Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2010 Corke

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Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma Actuators for Flow Control

Thomas C. Corke,1 C. Lon Enloe,2 and Stephen P. Wilkinson3
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Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2010.42:505-529. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org by Brown University on 10/14/13. For personal use only.
Center for Flow Physics and Control, Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556; email: tcorke@nd.edu Department of Physics, U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80840 Flow Physics and Control Branch, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 23681-2199
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Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2010. 42:50529 First published online as a Review in Advance on September 21, 2009 The Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics is online at uid.annualreviews.org This articles doi: 10.1146/annurev-uid-121108-145550 Copyright c 2010 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved 0066-4189/10/0115-0505$20.00 The U.S. Government has the right to retain a nonexclusive, royalty-free license in and to any copyright covering this paper.
Key Words
aerodynamic control, ionized gasses, body force
Abstract
The term plasma actuator has now been a part of the uid dynamics owcontrol vernacular for more than a decade. A particular type of plasma actuator that has gained wide use is based on a singledielectric barrier discharge (SDBD) mechanism that has desirable features for use in air at atmospheric pressures. For these actuators, the mechanism of ow control is through a generated body-force vector eld that couples with the momentum in the external ow. The body force can be derived from rst principles, and the effect of plasma actuators can be easily incorporated into ow solvers so that their placement and operation can be optimized. They have been used in a wide range of internal and external ow applications. Although initially considered useful only at low speeds, plasma actuators are effective in a number of applications at high subsonic, transonic, and supersonic Mach numbers, owing largely to more optimized actuator designs that were developed through better understanding and modeling of the actuator physics. New applications continue to appear through a growing number of programs in the United States, Germany, France, England, the Netherlands, Russia, Australia, Japan, and China. This review provides an overview of the physics and modeling of SDBD plasma actuators. It highlights some of the capabilities of plasma actuators through examples from experiments and simulations.
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1. BACKGROUND
There has been increasing interest in dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma actuators for ow control in the past 10 years worldwide. The tremendous growth in research stems from their special features, including the fact that they are fully electronic with no moving parts; a fast time response for unsteady applications; a very low mass, which is especially important in applications with high g-loads; the ability to apply the actuators onto surfaces without the addition of cavities or holes; the efcient conversion of the input power without parasitic losses when properly optimized (Enloe et al. 2004b, Orlov 2006, Roth & Dai 2006, Thomas et al. 2009); and the ability to simulate easily their effect in numerical ow solvers (Corke et al. 2006, Orlov 2006). The specic DBD conguration used for plasma actuators consists of two electrodes, one uncoated and exposed to the air and the other encapsulated by a dielectric material; hence, we refer to this conguration as single dielectric barrier discharge (SDBD). For plasma actuator applications, the electrodes are arranged in a highly asymmetric geometry as opposed to the parallel-plate arrangement common in industrial DBD uses. An example conguration is shown in Figure 1. The electrodes are supplied with an AC voltage that, at high enough levels, causes the air over the covered electrode to weakly ionize (typically less than 1-ppm weakly ionized gas). In the classic description, the ionized air is a plasma, which is why these are referred to as plasma actuators (Cavalieri 1995, Corke & Matlis 2000, Corke et al. 2001). The ionized air appears blue, characteristic of the composition of the air as ionized components of the air recombine and deexcite (Davidson & ONeil 1964). The emission intensity is extremely low, requiring a darkened space to view by eye. In the presence of the electric eld produced by the electrode geometry, the ionized air results in a body-force vector eld that acts on the ambient (nonionized, neutrally charged) air. The body force is the mechanism for active aerodynamic control. Langmuir (1928) introduced the term plasma into the physics literature to denote a net electrically neutral region of gas discharge. This denition has been broadened since and now refers to a system of particles whose collective behavior is characterized by long-range Coulomb interactions
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Figure 1 Schematic illustration of a singledielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator (a) and photograph of ionized air at 1-atm pressure that forms over an electrode covered by a dielectric layer (b).
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(Kunhardt 2000). Although plasmas are often simply considered as interpenetrating uids consisting of electrons, positive ions, and neutral particles, the air discharges consist of a multiplicity of species in numerous charge states, including negative ions. Nonetheless, the quasi-neutral approximation applies to these, as to almost all, plasmasthat is, the total density of negatively and positively charged particles in any region of the plasma is approximately equal, with only small deviations possible locally. Highlighting another property of plasma discharges in air, they are often described as collisional; i.e., the electron-neutral collision frequency is of the order of, or greater than, the plasma frequency (the characteristic frequency of electrostatic oscillations in the plasma). This is a property of air at atmospheric pressures typical of ight, the relevant regime for DBD plasma actuators. A gas discharge is created when an electric eld of sufcient amplitude is applied to a volume of gas to generate electron-ion pairs through electron impact ionization of the neutral gas (Kunhardt 1980, Kunhardt & Luessen 1981, LLewellyn-Jones 1966, Raizer 1991). This requires the presence of an initiating number of free electrons, which can either be present from ambient conditions or introduced purposely (Kunhardt 1980, Kunhardt & Luessen 1981). A traditional (industrial) arrangement for creating a self-sustained gas discharge at low pressures of a few torr or less has involved separated facing electrodes. The electric eld established by the two electrodes can either be by direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). The plasma is generated by increasing the amplitude of the electric eld above the breakdown electric eld, Eb , which is the value needed to sustain electron-ion pairs in the gas in the absence of spacecharge elds (Kunhardt 1980, Kunhardt & Luessen 1981, LLewellyn-Jones 1966, Raizer 1991). The minimum breakdown electric eld is a function of the driving frequency. At atmospheric pressure, Eb is generally lower for an AC input. The optimum AC frequency depends on the static pressure and the particular gas. Once created, the electric eld needed to sustain the plasma, Es , is lower than Eb . The difference between the breakdown and sustaining electric elds is a function of the operating conditions (LLewellyn-Jones 1966, Meek & Craggs 1978, Nasser 1971, Raizer 1991). As a consequence of the plasma conductivity, there is a current, I, that ows between the electrodes. A region is formed between the plasma and the cathode electrode, whose role is to provide current continuity at this interface. The