Pre-Modern World History, Unit III: ChinaDynastic cycles and philosophy Readings in Chinese Philosophy

Confucianis
!Confucius: "he #nalects For centuries Confucius has been a source of inspiration to the people of China and East Asia, educated and illiterate. He has served as an example of how life can be well lived, personally and in government. This is not only because of his words and deeds but because of the total personality expressed in those words and deeds. Confucius is nown most for being a teacher. His disciples !followers" were loyal and put his sayings to paper to become a permanent and important part of Chinese society. The following selection of Analects !sayings of Confucius written down by his followers" is divided into sections that represent the ey teachings of Confucius# Education, Humanity, Filial Piety, Reciprocity and Government. $any of the Analects are recorded as verbal exchanges between Confucius and his disciples. The Analects record that %Confucius was gentle yet firm, dignified but not harsh, respectful yet well at ease !&#'&"( )translation from *ources of Chinese Tradition+. !$ducation Confucius stressed the importance of education, and while he believed in orderliness and permanence, he also believed that individuals could elevate themselves through learning. Elevation could mean rising up into government, but, more importantly, Confucius stressed the importance of rising up morally. *Confucius said, Those who are born with the possession of knowledge are the highest class of men. Those who learn, and so readily get possession of knowledge, are the next. Those who are dull and stupid, and yet compass the learning are another class next to these. As to those who are dull and stupid and yet do not learn--they are the lowest of the people. !"#$%& *The 'aster said, A scholar, whose mind is set on truth, and who is ashamed of bad clothes and bad food, is not fit to be discoursed with.( !)$%& Confucius said, *e who learns but does not think is lost+ he who thinks but does not learn is in danger. , *Confucius said, -n education there should be no class distinction.( !".$/0& Confucius said, There has ne1er been anyone who came with as little a present as dried meat !for tuition& that - ha1e refused to teach him something.( !2$2& Confucius said, 3ith coarse rice to eat, with water to drink, and with a bent arm for a pillow, there is still 4oy. 3ealth and honor obtained through unrighteousness are but floating clouds to me.( !2$".& Confucius said, - do not enlighten those who are not eager .to learn, nor arouse those who are not anxious to gi1e an explanation themsel1es. -f - ha1e presented one corner of the s5uare and they cannot come back to me with the other three, - should not go o1er the points again.( !2$0& The 6uke of 7he asked T8u-lu about Confucius, and T8u-lu did not answer. Confucius said, 3hy didn,t you say that - am a person who forgets his food when engaged in 1igorous pursuit of something, is so happy as to forget his worries, and is not aware that old age is coming on9( !2$"0& *Confucius said, - am not one who was born with knowledge+ - lo1e ancient !teaching& and earnestly seek it.( !2$":& Confucius said, 3hen walking in a party of three, - always ha1e teachers. - can select the good 5ualities of the one for imitation, and the bad ones of the other and correct them in myself.( !2$;", translation from 7ources of Chinese Tradition& T8u-lu asked, 7hould one immediately practice what one has heard9 Confucius said, There are father and elder brother !to be consulted&. 3hy immediately practice what one has heard9( <an =u !the disciple& asked, 7hould one immediately practice what one has heard9( Confucius said, >ne should immediately practice what one has heard.( ?ung-hsi *ua !another disciple, also called T8u-hua& said, 3hen =u !T8u-lu& asked you, 7hould one immediately practice what one has heard9@ you said, AThere are father and elder brother.@, 3hen Ch,iu !<an =u& asked you, A7hould you immediately practice what one has heard9 you said, A>ne should immediately practice what one has heard.@ - am perplexed, and 1enture to ask you for an explanation.( Confucius said, Ch@iu is retiring+ therefore - urged him forward. =u has more than one man@s energy+ therefore - kept him back.( !""$;"& Confucius said, -t is man that can make the 3ay great, and not the 3ay that can make man great.( !".$;0& *Confucius said+ By nature men are pretty much alike+ it is learning and practice that set them apart.( !2$;& Page 1

