Chapter 84

Sports Physiology

1057

I.

Phosphocreatine ATP
?

Creatine ? PO
3

II. Glycogen Lactic acid AD P ? O

CO ? ! O

Energy for muscle contrac tion

Figure 841 Important metabolic systems that supply energy for muscle contraction.

III. Glucose Fatty acids Amino acids

" #rea

AMP

still another 7300 calories become available. Removal of the first phosphate converts the ATP into adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and removal of the second converts this ADP into adenosine monophosphate (AMP). The amo nt of ATP present in the m scles, even in a !ell"trained athlete, is s fficient to s stain ma#imal m scle po!er for onl$ abo t 3 seconds, ma$be eno %h for one half of a &0"meter dash. Therefore, e#cept for a fe! seconds at a time, it is essential that ne! ATP be formed contin o sl$, even d rin% the performance of short athletic events. 'i% re ()*+ sho!s the overall metabolic s$stem, demonstratin% the brea,do!n of ATP first to ADP and then to AMP, !ith the release of ener%$ to the m scles for contraction. The left" hand side of the fi% re sho!s the three metabolic s$stems that provide a contin o s s ppl$ of ATP in the m scle fibers. Phosphocreatine-Creatine System Phosphocreatine (also called creatine

phosphate) is another chemical compo nd that has a hi%h"ener%$ phosphate bond, !ith the follo!in% form la.reatine ? P/3? This can decompose to creatine and phosphate ion, as sho!n to the left in 'i% re ()*+, and in doin% so release lar%e amo nts of ener%$. 0n fact, the hi%h" ener%$ phos" phate bond of phosphocreatine has more ener%$ than the bond of ATP, +0,300 calories per mole in compari" son !ith 7300. Therefore, phosphocreatine can easil$ provide eno %h ener%$ to reconstit te the hi%h"ener%$ bond of ATP. ' rthermore, most m scle cells have t!o to fo r times as m ch phosphocreatine as ATP. A special characteristic of ener%$ transfer from phos" phocreatine to ATP is that it occ rs !ithin a small frac" tion of a second. Therefore, all the ener%$ stored in the m scle phosphocreatine is almost instantaneo sl$ avail" able for m scle contraction, 1 st as is the ener%$ stored in ATP.

The combined amo nts of cell ATP and cell phos" phocreatine are called the phosphagen energy system. These to%ether can provide ma#imal m scle po!er for ( to +0 seconds, almost eno %h for the +00"meter r n. Thus, the energy from the phosphagen system is used for maximal short bursts of muscle power. Glycogen$Lactic Acid %ystem. The stored %l$co%en in m scle can be split into %l cose and the %l cose then

glycolysis, occ rs !itho t se of o#$%en and, therefore, is said to be anaerobic metabolism (see .hapter 27). D rin% %l$col$sis, each %l cose molec le is split into t!o pyru ic acid molecules, and ener%$ is released to form fo r ATP molec les for each ori%inal %l cose molec le, as e#plained in .hapter 27. /rdinaril$, the p$r vic acid then enters the mitochondria of the m scle cells and reacts !ith o#$%en to form still man$ more ATP molec les. 3o!ever, !hen there is ins fficient o#$%en for this second sta%e (the o#idative sta%e) of %l cose metabolism to occ r, most of the p$r vic acid then is converted into lactic acid, !hich diff ses o t of the m scle cells into the interstitial fl id and blood. Therefore, m ch of the m scle %l$co%en is transformed to lactic acid, b t in doin% so, considerable amo nts of ATP are formed entirel$ !itho t the cons mption of o#$%en. Another characteristic of the %l$co%en"lactic acid s$stem is that it can form ATP molec les abo t 4.& times as rapidl$ as can the o#idative mechanism of the mitochondria. Therefore, !hen lar%e amo nts of ATP are re5 ired for short to moderate periods of m scle contraction, this anaerobic %l$col$sis mechanism can be sed as a rapid so rce of ener%$. 0t is, ho!ever, onl$ abo t one half as rapid as the phospha%en s$stem. 6nder optimal conditions, the %l$co%en"lactic acid s$stem can provide +.3 to +.2 min tes of ma#imal m scle activit$ in addition to the ( to +0 seconds pro" vided b$ the phospha%en s$stem, altho %h at some!hat red ced m scle po!er. Aerobic %ystem. The aerobic s$stem is the o#idation of foodst ffs in the mitochondria to provide ener%$. That is, as sho!n to the left in 'i% re ()*+, %l cose, fatt$ acids, and amino acids from the foodst ffs7after some inter" mediate processin%7combine !ith o#$%en to release tremendo s amo nts of ener%$ that are sed to convert AMP and ADP into ATP, as disc ssed in .hapter 27. 0n comparin% this aerobic mechanism of ener%$ s ppl$ !ith the %l$co%en"lactic acid s$stem and the phospha%en s$stem, the relative maximal rates of power generation in terms of moles of ATP %eneration per min te are the follo!in%Moles of ATP min