current in the boundary region consists of two components: the conduction current, Ic , and the displacement current, Id . For DC elds, Id is zero, and the remaining conduction current consists of electron and ion components. For AC elds, the contribution of the displacement current to the total current increases with frequency and can become an important practical consideration in power-supply design. When the operating conditions (applied eld, electrode cross-sectional area, and static pressure) are such that the current density in the boundary region near the cathode is independent of the current owing in the circuit, the discharge is called a normal glow discharge (Kunhardt & Luessen 1981, LLewellyn-Jones 1966, Meek & Craggs 1978, Nasser 1971, Raizer 1991, Roth 1995). For constant current, the current density in a normal glow discharge scales with the square of the static pressure. Therefore, the cross-sectional area of plasma decreases with increasing pressure at constant current. As the static pressure increases at constant current, the current density increases until the threshold for the development of instabilities leading to a transition to an arc phase is reached. The threshold current for the development of the glow-to-arc transition depends on the operating conditions of the discharge. Many aerodynamic ow-control applications would require plasma actuators to operate near atmospheric pressure. This favors AC operation over DC because of the lower breakdown voltage requirement and lack of real currents responsible for electrode corrosion effects. In addition, when considering any gain an application might provide in system efciency, one needs to factor in the
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power required to operate the actuators. Thus there is a need to consider the actuators most efcient operating conditions to maximize its effect with respect to input power. Barrier discharges can be operated in various modes (e.g., diffuse, patterned, lamentary, microdischarge), and the terminology can often become confusing. A good review of the various modes and terms is presented by Kogelschatz (2002). All techniques, however, use a dielectric barrier on the surface of one or both electrodes. Okazaki and coworkers were among the rst to use this approach (Kanazawa et al. 1988, 1989, 1990; Kogoma & Okazaki 1994; Okazaki et al. 1993; Yokoyama et al. 1990). In this case, because of the dielectric layer, the electrodes must be energized with an AC eld. Barrier discharges have been operated historically in the microdischarge mode (Eliasson & Kogelschatz 1991, Kogelschatz et al. 1997). In this mode, the discharge consists of a number of parallel laments, each of which has a limited lifetime. The laments are essentially streamer discharges whose lifetimes are governed by the capacitance of the dielectric barrier (Eliasson & Kogelschatz 1991). The passage of the streamer across the discharge gap locally charges this capacitance, reversing the local eld and thus terminating the lament. In sinusoidally driven DBDs, the plasma forms in nonthermal equilibrium (not to be confused with nonequilibrium plasma due to excitation time dependency) in which the electrical energy coupled into the gas is mainly used to produce energetic electrons while the gas remains approximately at ambient temperature, rising only slightly. This is because of the self-termination of the discharge, which prevents microdischarges from degenerating into thermal arcs (Falkenstein & Coogan 1997). Self-termination results from the accumulation of electrons at the dielectric surface facing the cathode. The internal electric eld caused by the accumulation of electrons on the dielectric surface reduces the local eld strength, and the microdischarges choke themselves as the extinction eld is reached (Falkenstein & Coogan 1997). For an SDBD, during one half of the AC cycle, electrons leave the metal electrode and move toward the dielectric, where they accumulate locally. In the reverse half of the cycle, electrons are supplied by surface discharges on the dielectric and move toward the metal electrode. The timescale of the process depends on the gas composition, excitation frequency, and other parameters. In air at atmospheric pressure, it occurs within a few tens of nanoseconds (Falkenstein & Coogan 1997). Kline et al. (2001) have studied time-resolved images of spatiotemporal patterns in a onedimensional (1D) DBD system. They obtained images of plasma laments that revealed discharge stages that lasted only approximately 100 ns. Several discharge stages could occur during a halfcycle of the driving oscillation, each producing a distinct lament pattern. In some discharges, there was a temporal structure but spatial disorder, and in others there was both temporal and spatial disorder. The dielectric barrier conguration also supports a uniform diffuse discharge operation, as shown by Okazaki and coworkers (Kanazawa et al. 1988). The mechanisms that play a role in this are well understood (e.g., Decomps et al. 1994; Roth 1995; Massines et al. 1996, 1998; Trunec et al. 1998). The stability of the diffuse mode depends on the AC frequency, the gas type, and the excitation power. The discharge is most stable in helium and mixtures that contain helium, although other gases have been used including air (Decomps et al. 1994; Kanzawa et al. 1990; Massines et al. 1996, 1998; Roth 1995; Trunec et al. 1998). The electrode separation is usually small, of the order of a few centimeters. The electron density of the plasma generated by this mode is of the order of 1010 cm3 . Although interesting from a scientic standpoint, the conditions that support this mode of the discharge are specic enough that they are unlikely to be encountered in a device designed for aerodynamic applications. Massines and coworkers (BenGadri et al. 1994, Massines et al. 1998, Rabehi et al. 1994) developed a 1D model for the DBD dynamics based on the numerical solution of the electron and ion continuity and momentum transfer equations coupled to Poissons equation. As is typical in
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Flow direction
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Figure 2
Photograph of smoke tube introduced at the edge of a boundary layer that is bent toward the wall by a plasma actuator oriented so that the electrodes are parallel to the streamwise direction. Figure taken from Post 2001.
high-pressure discharges, the electrons and ions were assumed to be in equilibrium with the electric eld. Their model gave space and time variations in the electric eld, and the electron and ion densities. The authors accounted for the charge accumulation on the dielectric as the discharge develops and derived the voltage boundary conditions for dielectrics by considering an equivalent circuit of the gas gap in series with the equivalent capacitor of the dielectric. One of the earliest low-speed demonstrations of a plasma actuator was performed by Roth et al. (1998, 2000). They utilized an array of electrodes separated by a glass-epoxy printed-circuit board to manipulate the boundary-layer ow over a at plate at free-stream velocities from 4 to 26 m s1 . They investigated a number of electrode geometries, one of which was similar to that shown in Figure 1. With this electrode conguration, they observed that ambient air, marked by smoke, was drawn toward the covered electrode. A similar photograph recorded by Post (2001) is shown in Figure 2. In this case, the electrodes are aligned parallel to the mean ow direction. This accentuates the width of the stream tube that is drawn toward the wall by the actuator. Velocity surveys of the actuator-induced ow by Roth et al. (1998, 2000) documented a wall-normal mean velocity prole that is similar to what might be produced by a tangential wall jet. The deection of the external ow toward the surface of the dielectric and the jetting of the ow in the direction of the exposed electrode toward the covered electrode are hallmarks of this actuator design. Any simulation models for these actuators need to produce this behavior.
2. DIELECTRIC BARRIER DISCHARGE ACTUATOR PHYSICS 2.1. Experimental Observations