!Hu anity %and oral &eha'ior( ,f we were to ,dentify the virtue that Confucius and his followers regarded as most important, it would be that of -en !pronounced ren" or humanity. Though it is at the very heart of his teaching, Confucius never defined -en. .hen one of his disciples as ed him if a certain person or a certain ind of conduct exemplified -en, Confucius would usually reply that the person or the conduct in /uestion fell somewhat short of being -en. 0n the one hand he tells us that -en is not far away from us, and on the other he suggests that very few people are able to eep it constantly in mind. ,t will help you as you read the following selections to now that the Chinese word for -en is made up of two symbols# one means %a human being,( while the other symbol is the number two. *o the basic idea has to do with the way in which human beings relate to one another in society. Confucius said, The superior man has nine wishes. -n seeing, he wishes to see clearly. -n hearing, he wishes to hear distinctly. -n his expression, he wishes to be warm. -n his appearance, he wishes to be respectful. -n his speech, he wishes to be sincere. -n handling affairs, he wishes to be serious. 3hen in doubt, he wishes to ask. 3hen he is angry, he wishes to think of the resultant difficulties. And when he sees an opportunity for gain, he wishes to think of righteousness.( !"#$":& T8u-kung !one of Confucius,s disciples& asked about the superior man. *e acts before he speaks and then speaks according to his action,( Confucius said. !;$".& *Confucius said, >ne who is not a man of humanity ! -en& cannot endure ad1ersity for 1ery long, nor can he en4oy prosperity for long. The man of humanity is naturally at ease with humanity. The man of wisdom culti1ates humanity for its ad1antage.( !)$;& *Confucius said, -f you set your mind on humanity, you will be free from e1il.( !)$)& Confucius said, 3ealth and honor are what e1ery man desires. But if they ha1e been obtained in 1iolation of moral principles, they must not be kept. Co1erty and humble station are what e1ery man dislikes. But if they can be a1oided only in 1iolation of moral principles, they must not be a1oided. -f a superior man departs from humanity, how can he fulfill that name9 A superior man ne1er abandons humanity e1en for the lapse of a single meal. -n moments of haste, he acts according to it. -n times of difficulty and confusion, he acts according to it.( !)$.& *Confucius said, The superior man understands righteousness+ the inferior man understands profit.( !)$"#& *Confucius said, - ha1e ne1er seen one who really lo1es humanity or who really hates inhumanity. >ne who really lo1es humanity will not place anything abo1e it. >ne who really hates inhumanity will practice humanity in such a way that inhumanity will not ha1e a chance to get at him. -s there anyone who has de1oted his strength to humanity for as long as a single day9 Cerhaps there is such a case but - ha1e ne1er seen it.( .!)$#& Confucius said, The man of wisdom delights in water+ the man of humanity delights in mountains. The man of wisdom is acti1e+ the man or humanity is tran5uil. The man of wisdom en4oys happiness+ the man of humanity en4oys long life.( !#$;"& Confucius said, -s humanity far away9 As soon as - want it, there it is right by me.( Dan Ch@ih asked about humanity. Confucius said, -t is to lo1e men.( *e asked about knowledge. Confucius said, -t is to know men.( !";$;;& Confucius said, A resolute scholar and a man of humanity will ne1er seek to li1e at the expense of in4uring humanity. *e would rather sacrifice his life in order to reali8e humanity.( !".$0& !)ilial Piety %Filial( refers to the relationship between a son or daughter and a parent. %1iety( means 2devotion to3 or 2reverence of3. Filial piety, devotion to one4s parents and family members, has always been a central element in Chinese life and thought. ,t remains so to the present day. The English expression %charity begins at home,( from a Chinese point of view, is /uite literally true. This is because the Confucian idea is that a person learns to be loving through experiencing life in his family. 5ecoming a moral person depends on extending to others in an ever widening circle the love and consideration that are fostered in a natural way in the family itself. To Confucius, our being moral and acting with -en is grounded in the most basic human feelings, and those begin in the family. Thus, learning to respect and serve members of one3s family can be a lesson in serving one3s society and relating to others. Filial 1iety is strongly lin ed to respect for elders !this can still be seen in the fact that China3s leaders tend to be old", which is lin ed to education. Page 2

