontronite type of clay minerals. Science 47, pp. 1-14, 1939.
J.
in
the
3.
Grim, R.
E.,
The
clay minerals in
soils
and
9.
Hendricks, S. B., Base exchange of the clay mineral montmorillonite for organic cations and its dependence upon adsorption due to Van der Waal's forces. Jour. Phys.
significance. Proc. Purdue Contheir ference, Soil Mechanics and Its Application, pp. 216-222, 1940; Illinois Geol. Survey, Cir. 65, 1940.
4.
Chem.
Hofmann,
U.,
Endell, K., Wilm, D., The and swelling of montKrist 86, pp.
340-348,
Grim,
R. E., Modern concepts of clay materials. Jour. Geol. 50, pp. 225-275, 1942; Illinois Geol. Survey, Rept. Inv. 80, 1942.
E.,
Jordan, J. W., Bentonite in organic systems, Part I, Swelling in organic liquids, Mss.,
Mellon
11.
5.
Grim, R.
erals.
and Cuthbert,
F.
L.,
Some
MacEwan,
Am.
1945.
103,
6.
Illinois
D. M. C, Complexes of clays with organic compounds, Pt. I, Complex *" formation between the clay minerals montmorillonite and halloysite and certain organic liquids. Rothamsted Experimental
Station,
Grim, R.
bert,
F.
Allaway, W.
H.,
and Cuth12.
Reaction of different clay minerals with some organic cations. Jour. Am. Cer. Soc. 30, pp. 137-145, 1947; Illinois Geol. Survey, Rept. Inv. 123, 1947.
L.,
7.
Pauling,
p.
13.
Wayne, T.
U.
S.
Treatment of
drilling fluids.
Hendricks,
B.,
14.
White,
M.S.
W.
A.,
The
properties
Illinois,
thesis,
Univ. of
of clays, 1947.
RALPH
Introduction
E.
GRIM
persing
of
agent.
The
mineral
composition
in
Investigations
logical
are in progress
in
the
GeoUrbana, Illinois, studying the specific relations between the factors of composition (Ref. 2)* of soil materials and The probtheir soil mechanics properties. lem is being approached in two ways: first, by the determination of the properties of
laboratories of the Illinois State
petrographic microscope.
effort
Survey,
was made
all
to
by repeated
sedimentation,
of the
minus 2 micron
and minus 1 micron fractions without the use of any dispersing agents. The composition of these fine fractions was determined by X-ray diffraction and differential thermal methods. Base-exchange capacity, pH,
pure clay minerals, of controlled mixtures of pure clay minerals and nonclay minerals,
and of pure clay minerals prepared with and second, by adsorbed ions specific
;
exchangeable bases, and soluble salts were determined for each soil by the conventional methods used by soil scientists in agriculture. Ammonium acetate was the leaching agent used in the determination of the exchangeable bases and soluble salts.
making complete analyses of the composition and texture of a series of soils known by
experience and tests to have unusual propin an effort to locate the cause of unusual character. These soils are being obtained through the help of Professor Terzaghi of Harvard University and Professor Peck of the University of Illinois,
erties,
the
soils are
shown
in figures
form
of cumulative curves,
and
whose cooperation
edged.
is
gratefully
acknowl-
Krumbein (Ref.
7).
It will be
briefly the
soils,
methods
the com-
of
widely different
found that some of the frequency curves have been slightly smoothed. This was done in order to eliminate minor irregularities which are not significant and which
are probably outside of the limit of error
of
The
frequency
the individual
The
soils
considered
curves
curve.
terial
show
selected from a large have been analyzed because they illustrate some broad general relationships between composition and properties.
herein
have
been
various size
number
that
Method
Only about
half
of Analysis
of
For example, the percentage of mabetween 0.005 and 0.002 mm. in any sample is obtained by dividing that portion of the area under the curve which is bounded by vertical lines constructed at the 0.005 and 0.002 mm. divisions of the horizontal
axis by the total area
the
samples were
The
that
the component
minerals of
satisfactorily
samples
is
could
be
dispersed
were made by the pipette method, using sodium hexametaphosphate as the disanalyses
References are given at end of paper, p. 21.
shown
form of frequency distribution curves. The relative abundance of the component minerals in any given particle
also in the
[13]
14
1.
Analytical Data
Number
bfl
solugrams
C
in
Exchangeable
4->
<L>
Location
2 S <D O
salts
100
'e's
M
3
Sample
-'g
bases
1J
1.
ble me/
rt
60-80*
U rt'S A S 8 3
to
g
(U
Brown
Cairo,
Egypt
38.7
8.0
45.1
25-40* Swells
intensely
2.