In classic DBD processes, the input waveform is sinusoidal. When the AC amplitude is large enough so that the electric eld exceeds Eb , the air ionizes. The ionized air is always observed to form over the electrode that is covered by the dielectric. To the unaided eye, the ionized air appears to be generally uniform in color and distribution, with some structure evident that often appears attached to a particular location on the exposed electrode. The photograph in Figure 1 is a typical example. Time-resolved images of the ionization process, however, indicate it to be a highly dynamic, spatially evolving, nonequilibrium process with features that develop on the timescale of the AC period (milliseconds) or less. Enloe et al. (2004a) studied the space-time evolution of the ionized-air light emission over a surface-mounted plasma actuator using a photomultiplier tube tted with a double-slit aperture
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Time series of photomultiplier-tube (PMT) output (a) that is viewing ionized-air light emission at one location over an electrode covered by a dielectric and corresponding AC input (b) to a plasma actuator. Figure taken from Orlov 2006.
to focus on a narrow 2D region of the plasma. The slit was parallel to the edge of the exposed electrode and could be moved to different locations over the electrode covered by the dielectric. A sample time series from Orlov (2006) of the photomultiplier-tube output that was acquired phase locked with the AC input to the actuator is shown in Figure 3. The light emission is taken as an indication of the plasma density, which is a good assumption based on the disparate timescales between the recombination time (order of 108 s) (Vidmar & Stalder 2003) and the discharge timescale (order of 103 s). There are several fundamental features of light-emission time series. First, the air is ionized only over part of the AC cycle. Second, when it does ionize, its character differs between the rst and second halves of the AC cycle. Finally, the light emission is made up of narrow spikes that might indicate numerous microdischarges. Similar observations have been documented by Enloe et al. (2004a), Massines et al. (1998), Eliasson & Kogelschatz (1991), and Kogelschatz et al. (1997), who generally characterize this process as a DBD. The explanation for the difference in the emission character in the two half-cycles is associated with the source of electrons. During the negative-going half-cycle, the electrons originate from the bare electrode, which is essentially an innite source that readily gives them up. In the positivegoing half-cycle, the electrons originate from the dielectric surface. These apparently do not come off as readily, or when they do, they come in the form of fewer, larger microdischarges. The structural difference in each discharge mode is evident in high-speed images of the microdischarges that, in fact, make up the apparently uniform actuator discharge (Figure 4). This asymmetry has been modeled by Boeuf et al. (2007) and plays an important role in the efciency of the momentum coupling to the neutrals. It further suggests that some optimization can come in the selection of the AC waveform to improve the performance of the plasma actuator. Figure 5 shows a composite of light-emission time series similar to the one in Figure 3 but measured at different positions over the dielectric surface. These are shown as contours of constant light-emission intensity for one period, T, of the AC cycle. The space-time character of the plasma light emission over the covered electrode has a number of interesting features. For example, there is a sharp amplitude peak near the edge of the exposed electrode at the rst initiation of the plasma. As time increases, the plasma sweeps out from the junction to cover a portion of the encapsulated electrode. This was similarly noted by Gibalov &
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b
Figure 4 High-speed (5-ms exposure) photographs of individual microdischarges in the negative-going (a) and positive-going (b) phases of plasma-actuator discharge, highlighting the structural asymmetry between the phases. Figure taken from Enloe et al. 2008.
Pietsch (2000). As the plasma sweeps out away from the edge of the exposed electrode, its light emission appears to become less intense. Estimates (Enloe et al. 2004a, Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006) indicate that the intensity decreases exponentially from the junction. This led to the use of an exponential weighting to correct the spatial dependency of the plasma actuator body force in earlier electrostatic ow simulations (Orlov et al. 2003, Orlov & Corke 2005, Voikov et al. 2004). Two global features of the space-time evolution of the plasma formation are the velocity at which the plasma front moves across the dielectric and the maximum extent of the plasma during the AC cycle. The velocity is represented by the slope, dx/dt, of the front. In Figure 5, the velocity of the fronts is approximately the same for the two halves of the AC cycle, but the plasma extent differs. We note that these measurements indicate the time development of the envelope of the multiple microdischarges that compose the DBD. Although Hoskinson et al. (2008) have been able to make some estimates of the development rate of individual microdischarges through careful examination of fast (280 ns) gated images, no experimental apparatus exists that can implement frame rates in the hundreds of megahertz that would be necessary to image the development of an individual microdischarge event. Orlov (2006) investigated the effects of voltage and AC frequency on the extent and propagation velocity of the discharge. He found that the maximum extent increased linearly with increasing AC voltage amplitude, and it was independent of the AC frequency. However, the velocity of the plasma front increased linearly with both AC amplitude and frequency. In Orlovs measurements, the velocity of the discharge front ranged from 70 to 190 m s1 . As mentioned above, plasma actuators with the asymmetric electrode design in Figure 1 induce a velocity eld similar to that of a tangential wall jet. Enloe et al. (2004b) correlated the reaction force (thrust) generated by the induced ow with the actuator AC amplitude. A similar experiment was performed by Thomas et al. (2009) to investigate parameters in the actuator design.
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Figure 5 Space-time variation of the measured plasma light emission for a singledielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator corresponding to one period, T, of the input AC cycle. The x axis is the distance over the covered electrode measured from the edge of the bare electrode at the interface of the covered electrode. Figure taken from Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006.
A schematic of their setup and sample results are shown in Figure 6. At the lower voltages, the 3.5 induced thrust was proportional to VAC . This was rst observed by Enloe et al. (2004b). Thomas et al. (2009) veried the consistency between the reaction force and the uid momentum by integrating the velocity proles downstream of the actuator. Post (2004) found that the maximum 3.5 induced velocity was proportional to VAC , which is consistent with conserved momentum in the self-similar velocity-prole region near the actuator. Post (2004) and Enloe et al. (2004b) showed that, with increasing AC amplitude, the maximum velocity induced by the plasma actuator was limited by the area (extent for a unit spanwise width) of the covered electrode. Thus the dielectric area needed to store charge can be too small to take full advantage of the applied voltage. This effect can be observed in the thrust measurements in Figure 6 at the highest voltages for the Teon dielectric, at which the thrust no longer increases 3.5 as VAC and begins to asymptote. Enloe et al. (2004a) computed the power dissipation in the discharge by sampling the voltage and current waveforms across the electrodes and numerically integrating the product of the waveforms over one period of the discharge to integrate out the reactive power and account exclusively 3.5 for the power dissipated in the plasma. The dissipated power also followed VAC , indicating a direct proportionality with the induced momentum. They considered a model for the air above the dielectric material covering the electrode that consisted of a capacitor and resistor in series. Figure 7 shows this model for the SDBD plasma actuator. Before the air ionizes, the capacitor, C1 , corresponds to the value for air. When the air ionizes, this capacitor effectively becomes
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Dielectric Insulator 100
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101 Teon Glass T = C1V3.5
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Figure 6 Schematic of experimental setup for measuring induced thrust from a singledielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator (a) and measured thrust versus applied AC voltage (b). Figure taken from Thomas et al. (2009).
a short circuit. The remaining circuit elements, R1 and C2 , then form a voltage divider. The impedance, Z2 , of the capacitance, C2 , is given as Z2 = i /C2 , where = 2/ f AC , and fAC is the AC frequency. For a xed frequency, C2 would be a constant. Then one might expect that the 2 2 electrical power dissipated by the plasma would be VAC / R1 or generally be proportional to VAC . However, experiments (Enloe et al. 2004a) indicate that this is not the case. There are several possible reasons why the power dissipated by the plasma is not proportional 2 to Vac . These include (a) that C2 is not constant but increases with the applied AC voltage and/or (b) that R1 decreases with increasing applied AC voltage. Considering that the sweep-out velocity of the plasma front has been documented to increase with increasing voltage, the area over the dielectric that composes the capacitance, C2 , increases faster with increasing voltage. Therefore, the value of C2 is not constant but increases in proportion
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Figure 7 Lumped-element circuit model of a singledielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator. Figure taken from Enloe et al. 2004a.
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Figure 8 Plasma-actuator net-force production as a function of the percentage of oxygen. Figure taken from Enloe et al. 2006.
to VAC . With regard to R1 , numerical simulations of the circuit in Figure 7 intended to reproduce the output waveforms observed in experiments indicated that the resistance needed to vary inversely with the applied voltage (Enloe et al. 2004a). Therefore, both effects are in play. The dependency of the dissipated power in the plasma and the induced momentum on the applied voltage is an important characteristic that any physical model needs to replicate. These results indicate that models must include the dynamics of the plasma initiation and sweep-out over the dielectric covered electrode that occurs twice during the AC period. Naude et al.s (2004) electrical model for DBD addressed this with the addition of electrical elements (Zener diodes) that switch the current path between different passive circuit elements to control the characteristics with voltage and frequency. One nal attribute of DBD plasmas as aerodynamic actuators (as opposed to their discharge characteristics alone) is the importance of the species composition of the plasma, specically the dramatic difference that the presence of oxygen in the air makes in the actuators force production. Enloe et al. (2006) showed, and other experimenters have subsequently conrmed, that removing oxygen from the air surrounding the plasma actuator only modestly changes its discharge properties (20% in such parameters as discharge current for a given voltage). However, its removal results in a dramatic reduction in the net force produced (by up to 80%). This is illustrated in Figure 8. The propensity of oxygen to form negative ions (by electron attachment) adds a species to the composition of the plasma that is usually not accounted for in the typical analysis of plasmas that assumes that positive ions and negative electrons are formed in equal numbers.
2.2. Dielectric Barrier Discharge Body-Force Models