8l$co%en*lactic acid s$stem Phospha%en s$stem ) Aerobic s$stem sed for ener%$. The initial sta%e of this process, called

4.& +

!nit "# 105! 9hen comparin% the same s$stems for end rance, the relative val es are the follo!in%-

Sports Physiology

Time Phospha%en s$stem ( to +0 seconds 8l$co%en*lactic acid s$stem +.3 to +.2 min tes Aerobic s$stem 6nlimited time (as lon% as n trients last) Th s, one can readil$ see that the phospha%en s$stem is the one sed b$ the m scle for po!er s r%es of a fe! seconds, and the aerobic s$stem is re5 ired for pro" lon%ed athletic activit$. 0n bet!een is the %l$co%en"lactic acid s$stem, !hich is especiall$ important for %ivin% e#tra po!er d rin% s ch intermediate races as the 400" to (00"meter r ns. &hat 'ypes of %ports #se &hich Energy %ystems( :$ consid" erin% the vi%or of a sports activit$ and its d ration, one can estimate closel$ !hich of the ener%$ s$stems is sed for each activit$. ;ario s appro#imations are presented in Table ()*+. )eco*ery of the +uscle +etabolic %ystems After E,ercise. 0n the same !a$ that the ener%$ from phosphocreatine can be sed to reconstit te ATP, ener%$ from the %l$co%en" lactic acid s$stem can be sed to reconstit te both phos" phocreatine and ATP. And then ener%$ from the Ta$le 841 %nergy Systems !se& in #arious Sports Phosphagen system' almost entirely +00"meter dash < mpin% 9ei%ht liftin% Divin% 'ootball dashes Phosphagen an& glycogen-lactic aci& systems 400"meter dash :as,etball (ate of o)ygen upta*e +, min:aseball home r n 0ce hoc,e$ dashes .lycogen-lactic aci& system' mainly )00"meter dash +00"meter s!im Tennis =occer .lycogen-lactic aci& an& aero$ic systems (00"meter dash

400"meter s!im +&00"meter s,atin% :o#in% 4000"meter ro!in% +&00"meter r n +"mile r n )00"meter s!im Aero$ic system +0,000"meter s,atin% .ross"co ntr$ s,iin% Marathon r n (42.4 miles, )4.4 ,m) <o%%in%

o#idative metabolism of the aerobic s$stem can be sed to reconstit te all the other s$stems"the ATP, the phos" phocreatine, and the %l$co%en"lactic acid s$stem. Reconstit tion of the lactic acid s$stem means mainl$ the removal of the e#cess lactic acid that has acc m " lated in all the fl ids of the bod$. This is especiall$ important beca se lactic acid causes extreme fatigue. 9hen ade5 ate amo nts of ener%$ are available from o#idative metabolism, removal of lactic acid is achieved in t!o !a$s- (+) A small portion of it is converted bac, into p$r vic acid and then metaboli>ed o#idativel$ b$ all the bod$ tiss es. (4) The remainin% lactic acid is reconverted into %l cose mainl$ in the liver, and the %l cose in t rn is sed to replenish the %l$co%en stores of the m scles. )eco*ery of the Aerobic %ystem After E,ercise. ?ven d rin% the earl$ sta%es of heav$ e#ercise, a portion of one@s aerobic ener%$ capabilit$ is depleted. This res lts from t!o effects(+) the so"called oxygen debt and (4) deple" tion of the glycogen stores of the m scles. O,ygen -ebt. The bod$ normall$ contains abo t 4 liters of stored o#$%en that can be sed for aerobic metabo" lism even !itho t breathin% an$ ne! o#$%en. This stored o#$%en consists of the follo!in%- (+) 0.& liter in the air of the l n%s, (4) 0.4& liter dissolved in the bod$ fl ids, (3) + liter combined !ith the hemo%lobin of the blood, and ()) 0.3 liter stored in the m scle fibers them" selves, combined mainl$ !ith m$o%lobin, an o#$%en" bindin% chemical similar to hemo%lobin. 0n heav$ e#ercise, almost all this stored o#$%en is sed !ithin a min te or so for aerobic metabolism. Then, after the e#ercise is over, this stored o#$%en m st be replenished b$ breathin% e#tra amo nts of o#$%en over and above the normal re5 irements. 0n addition, abo t

