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The Administrative System in Tibet During The Tang and Yuan Dynasties (China Tibetology Vol.1)
The Administrative System in Tibet During The Tang and Yuan Dynasties (China Tibetology Vol.1)
1) (1) China's Tang Dynasty (618-907) and Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) were o e!o"h-#a$ing i#!ortan"e in the or#ation and de%e&o!#ent o the Ti'etan ethni" grou!( )u#erous ethni" tri'es 'egan to unite* and the !ro"ess o e%o&ution ro# a tri'a& to a !o&iti"a& so"iety was 'asi"a&&y "o#!&eted o%er the s!an o the two dynasties( The ad%an"ed !o&iti"a&* e"ono#i" and "u&tura& syste#s o the +an !eo!&e were introdu"ed into Ti'et* !ri#iti%e tri'es were gradua&&y re!&a"ed 'y a united go%ern#ent* and "onsanguinity ina&&y ga%e way to an aristo"ra"y,the euda& &ord syste#( -n short* #ost o the great e%ents o histori"a& signi i"an"e in the esta'&ish#ent o the Ti'etan ad#inistrati%e syste# too$ !&a"e during the Tang and Yuan Dynasties( The origins o the distin"ti%e&y theo"rati" ser do# in or"e in Ti'et during the .ing Dynasty (136816//) and 0ing dynasty(i6//-i9ii) #ay 'e tra"ed 'a"$ to the Tang and Yuan( The an"estors o the Ti'etan !eo!&e* &i$e those o the +an and other ethni" grou!s* #ade a signi i"ant "ontri'ution to the o%era&& greatness o the Chinese nation(The Ti'etans a&so esta'&ished ties with the 0iang* Tangart* and* #ost !arti"u&ar&y* the +an* whi"h ha%e re#ained strong and "&ose sin"e an"ient ti#es( -n the "ourse o history* there ha%e 'een "on &i"ts and dis!utes* as we&& as integration and #ergen"e a#ong the ethni" grou!s o China( 1riend&y re&ations and 'itter hosi&ities ha%e "oe2isted* 'ut* genera&&y s!ea$ing* hosti&ities ha%e 'een o the sort that #ight o""ur 'etween 'rothers* a&though on o""asion ha%e 'een serious enough to end in war( -n a retros!e"ti%e o history* howe%er* the o'%ious "on"&usion to 'e drawn is that the #ain strea# o ethni" re&ations in China has a&ways 'een one o #i2ing* e2"hange* and uni i"ation( 3#!&e e%iden"e o this "an 'e ound in %o&u#e u!on %o&u#e o histori"a& re"ords( The o&&owing are e2tra"ts ro# the Ti'etan Co##entary in The +istory o the Tang Dynasty* and gi%e a genera& !i"ture o ethni" re&ations 'etween the +an and Ti'etan !eo!&es4 -n the eighth year o the reign o 5henguan(63/)* Ti'etan !rin"e 0i6ong&ong6an (7rong 'tsan-sga#-!o) sent an en%oy to !resent tri'utes to the Tang e#!eror( -n the i teenth year o 5henguan* the Tang e#!eror Tai6ong ga%e his daughter* 8rin"ess 9en"heng* in #arriage to 0i6ong&ong6an* who o&&owed the "ourtesies o a son-in-&aw( 9hen the Tang e#!eror :ao6ong(6;0-683)"a#e to the throne* that #ade 0i6ong&ong6an the e#!eror's 'rother-in-&aw 0i6ong &ong6an and was awarded the tit&e 8rin"e o the 9estern 7ea and was !ro#oted to the !osition o 8rin"e o <in( 0i6ong&ong6an died in the irst year o Yonghui (6;0)(The Tang e#!eror :ao6ong he&d a #ourning "ere#ony and sent an en%oy to e2!ress his "ondo&en"es( -n the ourth year o Yi eng (679)* the Ti'etan 'tsan-!o died and his son 0inu2i&ong =hri-%dus-srong su""eeded the to throne( The Tang e#!eror (who was a"tua&&y the e#!ress 9u 5etian) sent an en%oy to attend the unera&( -n the irst year o Yong&ong(68o)* 8rin"ess 9en"heng !assed away( The Tang e#!eror sent an en%oy to e2!ress his "ondo&en"es( -n the se"ond year o Changan(702)*a Ti'etan en%oy sent to Chang'an(((said to >#!ress 9u 5etian4 ?9e o this s#a&& and re#ote !