One of the rst models for a DBD plasma actuator, developed by Massines et al. (1998), was a 1D model based on a simultaneous solution of the continuity equations for charged and excited particles and the Poisson equation. Paulus et al. (1999) developed a particle-in-cell simulation to study the time-dependent evolution of the potential and the electrical eld surrounding 2D objects during a high-voltage pulse. The numerical procedure was based on the solution of the Poisson equation on a grid in a
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domain containing an L-shaped electrode to determine the movement of the particles through the grid. The simulation showed that the charged particles move toward the regions of high electric potential, creating a high-electric-eld strength near the electrodes edges. In addition, it showed that the plasma builds up on a very short, microsecond, timescale. A model for the body force produced by the plasma on the neutral air was presented by Roth and colleagues (Roth et al. 2000, Roth & Dai 2006). This model was based on a derivation of the forces in gaseous dielectrics given by Landau & Lifshitz (1984). The body force is proportional to the gradient of the squared electric eld, namely fb = d dx 1 0 E 2 . 2 (1)
This model can be problematic as it is based on a static formulation and does not account for the presence of the charged particles, both of which have been shown to be important in experiments. Boeuf & Pitchford (2005) raised the same warning in their derivation of Equation 1. Enloe et al. (2004b) further showed that the body force given by Equation 1 is only correct in the special case , Ey = Ez = 0, and / y = / z = 0. This special case is not of a 1D condition where E = E x i relevant to physical applications that are at least 2D. Shyy et al. (2002) presented a model for the body force that is widely used in the literature because of its simplicity. A basic assumption of this model is that the electric-eld strength, E, decreases linearly from the edge of the bare electrode toward the dielectric-covered electrode. This assumption is not consistent with experiments (Enloe et al. 2004b, Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006), which show an exponential spatial decay. As a result, the model overpredicts the actuator effect. Furthermore, it produces body-force vectors that point away from the dielectric surface, which is again inconsistent with experiments. Finally, the body-force magnitude in the model is a linear 3.5 function of the AC voltage rather than being proportional to VAC , as observed in experiments. Singh & Roy (2008) used the results of the body forces obtained from a rst-principle simulation along with empirical observations of actuator behavior to develop an approximation for the 2D body-force components. This approach makes the calculation of the body force a curve-tting problem that is only valid for a single-actuator conguration. Similar to Shyy et al.s model, it does not include temporal characteristics of the body force, and the net body force does not scale properly with voltage. Suzen and colleagues (Suzen et al. 2005, Suzen & Huang 2006) utilized the electrostatic model with an imposed Gaussian distribution for the spatial charge distribution to compute the plasma body force using Enloe et al.s (2004a,b) formulation. They proposed to split the electrostatic equations into two parts: the rst part due to the external electric eld and the second part due to the electric eld created by the charged particles. Qualitatively, the net body-force vectors appear 2 to be physical. However, the scaling with AC voltage is incorrect, being proportional to VAC . Such scaling is a closed-form solution of the electrostatic model (Orlov 2006), from which Suzen et al.s model originated. Boeuf & Pitchford (2005) considered a collisional discharge in a numerical estimation of the force acting on gas molecules in a 2D asymmetric surface DBD. For this, they considered nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. They concluded that the asymmetry in the electrode conguration induces an asymmetry in the ow, comparable with a DC force in surface corona discharges. Boeuf et al. (2007) subsequently extended their simulation to encompass multiple microdischarge events and not only were able to simulate the qualitative difference between positive- and negative-going discharges that experimenters have observed, they also concluded that it is the electric-eld effects on the charged particles left after these microdischarges terminate that are the predominate cause of force production by the actuator.
There have been numerous models developed for DBDs in air that include complicated chemistry. These models usually include 2030 reaction equations, each with different reaction times and energy outputs. These equations account for electron, ion-neutral, and neutral-neutral reactions in different gases that are present in the air (Gibalov & Pietsch 2000, Golubovskii et al. 2002, Kozlov et al. 2001, Madani et al. 2003, Pai et al. 1996). For the most part, these models were developed for simple 1D geometries consisting of axisymmetric facing electrodes. To simplify the chemistry, Font and coworkers (Font 2004, Font & Morgan 2005) recently considered the plasma discharge in a 2D asymmetric plasma actuator that included only nitrogen and oxygen reactions. With this model, they were able to simulate the propagation of a single streamer from the bare electrode to the dielectric surface and back. Likhanskii et al. (2006) modeled the weakly ionized-air plasma as a four-component mixture of neutral molecules, electrons, and positive and negative ions that included ionization and recombination processes. Their simulations indicated the importance of the presence of negative ions in the air. They also suggest that the charging of the dielectric surface by electrons in the cathode phase is critical, during which they believe it acts as a harpoon pulling positive ions forward and accelerating the gas in the anode phase. Generally speaking, the charged-particle models can precisely describe all the different processes involved in the plasma actuator. However, they are computationally time-consuming and require signicant computer resources. This is especially true if they are applied to air at nearatmospheric pressures. Such simulations are not suitable to be a part of a design tool that would be used in the iterative optimization of the plasma actuators and the design of ow-control applications based on plasma actuators. Orlov and colleagues (Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006) addressed the need for an efcient method to predict the body-force eld of SDBD plasma actuators by developing a space-time lumpedelement circuit model that is a variation of the one proposed by Enloe et al. (2004a) shown in Figure 7. A schematic of Orlov and colleagues (Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006) model is shown in Figure 9. The unique aspect of this model is the division of the domain over the covered electrode into N parallel networks. The properties of each parallel network depend on its distance from the exposed electrode. These were designated parallel network 1, which is closest to the exposed electrode, to parallel network N, which extends the furthest distance over the covered electrode. Each parallel network consists of an air capacitor, a dielectric capacitor, and a plasma-resistive element, as in the earlier model (Enloe et al. 2004a, Orlov 2006). Zener diodes were added to set a threshold voltage level at which the plasma initiates and to switch into the circuit the different plasma-resistance values based on the current direction, which experiments had shown to be important. The N-circuit arrangement is illustrated in Figure 9. The values of the air capacitor and resistor in the n-th subcircuit are based on their distance from the edge of the exposed electrode. The value of the dielectric capacitor for each subcircuit is a property of the dielectric material. Assuming that the paths are parallel to each other, and the length of path, In , is proportional to its position number, n, it then follows that the air capacitance of the n-th subcircuit, Can , is proportional to 1/n, and the air resistance of the n-th subcircuit is proportional to n. Based on this, subcircuits that are furthest from the edge of the electrodes have the lowest air capacitance and the largest air resistance. For a time-varying (AC) applied voltage, the voltage on the surface of the dielectric at the n-th parallel network is given as d Vapp (t ) d Vn (t ) = dt dt Can Can + Cdn + kn Ipn (t ) , Can + Cdn (2)
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Figure 9 Space-time lumped-element circuit model for a singledielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator that divides the region over a covered electrode into N subregions (a) that each represents a parallel arrangement of circuit elements (b). Figure taken from Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006.
where Ipn (t) is the time-varying current through the plasma resistor, and the diodes are represented by the variable kn . When the threshold voltage is exceeded, kn = 1. Otherwise, kn = 0. The current through the n-th plasma resistance is given by I p n (t ) = 1 Vapp (t ) Vn (t ) , Rn (3)
where Rn = Rnf or Rn = Rnb , based on the current direction. The ratio of the two plasma resistances used by Orlov and colleagues (Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006) was Rnf /Rnb = 5, which was based on the difference in the currents measured in experiments (Orlov 2006). The solution of the model equations gives the voltage on the surface of the dielectric, Vn (t), and the current, I p n (t ), for each parallel circuit element. The space-time variation in the rectied current agreed well with the experimental observations of the plasma light emission (Figures 3 and 5) for a large range of AC voltages and frequencies (Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006). The space-time dependent voltage, Vn (t), from the lumped-element model serves as the timedependent boundary condition for the electric potential, , found in the solution of the electrostatic Poisson equation: ( ) = 1 . 2 D (4)
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The time-dependent extent of the plasma on the surface of the dielectric, x(t), species the region where charged particles are present above the covered electrode. This denes a moving boundary, as shown in Figure 10. The boundary value of the electric potential on the bare electrode is the applied voltage Vapp (t). At the outer boundaries at innity, the boundary conditions are = 0. The electric potential, (t), is determined at small time steps of the AC cycle. It is then used to calculate the time-dependent body force produced by the plasma, given by fb (t ) = c E (t ) = 0 2 D (t ) E (t ), (5)