=u T8u !a disciple named =u <o& said, Dew of those who are filial sons and respectful brothers will show disrespect to superiors, and there has ne1er been a man who is not disrespectful to superiors and yet creates disorder. A superior man is de1oted to the fundamental !the root&E.Dilial piety and brotherly respect are the root of humanity ! -en&. !"$;& *=oung men should be filial, when at home, and respectful to their elders when away from home. They should be earnest and faithful. They should lo1e all extensi1ely and be intimate with men of humanity. 3hen they ha1e any energy to spare after the performance of moral duties, they should use it to study literature and the arts.( !"$#& T8u-yu asked about filial piety. Confucius said, Dilial piety nowadays means to be able to support one@s parents. But we support e1en dogs and horses. -f there is not feeling of re1erence, wherein lies the difference9( !;$2& *Confucius said, -n ser1ing his parents, a son may gently remonstrate Fguide or correctG with them. 3hen he sees that they are not inclined to listen to him, he should resume an attitude of re1erence and not abandon his effort to ser1e them. *e may feel worried, but does not complain.( !)$"0& The 6uke of 7he told Confucius, -n my country there is an upright man named ?ung. 3hen his father stole a sheep, he bore witness against him.( Confucius said, The upright men in my community are different from this. The father conceals the misconduct of the son and the son conceals the misconduct of the father. Hprightness is to be found in this.( !Reciprocity and Ritual 6eciprocity, or to reciprocate, means to give or to ta e mutually, in return. The Confucian ideal of 6eciprocity does not simply mean 2to do unto others as is done to you.3 6eciprocity, as Confucius expressed it, involves duty, and one3s duty depends on strictly defined roles in family and society. 6eciprocity emanates from Filial 1iety and is also expressed in governance. Furthermore, Confucius believed that each member of a family7and of society7expressed reciprocity as a duty that must be performed ritually !repeated regularly". This is called 8i. This, he believed, led to proper living and helped to create an orderly society which was based on tradition. ,n fact, Confucius was nearly obsessed with ritual and duty, and the mere practice of duty, he believed, served the maintain the structure of family and society. Confucius said, Ts,an !another name for disciple Tseng T8u&+ there is one thread that runs through my doctrines.( Tseng Tsu said, =es.( After Confucius had left, the disciples asked him, 3hat did he mean9( Tseng T8u replied, The 3ay of our 'aster is none other than loyalty and reciprocity.( !)$".& T8u-kung said, 3hat - do not want others to do to me, - do not want to do to them.( Confucius said, Ah, T8u+ That is beyond you.( !.$""& The 'aster said, Iespectfulness, without the rules of ritual becomes laborious bustle+ carefulness, without the rules, becomes timidity+ boldness becomes insubordination+ straightforwardness becomes rudeness. *T8u ?ung wished to do away with the offering of a sheep connected with the inauguration of the first day of each month. The 'aster said, T8u ?ung, you lo1e the sheep+ - lo1e the ceremony.( !/$"2& !*o'ern ent For Confucius, morality and government were so closely related that it was scarcely possible to thin about them separately. Consider what you have read thus far to try to understand Confucius3s view of government, as it is the based upon the other building bloc s of Confucian ideals# filial piety, education, reciprocity and respect for order and tradition. Those in government, according to Confucius, should be most fit at exhibiting -en and 6eciprocity. Thus, rulers must govern as examples to sub9ects. *Confucius said, Jead the people with go1ernmental measures and regulates them with laws and punishment, and they will a1oid wrongdoing but will ha1e no sense of honor and shame. Jead them with 1irtue and regulate them by the rules of propriety, and they will ha1e a sense of shame and, moreo1er, set themsel1es right.( !;$/& T8u-kung asked about go1ernment. Confucius said, 7ufficient food, sufficient armament, and sufficient confidence of the people.( T8u-kung said, Dorced to gi1e up one of these, which would you abandon first9 Confucius said, - would abandon the armament.( T8u-kung said, Dorced to gi1e up one of the remaining two, which would you abandon first9( Confucius said, - would abandon food. There ha1e been deaths from time immemorial, but no state can exist without the confidence of the people.( !;$2& 6uke Ching of Ch@i asked Confucius about go1ernment. Confucius replied, Jet the ruler be a ruler, the minister be a minister, the father be a father, and the son be a son.( The duke said, KxcellentL -ndeed when the ruler is not a ruler, the minister is not a minister, the father not a father, the son not a son, although - may ha1e all the grain, shall - e1er get to eat it9( !";$""& Page 3

*Chr ?,ang T8u asked Confucius about go1ernment, saying, 3hat do you think of killing the wicked and associating with the good9( Confucius replied, -n your go1ernment what is the need of killing9 -f you desire what is good, the people will be good. The character of a ruler is like wind and that of the people is like grass. -n whate1er direction the wind blows, the grass always bends.( !";$"%& Confucius said, -f a ruler sets himself right, he will be followed without his command. -f he does not set himself right, e1en his commands will not be obeyed.( !"/$#& 3hen Confucius was tra1eling to 3ei, <an =u dro1e him. Confucius obser1ed, 3hat a dense populationL( <an =u said, The people ha1ing grown so numerous, what. next should be done for them9( Knrich them,( was the reply. And when one has enriched them, what next should be done9( Confucius said, Kducate them.( !"/$%&