&a"e are at &oss as to how to return your hea%en&y a%or@ 3&& we "an do is to !ray or &onge%ity or your highness'(? The ne2t year*Tu'o (an"ient Ti'et) !aid tri'ute o one thousand horses and two thousand tae&s o go&d or the hand o a Tang !rin"ess* whi"h was granted 'y >#!ress 9u 5etian( -n the irst year o 7hen&ong(70;)* a Ti'etan en%oy re!orted the death o 8rin"e 0inu2i&ong ($hri-%dug-srong)( The Tang Dynasty e#!eror he&d a #ourning "ere#ony and sus!ended a"ti%ities at the i#!eria& "ourt
or one day( 0i&isy6an ($hri-&de-gtsug-'rtsan) su""eeded to the Tu'o throne* and his grand#other sent an en%oy to the i#!eria& go%ern#ent see$ing a #arriage a&&ian"e( This was agreed to 'y the Tang e#!eror 5hong6ong*and 8rin"ess Ain"heng was #arried into Ti'et's roya& a#i&y 1ro# then on*Ti'et !aid tri'ute to the Tang i#!eria& go%ern#ent on a year&y 'asis( -n the e&e%enth #onth o the third year o Aing&ong (709)* a Ti'etan en%oy tra%e&&ed to Chang'an to es"ort 8rin"ess Ain"heng to Ti'et* where the !rin"ess arri%ed the o&&owing year* to stay in a "ity that had 'een 'ui&t es!e"ia&&y or her( -n the se%enteenth year o Baiyuan(729)* the Ti'etan go%en#ent sent a high-ran$ing o i"ia& na#ed .ing2i&ie to the Tang i#!eria& "ourt to ho&d !ea"e negotiations( The Ti'etan !rin"e su'#itted a #e#oria& to the e#!eror that read4 ?- ha%e the honor to 'e Your .aCesty's ne!hew* and a "&ose re&ati%e o the &ate e#!eror(<y the hea%en&y a%or "on erred on #e in 'eing gi%en the hand o 8rin"ess Ain"heng* - "onsider the Ti'etan and +an !eo!&es to 'e o one a#i&y* and !eo!&e under hea%en who enCoy !ea"e and ha!!iness( <earing in #ind the &ate 8rin"ess 9en"heng* and a&so 8rin"ess Ain"heng* Your .aCesty's hu#'&e ne!hew has ne%er orgotten his own !osition or dared "o##it a 'rea"h o etiDuette( +owe%er* 'eing young and ine2!erien"ed*@ ha%e 'een de"ei%ed 'y s&anderous ta&$ and a&se in or#ation gi%en to #e 'y "ertain genera&s* whi"h has gi%en rise to 'order dis!utes* and "aused Your .aCesty's !ea"e o #ind to 'e distur'ed( - now 'eg your !ardon and se%ere re!ri#and( .ing2i&ie $nows "&ear&y that Your .aCestEs ne!hew !unished the genera&s who were at the root o these dis!utes* and who were the u&ti#ate "ause o +an !eo!&e 'eing ro''ed( 9hen +an so&diers surrendered to our side( - &ost no ti#e in ha%ing the# sent 'a"$( - earnest&y ho!e that Your .aCesty "an see #y sin"erity and a&&ow us to reesta'&ish riend&y re&ations* so that the !eo!&e "an &i%e in !ea"e( - Your .aCesty "on ers on #e the a%or o granting #y reDuest* rest assured that your hu#'&e ne!hew sha&& re#ain true to his word?