where it is necessary to keep track of the direction of the current, which signies the sign on the charge, , on the dielectric, and therefore the sign convention for the body force. This model certainly has the benet of being computationally efcient. The question is, is it correct? Or, more accurately, do the assumptions of the model made in the interest of efciency still allow it to replicate the behavior of the actuator, or is too much of the essential physics lost? Orlov and colleagues model allows the plasma boundary conditions to evolve over a timescale that is short compared with that of the AC waveform that is driving the actuator. As a direct 3.5 consequence, the net (AC cycle-averaged) body force from this model scales as VAC , which agrees with experiments (Orlov 2006). It also predicts an asymptote in the body force at higher voltages if the covered electrode is too small. The model also indicates that for a given plasma actuator design, there is an optimum AC frequency that maximizes the net body force. These are considerations that relate directly to how an actuator might be elded in a practical system. Nonetheless, the model, by necessity, cannot describe the evolution of the microdischarges themselves, during which time the local nonuniformities in charge density are the most extreme. This may not be as signicant a drawback as one might think. The results of the modeling done by Boeuf et al. (2007) indicate that although the forces on the plasma are greatest during these short (tens of nanoseconds) periods, in fact the largest contribution to the total force is a result of the electric elds interaction with the charged particles remaining after the microdischarges have terminated because these particles outlive the microdischarges by orders of magnitude (microseconds). Orlov and colleagues model does not explicitly address the effect of oxygen and its propensity to form negative as well as positive ions, but in fact it does encompass this phenomenon implicitly. Equation 5 effectively states that the force on the neutrals is the same as the force on the plasma. On one hand, this is an excellent assumption: The ionized particles represent such a small fraction
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of the air that the probability of an ion or electron crossing the gap between the electrode and the dielectric surface (or back) without interacting with a neutral molecule is vanishingly small. On the other hand, the momentum-transfer cross section for electrons on neutrals is substantially smaller than that for ions on neutrals, so the assumption that one can simply track the net charge density, c , to compute the force on the neutrals by the plasma is incorrect. If, conversely, enough electrons attach themselves to the oxygen molecules to form large, heavy negative oxygen ions, the electric force on the ions is the same as on the original electrons, but the momentum-transfer cross section is increased, so that, in fact, the implicit assumption of Equation 5 is satised. A frequently discussed topic is the vector direction of the plasma body force during the AC cycle. The formulation given in Equation 5 indicates that throughout the AC cycle, the body force is always oriented in the direction from the bare electrode toward the covered electrode. This could be the result of the assumptions made in the formulation of the model, in particular the quasi-steady assumption that the timescale of the electron and ion movement is much smaller than the AC period. This is certainly true for the electrons. The question is whether it is true for the ions. The charged-particle simulations of Font and colleagues (Font 2004, Font & Morgan 2005) that included nitrogen and oxygen reactions followed the propagation of a single streamer from the bare electrode to the dielectric surface and back. They suggested that during the forward discharge (when the electrons are pushed away from the bare electrode and the positive ions are pulled back toward the bare electrode), the net momentum is not zero, but favors the ions so that there is a net momentum toward the bare electrode. In the back discharge (when the electric eld is reversed), their simulations have a resultant force that is away from the bare electrode, toward the dielectric [as in Orlov and colleagues (Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006) model]. The magnitude of body force in the back discharge was signicantly larger than in the forward discharge so that the cycle-averaged vector from the simulation was overwhelmingly toward the dielectric, as observed in the time-averaged experiments (Thomas et al. 2009). Font and colleagues scenario might be categorized as PUSH-pull, in which the upper- or lowercase words signify the relative magnitude. Orlov and colleagues model would indicate PUSHpush. What is the experimental evidence? Forte et al. (2006) performed time-resolved laser-Doppler-velocimetry measurements of the ow induced by an SDBD plasma actuator similar to that shown in Figure 1, in a quiescent neutral ow. They were able to capture the streamwise and wall-normal velocity components within a period of the AC input. The laser-Doppler-velocimetry measurements indicated that during the AC cycle, the u component oscillated between a large positive u and a small but positive u, and was never negative. This result supports a PUSH-push scenario. Kim et al. (2007) arrived at the same conclusion by observing ows with time-resolved particle-image velocimetry. Recent experiments by Enloe and colleagues (Enloe et al. 2009, Porter et al. 2007) indicate (using an entirely different experimental method) a PUSH-push scenario when the net effect of the actuator is concerned, with the magnitude of the effect of the plasma alone being comparable on both the negative- and positive-going half-cycles, bringing these experimental results into closer agreement with those predicted by Orlov and colleagues (Orlov et al. 2006, Orlov 2006) model. Given that the same effect is shown by drastically different means, it seems well established that both half-cycles of the discharge add momentum to the ow in the same direction.
2.3. Optimization
The insight that comes from developing a better understanding of the physics behind the SDBD plasma actuator can suggest approaches to optimize its performance. The following sections provide some examples.
2.3.1. AC waveform. The observations that the ionization occurs as long as the difference between the instantaneous AC potential and the charge buildup on the dielectric exceeds a threshold value suggest that there are AC waveforms that are optimal. For example, a square wave is least optimum, a sine wave is better, and a triangle wave is better yet. (These are waveforms measured at the actuator input. In practice, low-level signal inputs to high-voltage ampliers can experience signicant ltering and shape alteration.) This can be extended further by considering a waveform that emphasizes the time given to the PUSH and minimizes the time of the push. Such a waveform would be a sawtooth with the greatest duty cycle possible allocated to the polarity of the dV/dt such that electrons are emitted from the exposed electrode and deposited on the dielectric surface. Enloe et al. (2004a) veried this experimentally. An alternate waveform receiving some attention is very narrow (nanosecond) pulses. These are sometimes used in combination with sinusoidal waveforms or small DC components (Opaits et al. 2009). The addition of a DC generally leads to a so-called sliding discharge. A new plasma actuator based on that effect is discussed in Section 4.1. 2.3.2. Geometry. Forte et al. (2006) experimentally examined the effect of the amount of overlap between the bare and covered electrodes in an asymmetric arrangement similar to that shown in Figure 1. They dened the gap spacing, g, to be positive when there was a nonoverlapping distance between the edges. Interpreting their results, and normalizing the gap by the width of the covered electrode Lce , which must be a factor, they found that there was little effect on the maximum induced velocities for 0 g / Lc e 2. For larger (positive) gaps or overlap, the effectiveness of the plasma actuator dropped off rapidly. Because the effect of the plasma actuator on the neutral ow is through a body force, we expect that the effect of multiple actuators is linearly additive. This was rst conrmed by Post (2004) and later by Forte et al. (2006) and Thomas et al. (2009). 2.3.3. Thick dielectrics. There are two important properties of the dielectric material: the breakdown voltage per thickness (volts per millimeter) and the dielectric coefcient, . The minimum thickness of the dielectric needs to be sufcient to not break down at the applied voltage, although for some materials, this can be accomplished with only a fraction of a millimeter of thickness (0.05 mm typical for Kapton). Recent evidence (Thomas et al. 2009) shows a benet in using thicker dielectric layers made of materials that have lower dielectric coefcients. The general objective is to lower the capacitance of the actuator. The capacitance is proportional to /h, where h is the thickness of the dielectric. The power loss through the dielectric is proportional to fAC /h. Therefore, lowering the capacitance (/h) lowers the power loss through the dielectric, which is otherwise manifest in heating, and allows higher voltages to be reached. Because the body force 3.5 is proportional to VAC , the motivation is to be able to operate at higher voltages. 2.3.4. AC frequency. Orlov and colleagues (Orlov 2006, Orlov et al. 2006) model indicates that there is an optimum AC frequency to maximize the body force that depends on the actuator capacitance. Thomas et al. (2009) investigated this using a 6.35-mm-thick glass dielectric actuator. The results are shown in Figure 11. For this actuator design, the 8-kHz AC frequency has the lowest maximum thrust, and the 1-kHz frequency has the highest thrust. Again at xed power (I V), if the current (I) is too large, the applied voltage (V) will decrease and the body force (thrust) will decrease. The visible indication of the increased current is the appearance of the bright laments in the plasma. The voltage at which these rst occur varies linearly with fAC as expected based on the relation for power loss through the dielectric.
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Figure 11 (a) Induced thrust from a singledielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator for a 6.35-mm-thick glass dielectric for different AC frequencies of the applied voltage. (b) Corresponding images of plasma for each frequency at maximum thrust, showing the ionized air produced by the actuator. The lowest image represents the uniform ionization that occurs within the voltage range at which the thrust is proportional to voltage to the 3.5 power. The other four images correspond to the maximum thrust point at the respective AC frequencies shown in the left panel. Figure taken from Thomas et al. 2009.
3. EXAMPLE APPLICATION: EXPERIMENT AND SIMULATION