The following selection was written by a Confucian scholar hundreds of years after Confucius3 death, during the Han :ynasty, but it reflects Confucius3 teachings about the moral leadership of the Emperor. ;se this additional primary source to help comprehend Confucian philosophy. Han rulers followed the Confucian teaching that if the emperor set a good example, his officials would serve honestly, and his sub9ects would follow willingly. *o long as a ruler continues to set a good example he is said to hold a mandate from heaven. )ro : Huai-nan tzu, +"he Moral Po,er of the RulerThe power to achie1e success or failure lies with the ruler. -f the measuring-line is true, then the wood will be straight, not because one makes a special effort, but because that which it is ruled( by makes it so. -n the same way if the ruler is sincere and upright, then honest officials will ser1e in his go1ernment and scoundrels will go into hiding, but if the ruler is not upright then e1il men will ha1e their way and loyal men will retire to seclusion. 3hy is it that people often scratch melons or gourds with their fingernails, but ne1er scratch stones or 4ewels9 Because no matter how hard they scratch stones or 4ewels they can ne1er make an impression. -n the same way if the ruler can be made to adhere to right, maintain fairness, and follow a measuring-line, as it were, in measuring high and low, then e1en though his ministers come to him with e1il designs it will be the same as dashing eggs against a rock or throwing fire into water. ?ing Jing lo1ed slim waists and all the women went on diets and star1ed themsel1es. The ?ing of =ueh admired bra1ery and all the men outdid each other in dangerous feats defying death. Drom this we may see that he who wields authority can change the customs and transform the manners of his people.

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.egalis
<The 8egalist 1olicies of =in# The 6ecords of the >rand Historian 5orn around ?@A 5.C.E., *ima =ian was educated in the classics, served his emperor on a variety of missions, and in ?B& succeeded his father as >rand Historian of the Han court. Even before rising to this position, *ima =ian had avidly collected historical records during his travels on imperial service. ;pon his appointment as >rand Historian, he embar ed on the initial pro9ect of collecting additional sources, especially from the imperial library, and verifying his facts. 0nly in ?B@ 5.C.E.E. was he ready to begin the process of composition, a labor that lasted until C? 5.C.E. The result was a history monumental in scope. ,n ?'B chapters he traced the story of China from the age of the legendary Five *age Emperors, who preceded the Dia and *hang dynasties, to his own day. ,n later years he made small additions and changes and probably continued to revise his masterpiece in minor ways until his death, which happened at an un nown date. The result was well worth the effort. The Chinese rightly consider The Iecords of the Mrand *istorian to be classical China@s greatest piece of historical writing. 7ima Nian aimed at telling the whole truth, insofar as he could disco1er it, and in pursuit of that truth he scoured all a1ailable archi1es. As he composed his work, he included 1erbatim many of the records he had found, thereby pro1iding modern historians with a wealth of documentary e1idence that would otherwise ha1e been lost, for many of the sources 7ima Nian 5uoted, paraphrased, and cited exist today only in his history. ,n the first excerpt the >rand Historian /uotes a memorial that the First Emperor, =in *hi Huangdi !ruling between EE?FE?B 5.C.E.", built to proclaim his accomplishments. The second selection tells of an edict of E?' 5.C.E. that banned virtually all nonF8egalist literature. 5e sure to consider perspective when reading these documents. The emperor had a tower built on 'ount Jangya and a stone inscription set up to praise the power of Nin and make clear his will. The inscription read$ A new age is inaugurated by the Kmperor+ Iules and measures are rectified, The myriad things set in order *uman affairs are made clear And there is harmony between fathers and sons. The Kmperor in his sagacity, bene1olence and 4ustice *as made all laws and principles manifest. *e set forth to pacify the Kast To inspect officers and men+ This great task accomplished *e 1isited the coast. Mreat are the Kmperor,s achie1ements, 'en attend diligently to basic tasks, Darming is encouraged, secondary pursuits discouraged, All the common people prosper+ All men under the sky Toil with a single purpose+ Tools and measures are made uniform, The written script is standardi8ed+ 3here1er the sun and moon shine, 3here1er one can go by boat or by carriage, 'en carry out their orders And satisfy their desires+ Dor our Kmperor in accordance with the time *as regulated local customs. 'ade waterways and di1ided up the land. Caring for the common people, *e works day and night without rest *e defines the laws, lea1ing nothing in doubt, 'aking known what is forbidden. Page 5

The local officials ha1e their duties, Administration is smoothly carried out, All is done correctly, all according to plan. The Kmperor in his wisdom -nspects all four 5uarters of his realm+ *igh and low, noble and humble, Oone dare o1ershoot the mark+ Oo e1il or impropriety is allowed, All stri1e to be good men and true, And exert themsel1es in tasks great and small+ Oone dares to idle or ignore his duties, But in far-off, remote places 7erious and decorous administrators 3ork steadily, 4ust and loyal. Mreat is the 1irtue of our Kmperor 3ho pacifies all four corners of the earth, 3ho punishes traitors, roots out e1il men, And with profitable measures brings prosperity. Tasks are done at the proper season, All things nourish and grow+