( -n the tenth #onth o the eighteenth year o Baiyuan* .ing2i&ie and his o&&owers arri%ed in the "a!ita&* Chang'an( The Ti'etan en%oy !resented a #e#oria& to the Tang Dynasty e#!eror*in whi"h 8rin"ess Ain"heng reDuested the <oo$ o Fdes* the <oo$ o =ites* and C&assi"a& 7e&e"tions( The -#!eria& 7e"retariat was instru"ted to see that the 'oo$s were !re!ared( -n the twenty-ninth year o Baiyuan(7/i)*8rin"ess Ain"heng died( The Ti'etan go%ern#ent sent an en%oy to the "a!ita& to announ"e the sad news* and again s!o$e o !ea"e( -n the ourteenth year o Tian'ao(7;6)* the Ti'etan !rin"e 0i&isu&ong died( 9ith the su!!ort o "ourt su'Ce"ts* his son* 8osrong&e6an su""eeded to the throne( >#!eror Guan6ong sent an en%oy as his o i"ia& re!resentati%e to Ti'et to e2!ress his "ondo&en"es( -n the irst year o 5hide(7;6)*Ti'et sent an en%oy to negotiate !ea"e( -n the irst year o <aoying(762)* the Ti'etan en%oy 5hu an#anger !resented tri'utes to the i#!eria& Tang "ourt( -n the irst year o Yongtai(76;)*Ti'et sent its re!resentati%e to see$ !ea"e( -n the ourth #onth o the se"ond year o Yongtai (766)*#ore than one hundred Ti'etan re!resentati%es &ed 'y Hord HunDi6ang arri%ed in the "a!ita& to e2!ress goodwi&&( -n the e&e%enth #onth o the se"ond year o Da&i (767)*the Ti'etan &ord Hun2iDi&ing had an audien"e with the Tang e#!eror* and was soon o&&owed 'y a grou! o i teen re!resentati%es &ed 'y Hu2i* who a&so sought and audien"e( -n the irst #onth o Aian6hong(783)*Ti'et and the Tang he&d a #eeting*west o the 0ing ri%er* with the ai# o or#ing an a&&ian"e(8art o the treaty o a&&ian"e reads4 ?The i#!eria& "ourt o Tang has esta'&ished #arriage ties with Ti'etan !rin"es in an e ort to 'ui&d good neigh'orhood and share !ea"e( Fur 'In"&e and )e!hew're&ationshi! has &asted or near&y 200 years( During this !eriod* howe%er* there arose unne"essary dis!utes that grew into wars* when !ast goodwi&& and a%or were orgotten( Frder a&ong the 'order areas was there ore distur'ed( The Tang e#!eror*with dee! "o#!assion or the #u&titudes* re&eased war !risoners and &et the# return to Ti'et( The Ti'etan !rin"e res!onded to the a%or o +is .aCesty with "ourtesy*and the
two "ountries 'egan to #end their re&ations(9ith !eo!&e "o#ing and going 'etween us* 'road"asting the har#ony 'etween the two so%ereigns* there "an 'e no !&ots o sa'otage or war are(?-n the irst ha& o the third #onth o the twentieth year o 5henyuan(8o/)*the Ti'etan !rin"e died( Fn hearing this sad news* the Tang e#!eror did not enter the i#!eria& "ourt or three days* and sent 5hangAian* #inister in "harge o the <oard o 9or$s* to e2!ress his "ondo&en"es( -n the ourth #onth o the sa#e year* Ti'et sent i ty- our en%oys or an audien"e with the Tang e#!eror( -n the se%enth #onth o the twenty- irst year(80;)* Hun2ino and other en%oys ro# Ti'et "a#e to Chang'an or an audien"e with the e#!eror( -n the tenth #onth o the irst year o Yong6hen (80;)* Ti'etan en%oy HunDi&ou'o arri%ed in the "a!ita& to !resent tri'ute o go&d* si&%er* "&othes* "att&e and horses to the Tang e#!eror De6ong( -n the si2th #onth o the irst year o Yuanhe(806)* Ti'etan en%oy Hun'o "a#e to the "a!ita& or