A visual experimental demonstration of SDBD plasma actuators was the suppression of the von K arm an vortex street behind a circular cylinder given by Thomas et al. (2008a,b). As an example, Figure 12 shows two particle-image-velocimetry images taken with the plasma actuators off and on at ReD = 33,000. Four plasma actuators were located on the downstream half of the cylinder at the 90 , 135 , 225 , and 270 positions, as measured in the clockwise direction from the stagnation line on the upstream side of the cylinder. The actuators were the asymmetric electrode design shown in Figure 1. The dielectric was the 6.4-mm-thick glass wall of the cylinder. The plasma actuators kept the ow attached on the lee side of the cylinder, resulting in a merged jet of uid on the wake centerline that modied the mean ow and suppressed the vortex shedding. Mertz & Corke (2009) performed a simulation of Thomas et al.s experiment and modeled the plasma actuator in the manner of Orlov (2006), as described in Section 2.2. Figure 13a shows the AC cycle-averaged body-force vector eld computed for the simulation. This illustrates the actuator design, which, on average, oriented the mean body-force vector in the mean ow direction and toward the wall of the cylinder. The effect of the body force on the ow around the cylinder was simulated using FLUENT with the body-force vector array supplied through a user-dened input. Streamlines from the simulation with the plasma actuator effect off and on are shown in Figure 13b. These corroborate well with the experiment.
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Figure 12 Particle-image-velocimetry images of the ow behind a circular cylinder at ReD = 33,000 with plasma actuators on the lee side of the cylinder off (a) and on (b). Figure taken from Thomas et al. 2008.
4. FUTURE EXPECTATIONS 4.1. Sliding Discharge