The common people know peace And ha1e laid aside weapons and armor+ ?insmen care for each other. There are no robbers or thie1es+ 'en delight in his rule, All understanding the law and discipline. The uni1erse entire -s our Kmperor,s realm, Kxtending west to the 6esert, 7outh to where the houses face north, Kast to the Kast >cean, Oorth beyond 6axia+ 3here1er human life is found, All acknowledge his su8erainty, *is achie1ements surpass those of the Di1e Kmperors, *is kindness reaches e1en the beasts of the field+ All creatures benefit from his 1irtue, All li1e in peace at home

Chunyu =ueh, a scholar of Chi . . . said, - ha1e yet to hear of anything able to endure that was not based on ancient precedents....( The emperor ordered his ministers to debate this 5uestion. The Crime 'inister Ji 7i said, The Di1e Kmperors did not emulate each other nor did the Three 6ynasties adopt each other,s ways, yet all had good go1ernment. This is no paradox, because times had changed. Oow =our 'a4esty has built up this great empire to endure for generations without end. Oaturally this passes the comprehension of a foolish pedant. Chunyu =ueh spoke about the Three 6ynasties, but they are hardly worth taking as examples. -n times gone by different barons fought among themsel1es and gathered wandering scholars. Today, howe1er, the empire is at peace, all laws and order come from one single source, the common people support themsel1es by fanning and handicrafts, while students study the laws and prohibitions. Oow these-scholars learn only from the old, not from the new, and use their learning to oppose our rule and confuse the black-headed people Fcommon peopleG. As prime minister - must speak out on pain of death. -n former times when the world, torn by chaos and disorder, could not be united, different 7tates arose and argued from the past to condemn the present, using empty rhetoric to co1er up and confuse the real issues, and employing their learning co oppose what was established by authority. Oow =our 'a4esty has con5uered the whole world, distinguished between black and white, set unified standards. =et these opinionated scholars get together to slander the laws and 4udge each new decree according to their own school of thought, opposing it secretly in their hearts while discussing it openly in the streets. They brag to the so1ereign to win fame, put forward strange arguments to gain distinction, and incite the mob to spread rumors. -f this is not prohibited, the so1ereign,s prestige will suffer and factions will be formed among his sub4ects. Dar better put a stop to Page 6

itL

- humbly propose that all historical records but those of Nin be burned. -f anyone who is not a court scholar dares to keep the ancient songs, historical records or writings of the hundred schools, these should be confiscated and burned by the pro1incial go1ernor and army commander. Those who in con1ersation dare to 5uote the old songs and records should be publicly executed+ those who use old precedents to oppose the new order should ha1e their families wiped out+ and officers who know of such cases but fail to report them should be punished in the same way. -f thirty days after the issuing of this order the owners of these books ha1e still not had them destroyed, they should ha1e their faces tattooed and be condemned to hard labor at the Mreat 3all. The only books which need not be destroyed are those dealing with medicine, di1ination, and agriculture. Those who want to study the law can learn it from the officers.( The emperor sanctioned this proposal.

!Han )ei, "he Writings of Master Han )ei :aoism offered no active political program, whereas Confucius and his disciples preached a doctrine of benevolent reform based on virtuous imitation of the past. A third school of thought that emerged in the chaos of the last Ghou era was 8egalism, which re9ected both the .ay of nature, as embraced by the :aoists, and Confucianism3s emphasis on the primacy of the moral .ay of anti/uity. 8egalist writers, to the contrary, emphasiHed law as government3s formulative force and advocated a radical restructuring of society in ways that were totally rational and up to date. 8egalism reached its apogee )high point+ in the late third century 5.C.E. in the writings of Han FeiHi !$aster Han Fei" and the policies of Emperor =in *hi Huangdi. Han Fei was a prince of the state of Han who defected to its chief rival, the state of =in, but eventually he ran afoul of =in4s chief minister, 8i *i !died EBI 5.C.E.", and was forced to commit suicide in E'' 5.C.E. 5efore he died, he composed a number of essays on how to construct a stable and peaceful state. The following selections present Han Fei4s ma9or principles of political philosophy. **a1ing Iegulations Oo country is permanently strong. Oor is any country permanently weak. -f conformers to are strong, the country is strong+ if conformers to law are weak, the country is weak. Any ruler able to expel pri1ate crookedness and uphold public law, finds the people safe and the state in order+ and any ruler able to expunge pri1ate action and act on public law, finds his army strong and his enemy weak. 7o find out men following the discipline of laws and regulations, and place them abo1e the body of officials. Then the so1ereign cannot be decei1ed by anybody with fraud and falsehoodE. Therefore, the intelligent so1ereign makes the law select men and makes no arbitrary promotion himself. *e makes the law measure merits and makes no arbitrary regulation himself. -n conse5uence, able men cannot be obscured, bad characters cannot be disguised+ falsely praised fellows cannot be ad1anced, wrongly defamed people cannot be degradedE. To go1ern the state by law is to praise the right and blame the wrong. The law does not fawn on the nobleE.3hate1er the law applies to, the wise cannot re4ect nor can the bra1e defy. Cunishment for fault ne1er skips ministers, reward for good ne1er misses commoners. Therefore, to correct the faults of the high, to rebuke the 1ices of the low, to suppress disorders, to decide against mistakes, to subdue the arrogant, to straighten the crooked, and to unify the folkways of the masses, nothing could match the law. To warn the officials and o1erawe the people, to rebuke obscenity and danger, and to forbid falsehood and deceit, nothing could, match penalty. -f penalty is se1ere, the noble cannot discriminate against the humble. -f law is definite, the superiors are esteemed and not Page 7