E , e r c i s e

Alactaci& o)ygen &e$t / 012 liters ,actic aci& o)ygen &e$t / 8 liters

A liters more o#$%en m st be cons med to provide for reconstit tin% both the phospha%en s$stem and the lactic acid s$stem. All this e#tra o#$%en that m st be Brepaid,C abo t ++.& liters, is called the o#$%en debt. 'i% re ()*4 sho!s this principle of o#$%en debt. D rin% the first ) min tes of the fi% re, the person e#er" cises heavil$, and the rate of o#$%en pta,e increases

. / 3

0 1 tes Figure 843 )ate of o,ygen upta4e by the lungs during ma,imal e,ercise for / minutes and then for about /1 minutes after the e,ercise is o*er. 'his figure demonstrates the principle of oxygen debt. 1 / 2 0 33 /1 // 03 1 Minu / 2 3

Chapter 84

Sports Physiology

105#

hours of e,erc ise Muscle glycogen content +g *g muscle/

1 03

!igh$carbohydrate diet
5o food Fat and protein diet

Figure 840 Effect of diet on the rate of muscle glycogen replenishment after pro$ longed e,ercise. 6)edra7n from Fo, EL8 %ports Physiology. Philadelphia8 %aunders College Publishing9 0:;:.<

/ 1 1 01 .1 1 31 4ours of reco5ery /1 . days

more than +&"fold. Then, even after the e#ercise is over, the o#$%en pta,e still remains above normal, at first ver$ hi%h !hile the bod$ is reconstit tin% the phospha" %en s$stem and repa$in% the stored o#$%en portion of the o#$%en debt, and then for another )0 min tes at a lo!er level !hile the lactic acid is removed. The earl$ portion of the o#$%en debt is called the alactacid oxygen debt and amo nts to abo t 3.& liters. The latter portion is called the lactic acid oxygen debt and amo nts to abo t ( liters. )eco*ery of +uscle Glycogen. Recover$ from e#ha stive m scle %l$co%en depletion is not a simple matter. This often re5 ires da$s, rather than the seconds, min tes, or ho rs re5 ired for recover$ of the phospha%en and lactic acid metabolic s$stems. 'i% re ()*3 sho!s this recover$ process nder three conditions- first, in people

. 01 1 P er ce nt ca r$ o hy &r at e us ag e ; . . 1
1

!igh$ carbohy drate diet +i,ed diet !igh$fat diet

% ) h a u st io

n 1 on a hi%h"carboh$drate dietD second, in people on a

hi%h"fat, hi%h"protein dietD and third, in people !ith no food. Eote that on a hi%h"carboh$drate diet, f ll recov"

Per cent fat usage . .1 / 0

;.
011

er$ occ rs in abo t 4 da$s. .onversel$, people on a hi%h" fat, hi%h"protein diet or on no food at all sho! ver$ little recover$ even after as lon% as & da$s. The messa%es of this comparison are (+) that it is important for an athlete to have a hi%h"carboh$drate diet before a %r elin% ath" letic event and (4) not to participate in e#ha stive e#er" cise d rin% the )( ho rs precedin% the event. 6utrients !se& During Muscle Acti5ity 0n addition to the lar%e sa%e of carboh$drates b$ the m scles d rin% e#ercise, especiall$ d rin% the earl$ sta%es of e#ercise, m scles se lar%e amo nts of fat for ener%$ in the form of fatty acids and acetoacetic acid (see .hapter 2(), and the$ se to a m ch less e#tent proteins in the form of amino acids. 0n fact, even nder the best conditions, in those end rance athletic events that last

1 01 3 / 1 /1 %econds !ours +inutes Duration of e)ercise Figure 844 Effect of duration of e,ercise as 7ell as type of diet on relati*e percentages of carbohydrate or fat used for energy by muscles. 6=ased partly on data in Fo, EL8 %ports Physiology. Philadelphia8 %aunders College Publishing9 0:;:.< lon%er than ) to & ho rs, the %l$co%en stores of the m scle become almost totall$ depleted and are of little f rther se for ener%i>in% m scle contraction. 0nstead, the m scle no! depends on ener%$ from other so rces, mainl$ from fats. 'i% re ()*) sho!s the appro#imate relative sa%e of carboh$drates and fat for ener%$ d rin% prolon%ed e#ha stive e#ercise nder three dietar$ conditions-

Than, $o for tr$in% =olid .onverter PD' Professional. The trial version of this prod ct onl$ converts +0F of $o r doc ment, !ith a +0 pa%e ma#im m. 'or this conversion, =olid .onverter PD' Professional converted 3 of ++&4 pa%es. Please purchase Solid Converter PDF Professional at http://www.solidpdf.com/buy.htm to remove this restriction.