an audien"e with the Tang e#!eror( -n the si2th #onth o the i th year o Yuanhe(810)* Ti'et sent its en%oy Hunsiyere or an audien"e with the Tang e#!eror( 1ro# the si2th year to the tenth year o Yuanhe (811-81;)*Ti'et regu&ar&y sent en%oys to Chang'an to see$ audien"es with and !resent tri'ute to the Tang e#!eror( -n the ourth #onth o the twe& th year o Yiianhe (817)* a Ti'etan en%oy re!orted the death o the Ti'etan !rin"e(The i#!eria& go%ern#ent sent a s!e"ia& a#'assador to e2!ress "ondo&en"es( -n the tenth #onth o the irst year o ChangDing (821)* Ti'et and the Tang he&d a #eeting to dis"uss or#ing an a&&ian"e( -ts "on"&usion was in"&uded in the treaty o a&&ian"e*whi"h read as o&&ows4 ?-n the "entra& !art o China* the Tang e#!eror is so&e ru&erJand in the western regions* Ti'et is &ord(1or# now on* the two states wi&& "ease war are and orget o&d grudges and hatreds( The two sides wi&& reesta'&ish their un"&e-and-ne!hew re&ationshi!*ease tension a&ong the 'order and e2tinguish the &a#es o war( =ather than resorting to %io&en"e and ro''ery the two sides shou&d he&! ea"h other and share wea& and woe( 3s guards o the origina& "ru"ia& !osts a&ong the 'order* the Tang go%ern#ent and Ti'et shou&d trust ea"h other and ne%er stoo! to de"e!tion or raud(? -n the irst #onth o the third year o ChangDing (823)* Ti'et sent its en%oy Hundare to e2tend greetings or the new year( -n the ninth #onth o the ourth year o ChangDing (82/)* Ti'et sent an en%oy reDuesting a !i"ture o 9utaishan( -n the tenth #onth o the sa#e year* Ti'et !aid tri'ute in the or# o ya$s* and si&%er igurines o a rhino"eros* shee! and deer( -n the third #onth o the irst year o <ao&i(82K)* Ti'etan en%oy 7hangDi&ire tra%e&&ed to the "a!ita& or an audien"e with the e#!eror and to e2!ress goodwi&&( -n the ninth #onth o the sa#e year* the Tang go%ern#ent sent an o i"ia& na#ed Hi =ui or a re"i!ro"a&%isit to Ti'et( <etween the i th and eighth years o Taihe(831-83/)*Ti'et regu&ar&y sent en%oys to the "a!ita&*see$ing audien"es and !resenting tri'ute( The "entra& go%ern#ent o Tang a&so sent re!resentati%es to Ti'et to re"i!ro"ate their goodwi&&( -n the irst year o Bai"heng(8/2)* a Ti'etan en%oy arri%ed in the "a!ita&( -n the se"ond year o +ui"hang* the Ti'etan !rin"e died(-n the twe& th #onth* a Ti'etan en%oy "a#e to re!ort the sad news* and the Tang go%er#ent sent an o i"ia& na#ed HiAing to e2!ress "ondo&en"es( There were a!!ro2i#ate&y one hundred and ninety e2"hanges o o i"ia& %isits 'etween the Tang and Ti'et* ro# the eighth year o 5henguan when Ti'etan !rin"e 0i&ong6ong6an (srong-'tsan sga#!o) irst !aid tri'ute to the "entra& go%en#ent o Tang* to the "o&&a!se o tri'a& ser do# u!on the death o 8rin"e Dar#aE3 genera& !i"ture o the re&ations 'etween the "entra& Tang go%ern#ent and Ti'et a&so e#erges ro# these e2tra"ts( 3 ew 'asi" tenden"ies a&so warrant attention4 1( 1reDuent e2"hanges and signi i"ant #utua& in &uen"e e2isted in the !o&iti"a&*e"ono#i" and "u&tura& ie&ds o the "entra& Tang go%ern#ent and Ti'et( 2( 3&though wars 'ro$e out ro# ti#e to ti#e* Ti'et steadi&y &earned the ad%an"ed as!e"ts o the