Dark
Cairo,
K+
Swelling
Egypt
56.5
7.6
50.6
40-50*
30-50* inconsequential
3.
Alexandria,
100*
100+*
High
compressibility
Egypt
68.0
7.9
51.2
4.
Helouan,
Egypt
20.0
8.4
53.9
Swells greatly
5.
"Kurzawka"
soil,
Poland
7.2
8.8
1.7
phane
6.
.78
K+
19.9
9.1
68.4
Panama Panama
7.
Canal,
37
16.47
some
halloysite
Nespelm
silt
K+
Illite
11.3
8.1
44.5
Nespelm
silt
K+
Illite
with
59.15
54.5
8.1
17.9
small amounts
kaolinite
4.75
and
montmorillonite
Illite
London
voir,
clay
6.0
24.7
London
9.7
K+ Na+ Ca ++ Mg++ S0 4
with
60-751
22-28J
and montmorillonite
* Personal
t See
Ref
size
under
frequency
distribution
curves
Results of Analyses
Liquid
tained
for
Limit
all
determinations
were ob-
The
results
1
of
the
analyses
1.
are
given
the
in figures
to 8
and Table
SOILS
Discussion
Soils i
AND
15
and
2, Cairo,
Egypt
(figs.
and
1
2).
"Soils
test
"HEAVY"
MINERALS /
,
//
and are typical for Cairo Total thickness of both clay deposits combined is about 30 feet. The surface of the clay stratum is covered with
clays.
MICAl,
^MICA /.CARBONATE
1
y -
Fig.
1.
QUARTZ
10
i==
*
5
CLAY MINERAL
1
thin
layer
of
artificial
fill.
The
clay
50 40 30 20
0.5
MICRONS
on a very thick stratum of fine sand which becomes coarser with depth. The brown clay constitutes the top and the dark one the bottom layer. The liquid limit of the brown (upper) clay varies between 60 and 80 percent and the natural water content between 25 and 40. The liquid limit of the dark (lower) clay varies between 40 and 50 and the natural water content between 30 and 50. The upper clay is stiff or very stiff and the lower one soft to medium. The upper clay swells intensely whereas the swelling of the lower one is
rests
Brown
two
clay, Cairo.
Thus when
sodium
is
calcium or magnesium
base,
is
the exchange-
able
considerably
thinner
adsorbed
Sodium montmorillonite clays tend to swell very much, whereas calcium or magnesium montmorillonite
clays
inconsequential."
tend
to
swell
very
little.
Soil
1,
The dominant
1
composition factor in
soils
and 2
is
as the clay
account for the Liquid Limit values, the high natural water contents, and the swelling
characteristics.
is
which swells, carries sodium as the predominant exchangeable base whereas soil 2, which does not swell appreciably, probably has no significant exchangeable sodium. The sodium clay would be expected also
;
The
montmorillonite
to
clay mineral
unique
in that
water enters
cell
calcium clay.
between
the
individual
unit
layers
Of
considerable importance
is
the point
(Ref. 3), thereby causing the lattice to expand and the mineral to swell; this is
need be satisfied with sodium in order to produce the clay-water relationship characteristic
of
this
cation.
Generally
when
and the consequent rigidity of the water in the first few molecular layers accounts for
the solid character of these soils at relatively
/
/
e
CLAY MINERAL
The
the
^CARBONATE
')
/, 'O-OSILICA (ORGANIC
exchangeable
base
carried
by the
*
20
5
50 40 30
MICRONS
communication.
Fig. 2.
Dark
clay, Cairo.
16
/
CLAY M INERAL
There seems
MICA
50 40 30 20
10
MICRONS
would
Fig.
3.
cording
to
Professor
a
"comes from
boundaries
of
Egypt (fig. 3). AcTerzaghi* this soil boring from the southern
The
versus
Alexandria.
The
stratum
calcium
(and
magnesium)
montthe clay
when
In the
presence
amounts of moisture, that is, moisture adequate to form adsorbed water layers only a few molecular layers thick (yielding adsorbed water values up to about 60 percent), calcium montmorillonite comes to equilibrium at higher moisture content than sodium montmorillonite
limited
40 feet and rests on a thick sand stratum. The water content of this clay is commonly about 100, the Liquid Limit is also close to As 100, and the clay is very compressible. a consequence catastrophic settlements have
of soft clay has a thickness of about
occurred.