1iolated. -f the superiors are not 1iolated, the so1ereign will become strong and able to maintain the proper course of go1ernment. 7uch was the reason why the early kings esteemed Jegalism and handed it down to posterity. 7hould the lord of men discard law and practice selfishness, high and low would ha1e no distinction. !"he ",o Handles The means whereby the intelligent ruler controls his ministers are two handles only. The two handles are chastisement and commendation. 3hat are meant by chastisement and commendation9 To inflict death or torture upon culprits, is called chastisement+ to bestow encouragements or rewards on men of merit, is called commendation. 'inisters are afraid, of censure and punishment but fond of encouragement and reward. Therefore, if the lord of men uses the handles of chastisement and commendation, all ministers will dread his se1erity and turn to his liberality. The 1illainous ministers of the age are different. To men they hate they would by securing the handle of chastisement from the so1ereign ascribe crimes+ on men they lo1e they would by securing the handle of commendation from the so1ereign bestow rewards. Oow supposing the lord of men placed the authority of punishment and the profit of reward not in his hands but let the ministers administer the affairs of reward and punishment instead, then e1erybody in the country would fear the ministers and slight the ruler, and turn to the ministers and away from the ruler. This is the calamity of the ruler@s loss of the handles of chastisement and commendation.

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D#/I0M
!Chuang "1u, +"he 0ecret of Caring for .ife=our life has a limit but knowledge has none. -f you use what is limited to pursue what has no limit, you will be in danger. -f you understand this and still stri1e for knowledge, you will be in danger for certainL -f you do good, stay away from fame. -f you do e1il, stay away from punishments. Dollow the middle+ go by what is constant, and you can stay in one piece, keep yourself ali1e, look after your parents, and li1e out your years.

*Cook Ting was cutting up an ox for Jord 3en-hui. At e1ery touch of his hand, e1ery hea1e of his shoulder, e1ery mo1e of his feet, e1ery thrust of his kneeP8ipL 8oopL *e slithered the knife along with a 8ing, and all was in perfect rhythm, as though he were performing the dance of the 'ulberry Mro1e or keeping time to the Ching-shou music. Ah, this is mar1elousL( said Jord 3en-hui. -magine skill reaching such heightsL(
Cook Ting laid down his knife and replied, 3hat - care about is the 3ay, which goes beyond skill. 3hen - first began cutting up oxen, all - could see was the ox itself. After three years - no longer saw the whole ox. And nowPnow - go at it by spirit and don,t look with my eyes. Cerception and understanding ha1e come to a stop and spirit mo1es where it wants. - go along with the natural makeup, strike in the big hollows, guide the knife through the big openings, and follow things as they are. 7o - ne1er touch the smallest ligament or tendon, much less a main 4oint.

A good cook changes his knife once a yearPbecause he cuts. A mediocre cook changes his knife once a monthP because he hacks. -,1e had this knife of mine for nineteen years and -,1e cut up thousands of oxen with it, and yet the blade is as good as though it had 4ust come from the grindstone. There are spaces between the 4oints, and the blade of the knife has really no thickness. -f you insert what has no thickness into such spaces, then there,s plenty of roomPmore than enough for the blade to play about it. That,s why after nineteen years the blade of my knife is still as good as when it first came from the grindstone. *owe1er, whene1er - come to a complicated place, - si8e up the difficulties, tell myself to watch out and be careful, keep my eyes on what -,m doing, work 1ery slowly, and mo1e the knife with the greatest subtlety, untilPflopL the whole thing comes apart like a clod of earth crumbling to the ground. - stand there holding the knife and look all around me, completely satisfied and reluctant to mo1e on, and then - wipe off the knife and nut it away.( KxcellentL( said Jord 3en-hui. - ha1e heard the words of Cook Ting and learned how to care for lifeL(