#ateria& and "u&tura& &i e o the +an !eo!&e( 3( 3n"ient Ti'etan no#adi" tri'es esta'&ished "ount&ess ties with the Centra& 8&ains o China through "u&tura& e2"hanges(2 <ased on the a'o%e a"ts* it is sa e to "on"&ude that Ti'et was a "o#!onent !art o the !o&iti"a&* e"ono#i" and "u&tura& s!here o the Tang dynasty( Certain no#adi" tri'es a""e!ted the traditiona& "u&ture o the Centra& 8&ains o China ro# the 9arring 7tates 8eriod(/7;-221<C) to the +an Dynasty (2o6<C-22o3D) right through to the Ain Dynasty(26;-/20)*and this !ro"ess ne%er "eased( Ti'et was Cust one o these no#adi" 'tri'es( -n his essay Fn +istori"a& Changes o Ti'etan Ho"a& :o%ern#ents* 8ro essor 9ang 1uren !ro%es 'eyond dou't that Ti'et has a&ways 'een !art o the territory o China(and that the Ti'etan !eo!&e ha%e* sin"e an"ient ti#es* 'een a !art o the Chinese nation( The o&&owing is an interesting e2tra"t ro# The 7tory o Ti'et in The )ew +istory o the Tang Dynasty* whi"h #entions !o&o* and de#onstrates the reDuent and "&ose e2"hanges 'etween the Ti'etan and +an !eo!&e4 ?-n the third year o GianDing(6;8)*a Ti'etan en%oy !resented go&d "u!s* go&d'!o&uo'and other ite#s o tri'utes* and again reDuested urther #arriage ties?( 3""ording to te2tua& resear"h "arried out 'y 8ro essor 9ang Yao*?!o&uo?#eans !o&o* the s!ort that originated in Ti'et and s!read to "entra& 3sia and >uro!e(The go&d?!o&uo? !resented 'y the Ti'etan en%oy in the third year o GiangDing was a go&d !o&o( 1urther resear"h on the !art o Co#rade Chen Chang#ing "on ir#ed that ro# a &inguisti" and so"io&ogi"a& !ers!e"ti%e* as we&& as ro# the "hara"teristi"s o !o&o itse& *the ga#e is a "ontri'ution #ade 'y an"ient Ti'etan !eo!&e to the wor&d( +is resear"h a&so re &e"ts how the two "u&tures o Ti'et and the Centra& 8&ains were in !er e"t har#ony( 8o&o 'e"a#e a sour"e o as"ination to a&& so"ia& strata o the Tang dynasty* ro# aristo"rats to "o##oners* in"&uding >#!ress 9u 5etian and >#!eror Guan6ong* who 'e"a#e !o&o ans( 3s the o&d Chinese saying goes4?Those 'e&ow o&&ow the e2a#!&e o those a'o%e(? The ga#e there ore 'e"a#e %ery !o!u&ar a#ong the "o##on !eo!&e* #en and wo#en a&i$eEThere are a nu#er o !oe#s* arti"&es and !aintings de!i"ting and re erring to !o&o* ro# whi"h "an 'e seen the e2tent o its !o!u&arity at that ti#e( Ti'etan !rin"e 7ongtsen :a#!o(7rong-'tsan sga#-!o)4?7ent young students ro# ri"h and !ower u& a#i&ies to study !oe#s and "&assi"s? 5hong6ong* a high o i"ia& in the Ti'etan go%ern#ent* was one o the students sent to study at the Tang -#!eria& Ini%ersity in order to attain ad%an"ed "u&tura& a"hie%e#ent( +e on"e to&d >#!eror :ao6ong that the #ateria& wea&th o Ti'et a#ounted to &ess than a s#a&& ra"tion o that o the Centra& 8&ains'( Ti'etans studying in Chang'an o ten wore +an sty&e "&othes* s!o$e Chinese* studied the &aws o the +an !eo!&e and a"Duired a u&& understanding o the Chinese "i%i&i6ation( .a$ing u&& use o the o!!ortunity to read i#!eria& de"rees and regu&ations* they a&so a"Duired state"ra ting s$i&&s( .any Ti'etan s"ho&ars had the oresight to a'sor' "o#!