The
content."
As
soil
in soils
and
2,
(Ref. 8).
a dessicant,
whereas sodium montmorillonite is unsatisfactory for this purpose. Therefore the higher natural moisture content of soil 2, which swells very little and has the lower Liquid Limit, is in accord with the presence of calcium or possibly magnesium as the exchangeable ion. It follows from the high base-exchange capacity of montmorillonite and the different properties that result from difference in the exchangeable bases, that any change
in the
soil as 1
soluble salt.
a
In addition, this
soil
con-
tains
cent less
(68 percent less than 1 micron and 59 perthan 0.5 micron) which would
its
further add to
plastic properties. a
The
(sample
soil
has
too
high
small
of
organic
for
content
was
for
quantitative
re-
determination)
sponsible
much
its
compressibility.
The
in
properties.
change
in
groundwater
movement
cause the
minerals montmorillonite and have the property of adsorbing certain organic molecules and then of forming stiff gel-like masses in the presence of
clay
halloysite
change
its
properties.
would For
(Ref. 6).
to
Such
little
masses would
strength.
It
is
be
expected
have
example, placing concrete structures in such a soil might well provide a supply of Ca+ +
to the
soil,
thus
for
are
an
important
particle
factor
soils.
determining
of
Another
worth noting
montmorillonite
is that the minerals readily adsorb water again after drying unless all
The
quartz,
size
is
distribution
the
removed.
which
The
adsorbed water
may
be lost at tempera-
communication.
SOILS
AND
17
/^
(V
working
of
of the material.
The break-down
masses
is is
the
aggregates
or
book-like
particularly easy
when montmorillonite
present because
ness.
of
Helouan
specific
soil
was
and
/
dispersion
obtained.
In general,
V
soils
Ml
V
|
of little significance.
difficult to
might be
soils
CAR 30NA
50 40 30 20
;lay mineral
h
MICRONS
Fig. 4.
because their properties would undoubtedly be very sensitive to any working or disturbing,
or
to
such
in the fine silt
as
fluctuation
of
ion
content
would
add
the
peculiar
properties
that
have
this soil.
Helouan, Egypt (fig. 4). According to Professor Terzaghi* this sample "was taken from a shallow sewer trench in Helouan about 50 km. south of Cairo
at the foot of the east slope of the
"Kurzawka" soil, Poland (fig. 5). small dried sample of this soil was received from Ir. A. Pogany of Krakow, Poland. It is not possible to correlate this
Soil 5,
moun-
tains
Suez.
sult
which separate the Nile Valley from The clay was very stiff. As a reof the failure of a water conduit be-
sample with the "Kurzawka" samples recently described by Pogany (Ref. 9) and it is not known how typical the sample is
of
the
general
characteristics
of
the
more than
Kurzawka. Because the sample received was small and was dry it was impossible to
determine
ever,
its
a foot."
The
of
particular properties.
a
How-
clay mineral
Na+ would
The
in
the
relation
with about 75 percent finer than 2 microns and about 55 percent in the 2 to 1 micron size grade, is undoubtedly very significant in determining the properties of the material.
80
'
/
70
The
analytical
montmorillonite.
The
50
soils of
somewhat
found that almost any particle size distribution can be obtained by varying the dispersing procedure, for example, the
of stirring in a mechanical mixer,
30
amount
and the
20
dispersing agent.
to
1
The
reason
is
that the 2
50 40 30
like
~
20
* Personal
Fig.
5.
"Kurzawka"
MICRONS
soil,
Poland.
18
composition
reason
it
eral,
drying of any
soil
causes
some change
soils
is
in properties,
is
but in halloysite
there
composed of halloysite and allophane and consequently has low base-exchange capacity (Ref. 3) and should
material
The
soil
not swell.
microscopic examination of
on making the particle size analyses (Fig. 5), indicates that each grade is composed of aggregates of silt-sized nonclay minerals bonded together by the clay minerals. The
particle
size
For example, a slight loss of water from a composed of halloysite in highly hydrated form would tend to develop a plastic from an unplastic soil. Halloysite materials also have the property of developing "air-set" strength (Ref.