3hen ?ung-wen *suan saw the Commander of the Iight he was startled and said, 3hat kind of man is this9 *ow did he come to be footless9 3as it *ea1en9 >r was it man9( -t was *ea1en, not man,( said the commander. 3hen *ea1en ga1e me life, it saw to it chat - would be one-footed. 'en,s looks are gi1en to them. 7o - know this was the work of *ea1en and not of man. The swamp pheasant has to walk ten paces for one peck and one hundred paces for one drink, but it doesn,t want to be kept in a cage. Though you treat it like a king, its spirit won,t be content.( 3hen Jao Tan died, Chin 7hih went to mourn for him+ but after gi1ing three cries, he left the room. 3eren,t you a friend of the 'aster9( asked Jao T8u,s disciples. =es.( Page 9

And you think it,s all right to mourn him this way9( =es,( said Ch,in 7hih. At first - took him for a real man, but now - know he wasn,t. A little while ago, when - went in to mourn, - found old men weeping for him as though they were weeping for a son, and young men weeping for him as though they were weeping for a mother. To ha1e gathered a group like that, he must ha1e done something to make them talk about him, though he didn,t ask them to talk, or make them weep for him, though he didn,t ask them to weep. This is to hide from *ea1en, turn your back on the true state of affairs, and forget what you were born with. -n the old days, this was called the crime of hiding from *ea1en. =our master happened to come because it was his time, and he happened to lea1e because things follow along. -f you are content with the time and willing to follow along, then grief and 4oy ha1e no way to enter in. -n the old days this was called being freed from the bonds of Mod.
Though the grease burns out of the torch, the fire passes on, and no one knows where it ends.(

The 3ay is without beginning or end, but things ha1e their life and deathPyou cannot rely upon their fulfillment. >ne moment empty, the next moment fullPyou cannot depend upon their form. The years cannot be held off+ time cannot be stopped. 6ecay, growth, fullness, and emptiness end and then begin again. -t is thus that we must describe the plan of the Mreat 'eaning and discuss the principles of the ten thousand things. The life of things is a gallop, a headlong dashPwith e1ery mo1ement they alter, with e1ery moment they shift. 3hat should you do and what should you not do9 K1erything will change of itself, that is certainL( -f that is so,( said the Jord of the Ii1er, then what is there 1aluable about the 3ay9(

<o of the Oorth 7ea said, *e who understands the 3ay is certain to ha1e command of basic principles. *e who has command of basic principles is certain to know how to deal with circumstances. And he who knows how to deal with circumstances will not allow things to do him harm. 3hen a man has perfect 1irtue, fire cannot burn him, water cannot drown him, cold and heat cannot afflict him, birds and beasts cannot in4ure him. - do not say that he makes light of these things. - mean that he distinguishes between safety and danger, contents himself with fortune or misfortune, and is cautious in his comings and goings. Therefore nothing can harm him.
*ence it is said$ the *ea1enly is on the inside, the human is on the outside. Qirtue resides in the *ea1enly. Hnderstand the actions of *ea1en and man, base yourself upon *ea1en, take your stand in 1irtue, and then, although you hasten or hold back, bend or stretch, you may return to the essential and speak of the ultimate.( 3hat do you mean by the *ea1enly and the human9( <o of the Oorth 7ea said, *orses and oxen ha1e four feetP this is what - mean by the *ea1enly. Cutting a halter on the horse,s head, piercing the ox,s nosePthis is what - mean by the human. 7o - say$ do not let what is human wipe out what is *ea1enly+ do not let what is purposeful wipe out what is fated+ do not let Fthe desire forG gain lead you after fame. Be cautious, guard it, and do not lose itPthis is what - mean by returning to the True.(

>nce Chuang T8u was fishing in the C@u Ii1er when the king of Ch@u sent two ministers to say that he would like to trouble you with the administration of realm.(

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Chuang T8u held on to the fishing pole and, without turning his head, said, - ha1e heard that there is a sacred tortoise in Ch,u that has been dead for three thousand years. The king keeps it wrapped in cloth and boxed, and stores it in the ancestral temple. Oow would this tortoise rather be dead and ha1e its bones left behind and honored9 >r would it rather be ali1e and dragging its tail in the mud9( -t would rather be ali1e and dragging its tail in the mud,( said the two officials. Chuang T8u said, Mo awayL -,ll drag my tail in the mudL(