A relatively new design for plasma actuators is based on a sliding discharge. This concept was rst developed for laser-pumping applications (Arad et al. 1987). A number of researchers have adapted it to atmospheric-pressure plasmas (e.g., Louste et al. 2005, Thomas et al. 2008a, Zouzou et al. 2007). The concept is to utilize the AC DBD to weakly ionize the air, and then to superpose a DC potential that establishes a corona discharge between spatially separated electrodes. The DC component induces the sliding discharge. The advantages of this concept are that large plasma sheets can be produced and the plasma is stable with no glow-to-arc transition, except when the DC component is above the DC breakdown limit for the air.
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Thomas et al.s approach is unique from the others cited above. It is referred to as a triode plasma actuator because the electrode arrangement and the use of the dielectric material are similar to that of a discrete triode amplier. A schematic of the triode plasma actuator is shown in Figure 14a. When the triode actuator is operating only with the AC input on, it functions as an SDBD device. Figure 14b shows that the plasma generated in this case is only visible near the edges of the two exposed electrodes. However, the addition of the DC caused the visible plasma to completely ll the space between the electrodes. Figure 15 shows a comparison between the thrust generated by the triode plasma actuator when operated in DBD and sliding discharge modes. The thrust measurement was performed in an identical manner to that shown in Figure 6. When the DC was off, the thrust followed the power-law growth that is characteristic of SDBD plasma actuators. There was also a clear threshold voltage below which thrust was too low to be measured. When the DC was on, there was a thrust produced even at zero AC level. The thrust in this case then varied approximately linearly with the AC level. Obviously, the thrust was signicantly larger with the sliding discharge. Further optimization is forthcoming, but these results suggest great potential for this approach.
4.2. Plasma Sensor