If the compressive strength of a test 5). specimen formed from a material contain-
analysis,
therefore,
does
not
ing
show
dividual
component minerals. Halloysite and allophane, unlike some other clay minerals such as the montmorillonites, are not
intermediate halloysite is determined immediately after forming and again some hours or days after forming (with the sample retained under conditions in which
no moisture
is
lost),
it
broken up readily
or agitated in
this
The
explana-
Kurzawka
distribution
it
therefore,
are
likely
to be resistant to working,
size
mass
site,
gradually
and
slowly
develops
an
material as
dition.
is
an increase
have certain unique properties which would be carried There are over to soils containing them. two forms of halloysite, a higher hydrate in its composition, and a form with 4H 2 lower hydrate form with 2H 2 0. A transition which is not ordinarily reversible from the higher to lower form takes place rapidly at temperatures of about 60 C. and slowly Halloysite mateat lower temperatures. rials, as found in their natural condition, are frequently in a transition state between the 4H 2 and 2H 2 form. Material in the transition state frequently has very high plastic properties (Ref. 4), whereas material in either the low or high hydrate form
halloysite clay minerals
is
The
in strength.
sorbs certain organic compounds, and therefore halloysite soils that have an appreciable
organic content
site gels of
may
considerable instability.
Soil
6,
Cucaracha
clay,
Gaillard
cut,
Panama
H.
is
Canal, Panama.
Several samples
of this clay
Stratton,
The
distribution curve
terial as received
presented.
The ma-
relatively nonplastic.
It
The
particle
size
analysis
obtained
in
any drying of a
mineral
soil
containing
a
this
clay
would
cause
great
change in properties. Great care would be needed to preserve the moisture content in samples selected for testing, and one could not generally expect to use the same sample Of greater signiffor repeated check tests.
icance
site
is
ing of sample, and has, therefore, no inherent meaning so far as properties of the
clay
is
concerned.
clay
The dominant
is
mineral component
the
fact
that
working a halloy-
during construction might be expected to permit some drying, with consequent great change in properties. In gensoil
change capacity reflects the montmorillonite, and the ion determinations (Table 1) show that calcium is the dominant exchange-
SOIL
able
base.
is
7,
N ESP ELM
SILT
The
19
Because calcium,
the
rather
than
slickensided fracture
sodium,
morillonite
surfaces
influence properties
swelling variety.
montmorillonite tend to break down readily in water to very small particle sizes. The Cucaracha clay is unique in being a montmorillonite material which does not so break down. It also has a much lower liquid limit and
materials
Clay
of
water
Soil 7
',
Nespelm
Silt,
Bank
of Reservoir,
upstream from Coulee Dam, Columbia River, Washington, U.S.A. (fig. 6). The
particle
size
distribution,
with
the
silt
high
range,
is
usual for
montmorillonite
clays
(Ref.
2).
There
properties
material.
Possibly
the
mica
in the
all
significant.
very fine
silt
is
significant also.
The
clay
mineral
illite
should
cause
no
unusual
that
carries
calcium
properties.
unlike
known
such
Na+,
would retard
study
has
of a
The
soils
considerable
number
or
of
shown
generally
impossible
to
any significant reproducible particle Third, the Cucaracha clay has been subject to high earth pressures, as evidenced by the slickenside surfaces and
into
size
have properties, particularly extreme instability when water saturated, that make them difficult or even dangerous to use. The explanation probably lies in the character of the bond between the silt particles. At low moisture contents the bond is probably a thin molecular film of water which has rigidity and bonding strength because
of the orientation of the
distribution.
water molecules.
with a consequent loss in rigidity and bond between particles. The cause of the orientation of the water molecules
layer,
the individual
together,
probably
in
part
resides
in
the
internal
and
many
instances probably
forcing
layers.
and therefore would be expected to decrease with increasing distance from the surface of the
structure of the
silt particles,
As noted
happens water goes back into the structure with great difficulty, and such material does not have
above,
this
when
The two
first,
surfaces
that
provide a tremendous
number
of planes of
water could penetrate, giving the material then little strength, and second, the collapsed
montmorillonite.
In
the
case
of
collapsed montmorillonite some water would no doubt enter very slowly between the unit layers in any masses of clay where water was available in considerable abun-
50 40 30
r ^A
>
20
//
ICA
CLAY MINERAL!
MICRONS
Fig.
6.
Nespelm
silt,
Personal
communication,
J.
H. Stratton.
of Coulee
Dam.
20
as
com-
pared to sample 7 are, of course, a consequence of the increased clay content and
the presence of montmorillonite.
Soil 9, London clay, Chinford Reservoir Puddle Clay, London (fig. 8). This sample was kindly sent by Prof. A. W. Skempton of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London.
/
/' /
MICA
C
LAY MINERAL
MICRONS
Fig.
7.