Chuang T8u and *ui T8u were strolling along the dam of the *ao Ii1er when Chuang T8u said, 7ee how the minnows come out and dart around where they pleaseL That,s what fish really en4oyL( *ui T8u said, =ou,re not a fishPhow do you know what fish en4oy9( Chuang T8u said, =ou,re not -, so how do you know - don@t know what fish en4oy9( *ui T8u said, -,m not you, so - certainly don,t know what you know. >n the other hand, you,re certainly not a fishPso that still pro1es you don,t know what fish en4oyL( Chuang T8u said, Jet,s go back to your original 5uestion, please. =ou asked me how - know what fish en4oyPso you already knew - knew it when you asked the 5uestion. - know it by standing here beside the *ao.(

0elections fro

the Dao De 2ing &y .ao "su

!345 3hen the 'aster go1erns, the people are hardly aware that he exists. Oext best is a leader who is lo1ed. Oext, one who is feared. The worst is one who is despised. -f you don,t trust the people, you make them untrustworthy. The 'aster doesn,t talk, he acts. 3hen his work is done, the people say, Ama8ing$ we did it, all by oursel1esL(

Therefore the 'aster says$ - let go of the law, and people become honest. - let go of economics, and people become prosperous. - let go of religion, and people become serene. - let go of all desire for the common good And the good becomes common as grass EIule a nation with 4ustice. 3age war with surprise mo1es. Become a master of the uni1erse without stri1ing. *ow do - know this is so9 Because of thisL The more laws and restrictions there are, The poorer people become. The sharper the men,s weapons. The more trouble in the land. The more ingenious and cle1er men are, The more strange things happen. The more rules and regulations. The more thie1es and robbers. Page 11

!645 -f you want to be a great leader, you must learn to follow the Tao. 7top trying to control. Jet go of fixed plans and concepts, and the world will go1ern itself. The more prohibitions you ha1e, the less 1irtuous people will be. The more weapons you ha1e, the less secure people will lie. The more subsidies you ha1e, the less self-reliant people will he.

Therefore the sage says$ - take no action and people are reformed. - en4oy peace and people become honest. - do nothing and people become rich. - ha1e no desires and people return to the good and simple life. 73. A great country is like low land. -t is the meeting ground of the uni1erse. The mother of the uni1erse. The female o1ercomes the male with stillness. Jying low in stillness. Therefore if a great country gi1es way to a smaller country. -t will con5uer the smaller country. And if a small country submits to a great country, -t can con5uer the great country. Therefore those who would con5uer must yield. And those who con5uer do so because they yield. A great nation needs more people+ A small country needs to ser1e. Kach gets what it wants. -t is fitting for a great nation to yield. !785 Act without doing+ work without effort. Think of the small as large and the few as many. Confront the difficult while it is still easy+ accomplish the great task by a series of small acts. The 'aster ne1er reaches for the great+ thus she achie1es greatness. 3hen she runs into a difficulty, she stops and gi1es herself to it. 7he doesn,t cling to her own comfort+ thus problems are no problem for her. 3hoe1er relies on the Tao in go1erning men doesn,t try to force issues or defeat enemies by force of arms. Dor e1ery force there is a counterforce. Qiolence, e1en well intentioned, always rebounds upon oneself. The 'aster docs his 4ob and then 7tops. *e understands that the uni1erse is fore1er out of control, and that trying to dominate e1ents goes against the current of the Tao. Because hR belie1es in himself,

he doesn,t try to con1ince others. Because he is content with himself, he doesn,t need others@ appro1al. Because he accepts himself, the whole world accepts him. 795 Ceace is easily maintained+ Trouble is easily o1ercome before it starts. The brittle is easily shattered+ The small is easily scattered. 6eal with it before it happens. 7et things in order before there is confusion. A tree as great as a man,s embrace springs from a small shoot+ A terrace nine stories high begins with a pile of earth+ A 4ourney of a thousand miles starts under one,s feet. *e who acts defeats his own purpose+ *e who grasps loses. The sage does not act, and so is not defeated. *e does not grasp and therefore does not lose. Ceople usually fail when they are on the 1erge of success. 7o gi1e as much care to the end as to the beginning+ Then there will be no failureE !465 3hy are the people star1ing9 Because the rulers eat up the money in taxes. Therefore the people are star1ing. 3hy are the people rebellious9 Because the rulers interfere too much. Therefore they are rebellious. 3hy do people think so little of death9 Because the rulers demand so much of life. Therefore the people take death lightly. *a1ing little to li1e on, one knows better than to 1alue life too much. 475 'en are born soft and supple+ dead, they are stiff and hard. Clants are born tender and pliant+ dead. they are brittle and dry. Thus whoe1er is stiff and inflexible is a disciple of death. 3hoe1er is soft and yielding is a disciple of life. The hard and stiff will be broken. The soft and supple will pre1ail.

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