In addition to ow control, a new AC plasma sensor for velocity measurements has recently been developed by Matlis & Corke (2005). Although it was originally intended for highMach number, high-enthalpy ows, it is quite well suited for low-speed ows, or applications in which harsh conditions make more conventional ow sensors unusable. A recent example of its use includes the detection of traveling stall cells in a transonic compressor stage (Matlis et al. 2008). This technology offers the unique opportunity for combined plasma actuators and sensors that could be benecial for closed-loop feedback control in a single element.
5. SUMMARY
There is an ever growing number of applications of SDBD plasma actuators that have appeared in the literature. A partial list of these includes exciting boundary-layer instabilities on a sharp cone at Mach 3.5 (Corke et al. 2001, Kosinov et al. 1990, Matlis 2004), lift augmentation on a wing
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Figure 15 Comparison between thrust generated by a triode plasma actuator for dielectric barrier discharge and sliding discharge operation. Figure taken from Thomas et al. 2008a.
section (Corke et al. 2002, 2006; Goeksel & Rechenberg 2004; Goeksel et al. 2006; Nelson et al. 2006; Patel et al. 2006), low-pressure turbine blade separation control (Huang 2005; Huang et al. 2006a, 2006b; List et al. 2003; Rizzetta & Visbal 2007; Suzen et al. 2007; Wall et al. 2007), turbine tip-clearance ow control (Douville et al. 2006, Morris et al. 2005, Van Ness et al. 2006), bluffbody ow control (Asghar et al. 2006, Do et al. 2007, Thomas et al. 2006), turbulent boundarylayer control (Balcer et al. 2006, Hultgren & Ashpis 2003, Porter et al. 2007, Wilkinson 2003), unsteady vortex generation and control (Nelson et al. 2007, Visbal & Gaitonde 2006), and airfoil leading-edge separation control (Corke et al. 2004; Post 2004; Post & Corke 2003, 2004). New applications continue to appear as more investigators gain experience in using these ow actuators. Our understanding of the SDBD physics inherent to the plasma actuators has led to the development of quantitative models that have shown remarkable agreement with experiments, which point to improved designs and operation. The recent optimization of the actuators produced by better choices of thick dielectric materials and AC input frequencies and waveforms has led to order-of-magnitude improvements in their performance compared with earlier designs. Sliding discharge approaches offer the potential for further signicant improvement. All these are opening the scope of application conditions for these ow-control devices.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
T.C.C. is a partial holder and C.L.E is a co-inventor of U.S. Patent No. 7,380,756, Single dielectric barrier aerodynamic plasma actuator, and S.P.W. is a co-inventor of U.S. Patent No. 6,200,539, Paraelectric gas ow accelerator.
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Paulus M, Stals L, Rude U, Rauschenbach B. 1999. Two-dimensional simulation of plasma-based ion implantation. J. Appl. Phys. 85:76166 Porter C, McLaughlin T, Enloe L, Font G. 2007. Boundary layer control using DBD plasma actuator. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 45th, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2007-0786 Post ML. 2001. Phased plasma actuators for unsteady ow control. Masters thesis, Univ. Notre Dame Post ML. 2004. Plasma actuators for separation control on stationary and unstationary airfoils. PhD thesis, Univ. Notre Dame Post ML, Corke TC. 2003. Separation control on high angle of attack airfoil using plasma actuator. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 41st, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2003-1024 Post ML, Corke TC. 2004. Separation control using plasma actuators: stationary and oscillatory airfoils. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 42nd, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2004-0841 Rabehi A, BenGadri R, Segur P, Massines F, Decomps Ph. 1994. Numerical modelling of high pressure glow discharges controlled by dielectric barrier. Proc. Conf. Electr. Insul. Dielectr. Phenom., Arlington, TX, October 2326, pp. 84045. New York: IEEE Raizer YP. 1991. Gas Discharge Physics. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Rizzetta D, Visbal M. 2007. Numerical investigation of plasma-based ow control for a transitional highly-loaded low-pressure turbine. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 45th, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 20070938 Roth JR. 1995. Industrial Plasma Engineering. Philadelphia, PA: Inst. Phys. Roth JR, Dai X. 2006. Optimization of the aerodynamic plasma actuator as an EHD electrical device. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 44th, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2006-1203 Roth JR, Sherman D, Wilkinson S. 1998. Boundary layer ow control with one atmosphere uniform glow discharge surface plasma. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 36th, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 1998-0328 Roth JR, Sherman DM, Wilkinson SP. 2000. Electrohydrodynamic ow control with a glow-discharge surface plasma. AIAA J. 38:116672 Shyy W, Jayaraman B, Andersson A. 2002. Modeling of glow discharge-induced uid dynamics. J. Appl. Phys. 92:643443 Singh K, Roy S. 2008. Force approximation for a plasma actuator operating in atmospheric air. J. App. Phys. 103:013305 Suzen Y, Huang G, Ashpis D. 2007. Numerical simulations of ow separation control in low-pressure turbines using plasma actuators. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 45th, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2007-0937 Suzen YB, Huang PG. 2006. Simulation of ow separation control using plasma actuators. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 44th, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2006-877 Suzen YB, Huang PG, Jacob JD, Ashpis DE. 2005. Numerical simulations of plasma based ow control applications. Presented at AIAA Fluid Dyn. Conf. Exhibit, 35th, Toronto, AIAA Pap. No. 2005-4633 Thomas F, Corke T, Iqbal M, Kozlov A, Shatzman D. 2009. Optimization of SDBD plasma actuators for active aerodynamic ow control. AIAA J. In press Thomas F, Corke T, Wang M. 2008a. Experimental aircraft noise control using dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuators: benchmark experiments and LES simulations. NASA Progr. Rep. NNX07AO09A Thomas FO, Kozlov A, Corke TC. 2006. Plasma actuators for bluff body ow control. Presented at AIAA Flow Control Conf., 3rd, San Francisco, AIAA Pap. No. 2006-2845 Thomas F, Kozlov A, Corke T. 2008b. Plasma actuators for bluff body ow control. AIAA J. 46:192131 Trunec D, Brablec A, Stastny F. 1998. Experimental study of atmospheric pressure glow discharge. Contrib. Plasma Phys. 38:43545 Van Ness DK, Corke TC, Morris SC. 2006. Turbine tip clearance ow control using plasma actuators. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 44th, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2006-21 Vidmar RJ, Stalder KR. 2003. Air chemistry and power to generate and sustain plasma: plasma lifetime calculations. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 41st, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2003-1189 Visbal MR, Gaitonde DV. 2006. Control of vortical ows using simulated plasma actuators. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 44th, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2006-505 Voikov V, Corke T, Haddad O. 2004. Numerical simulation of ow control over airfoils using plasma actuators. Am. Phys. Soc. Div. Fluid Dyn. 49:FG.008 (Abstract)
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Wall JD, Boxx IC, Rivir RB, Franke ME. 2007. Effects of pulsed DC discharge plasma actuators in a separated LPT boundary layer. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 45th, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 20070942 Wilkinson SP. 2003. Investigation of an oscillating surface plasma for turbulent drag reduction. Presented at AIAA Aerosp. Sci. Meet. Exhibit, 41st, Reno, AIAA Pap. No. 2003-1023 Yokoyama T, Kogoma M, Moriwaki T, Okazaki SJ. 1990. The mechanism of the stabilization of glow plasma at atmospheric pressure. J. Phys. D 23:112528 Zouzou N, Takashima K, Moreau E, Mizuno A, Touchard G. 2007. Sliding discharge study in axisymmetric conguration. In 28th ICPIG, Prague, Czech Republic, ed. J Schmidt, M Simek, S Pekarek, V Prukner, Art. No. 1007-10. London: Int. Union Pure Appl. Phys.
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Singular Perturbation Theory: A Viscous Flow out of Gottingen Robert E. OMalley Jr. p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1 Dynamics of Winds and Currents Coupled to Surface Waves Peter P. Sullivan and James C. McWilliams p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 19 Fluvial Sedimentary Patterns G. Seminara p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 43 Shear Bands in Matter with Granularity Peter Schall and Martin van Hecke p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 67 Slip on Superhydrophobic Surfaces Jonathan P. Rothstein p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 89 Turbulent Dispersed Multiphase Flow S. Balachandar and John K. Eaton p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 111 Turbidity Currents and Their Deposits Eckart Meiburg and Ben Kneller p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 135 Measurement of the Velocity Gradient Tensor in Turbulent Flows James M. Wallace and Petar V. Vukoslav cevi c p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 157 Friction Drag Reduction of External Flows with Bubble and Gas Injection Steven L. Ceccio p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 183 WaveVortex Interactions in Fluids and Superuids Oliver Buhler p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 205 Laminar, Transitional, and Turbulent Flows in Rotor-Stator Cavities Brian Launder, S ebastien Poncet, and Eric Serre p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 229 Scale-Dependent Models for Atmospheric Flows Rupert Klein p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 249 Spike-Type Compressor Stall Inception, Detection, and Control C.S. Tan, I. Day, S. Morris, and A. Wadia p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 275
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Airow and Particle Transport in the Human Respiratory System C. Kleinstreuer and Z. Zhang p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 301 Small-Scale Properties of Turbulent Rayleigh-B enard Convection Detlef Lohse and Ke-Qing Xia p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 335 Fluid Dynamics of Urban Atmospheres in Complex Terrain H.J.S. Fernando p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 365 Turbulent Plumes in Nature Andrew W. Woods p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 391
Fluid Mechanics of Microrheology Todd M. Squires and Thomas G. Mason p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 413 Lattice-Boltzmann Method for Complex Flows Cyrus K. Aidun and Jonathan R. Clausen p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 439 Wavelet Methods in Computational Fluid Dynamics Kai Schneider and Oleg V. Vasilyev p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 473 Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma Actuators for Flow Control Thomas C. Corke, C. Lon Enloe, and Stephen P. Wilkinson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 505 Applications of Holography in Fluid Mechanics and Particle Dynamics Joseph Katz and Jian Sheng p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 531 Recent Advances in Micro-Particle Image Velocimetry Steven T. Wereley and Carl D. Meinhart p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 557 Indexes Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 142 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 577 Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 142 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 585 Errata An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics articles may be found at http://uid.annualreviews.org/errata.shtml
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ANNUAL REVIEWS

Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma Actuators for Flow Control

Plasma Dielectric layer

Actuator location reference

Exposed electrode edge

Covered electrode Exposed electrode

Plasma actuator (top view)

2. DIELECTRIC BARRIER DISCHARGE ACTUATOR PHYSICS 2.1. Experimental Observations

PMT output normalized by maximum

0.8 2000 1000 0 1000 2000 3000 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 4000 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Dielectric Insulator 100

Gas composition (% O2)

2.2. Dielectric Barrier Discharge Body-Force Models

Bare electrode BC: Vapp(t)

Dielectric BC: Vn(t)

2.5 2 kHz 2.0

8 kHz 4 kHz 2 kHz 1 kHz 30

3. EXAMPLE APPLICATION: EXPERIMENT AND SIMULATION

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4. FUTURE EXPECTATIONS 4.1. Sliding Discharge

0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0

0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Plasma DC voltage Catode Induced air ow Anode

Dielectric Excitation electrode

AC voltage Additional insulator

4.2. Plasma Sensor

0.35 DC o DC on (48 kV) 0.30

VAC (pp kV)

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Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics Volume 42, 2010

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