Nespelm
silt,
Columbia River,
Kettle
Falls area.
component of this about 70 percent illite, 20 percent kaolinite, and 10 percent montmorillonite. In general, the illite and
clay
The
mineral
London
clay
sample
is
particles. It would probably operate through distances of only a few molecular layers of water. It seems likely that the
silt
montmorillonite in a
tinct influence
silt
would
also
in-
As much as 10 percent soil would have dison properties and would ac-
Ca++ would
of
count for the high shrinkage (Ref. 10) and generally high plastic properties. fairly high content of clay sized material (46.1
probably
rigid
If
cause
thicker
film
highly
percent minus
water than other ions such as Na+. this is true, a change in the character of
relatively small
amount
of
montmorillonite
tends
to
in-
would
degree because
it
mass of concrete in such a soil thereby it with calcium ions might well change its stability without any change in its water content.
flooding
Soil 8,
of
pH
to
easily
soluble
indicate
too
few cations
satisfy the
Nespelm
Silt,
ment
of
,
west bank of Columbia River, Coulee Dam area, Washington, U.S.A. (fig. 7). This
sample, like
soil
S0 4
that
the
ex-
area,
is
change positions on the clay are occupied chiefly by H+ as well as Ca++. As Ca++ and H+ are the exchangeable ions in this sample, it should show insignificant
swelling.
The
siderably
more
The
capacity.
The
7)
decrease
in
the
concentration
of
40
sized material
would be expected
to in-
by providing a clay bond which would be stronger than a water bond between the silt
particles.
30
of
mont10
\
QUARTZ WITH SMALL AMOUNT C
50 40 30
along
k^
10
/ MICA
^J2.
5
with the
would reduce
Liquid Limits
the stability
CLAY MINERAL
3
2
20
MICRONS
The
higher
and higher
Fig.
8.
London
clay,
Chinford Reservoir.
REFERENCES
lonite
21
makes
for
is
it
properties.
It
case
either
or
kaolinite
alone.
There
exchange
properties
such
clay
because
Ca + +
soils will undoubtedly add additional factors, and also that there will be some soils in which these factors do not produce particularly bad soil properties
study of additional
and particularly H+ are relatively more resistant to exchange than many other
because
other
It
is
factors
tend
as
to
neutralize
them.
of
common
increases
ions (e.g.
this
Na+).
kind frequently the
composition
such
to
make
it
In clays of
pH
difficult to predict,
tests,
on the
basis of laboratory
upper clays
from the surface downward, with being acid and lower clays
In the weathering process
seeping waters tend to remove
being alkaline.
downward
alkalies
and alkaline earths progressively from the surface downward. There should,
of course, be a correlative
erties of the clay
change
in prop-
the behavior of a soil in the ground under load and throughout a future interval of time. Also they cause a soil to have properties that are quite likely to change as a consequence of changes in soil environment, such as changes in groundwater circulation or changes due to construction.
and
in sensitivity to base-
The
a)
exchange reactions.
montmorillonite minerals.
b)
c)
halloysite minerals.
d)
The
able base.
e)
f)
that have
somewhat unusual
are
properties per-
High
that
apt
to
give
soil
unusual
REFERENCES
1.
Glossop, R.,
The London
clay, Pt.
1,
Field
6.
Jordan,
of
and
Laboratory
2.
Grim,
R. E., Some fundamental factors influencing the properties of soil materials. Proceedings International Conference on
Soil
ing, vol. Ill,
J. W., Alteration of the properties bentonite by reaction with amines "Clay Minerals presented before the Group" of the Mineralogical Society at meetings of Int. Geol. Congress, London, 1948.
7.
Krumbein, W. C,
vol. 4,
bution of sediments.
8.
3.
Grim, R.
terials.
Modern concepts of soil maJour, of Geology, 50, pp. 2251942; Illinois Geol. Survey, Rept.
E.,
Mering,
On the hydration of montJ., morillonite, Trans. Faraday Soc. XLIIB, pp. 205-219, 1946.
Grim, R. E., and Cuthbert, F. L., The bonding action of clays Pt. I. Clays in green molding sands. Illinois Geol. Sur-
9.
Pogany, A., Soft Rock (K. Kurzawka), Proceedings International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, vol. Ill, pp. 105-109, 1948.
Grim, R. E., and Cuthbert, F. L., The bonding action of clays Pt. II. Clays in dry molding sands. Illinois Geol. Survey,
10.
Ward, W.
H.,
The London
clay,
Pt.
4,
123-124,
1948.