&ete&y the ad%an"ed "u&tura& a"hie%e#ents o the Centra& 8&ains( (2) -n "ertain a"ade#i" wor$s* the Ti'etan regi#e !eriod is re erred to as the ?Ti'etan -#!eria& Dynasty?(These are o "ourse "on"rete grounds or dis!ute asregards the "ontent o these wor$s* 'ut in any e%ent* ro# a histori"a&* "&utura&* and anthro!o&ogi"a& !oint o %iew* it wou&d 'e #ore a!!ro!riate and "onsistent with histori"a& a"ts to re er to this era as the ?Tsen!o 8eriod?( -n the Ti'etan &anguage (Tsen #eans strong and !ower u&* and !o #eans #an( 3n"ient Ti'etan !eo!&e a&& addressed their "hie as?Tsen!o?(7o*it wou&d 'e a!!ro!riate to re er to the Ti'etan regi#e !eriod as the ?Tsen!o 8eriod?( The !ri#iti%e so"ia& &i e o the Tu'o tri'es is e%ident ro# the way in whi"h the !eo!&e addressed their so%ereign* as Tsen!o* and ro# the !u'&i" ownershi! o the #eans o !rodu"tion* !asture* in or"e at the ti#e( -n the Tu'o regi#e*the !ri#e #inister was "a&&ed ?Hun?(There was a ?:reat Hun?
and a?7#a&& HunE''oth o who# ran state a airs(3""ording to histori"a& re"ords* the roya& "&ans were "a&&ed ?Hun*('&on)? and o i"ia& a#i&ies ?7hang?(3s !ointed out 'y .r( +an =u&in4 ?The ad#inistrati%e syste# o the Tu'o regi#e was %ery si#!&e( 3&& the "i%i& and #i&itary o i"ia&s "a#e ro# the aristo"ra"y* eigher ro# the Tsen!o "&an* or ro# o i"ia& a#i&ies re&ated to Tsen!o 'y #arriage* su"h as #aterna& un"&es* ne!hews* 'rothers-and sons-in-&aws( This shows u&&y the "onsanguinity as!e"t o the tri'a& so"ia& syste#(?; The Tu'o tri'es sea&ed their a&&ian"e with ritua&s o a strong 'inding or"e( -t was a ru&e that the Tsen!o and his "ourtiers shou&d ho&d a "ere#ony to renew their oath o a&&ian"e e%ery year* #a$ing sa"ri i"es o shee!* dogs and #on$eys( The ani#a&s were $i&&ed whi&e a sha#an !rayed to the gods o hea%en* earth* the #ountains* and ri%ers* and the sun* #oon and stars( The oath reads4 ?- we "ease to 'e aith u& and turn against ea"h other* our ate wi&& 'e the sa#e as these shee! and dogs?( >%ery three years*a grand sa"ri i"ia& rite was he&d( Dishes o ood* and sa"ri i"es o dogs*horses* don$eys and "ows were &aid on an a&tar* and the oath read4 ?3&& o you shou&d 'e o one heart and one #ind to !rote"t our "ountry* &et your !&edges 'e $nown to hea%en* earth and the gods( 7hou&d you 'rea$ this oath* your 'odies sha&& 'e "ut into !ie"es &i$e these ani#a&s?( +istori"a& re"ords*in the or# o 'oo$s* &etters* 'a#'oo and wooden s&i!s and on #ore an"ient writing ta'&ets o e2"a%ated ro# Dunhuang* Ti'et and GinCiang* !ro%ide e%iden"e that tri'a& organi6ations wide&y e2isted in Ti'etan so"iety( During the Tsen!o !eriod*Ti'et a'sor'ed $now&edge ro# the Tang Dynasty as we&& as ro# other nationa&ities in China* su"h as the +ans(an"ient Boreans* Tuyuhuns and Tangarts( 3&& these ethni" grou!s e2erted in &uen"e on &i e in Ti'et( Co#!ared with other !&a"es in the wor&d* the tri'a& a&&ian"e in Ti'et was uniDue*a&'eit o a strong euda& "o&or( -t "ou&d 'e de ined as an'3&&ian"e o euda& "&ans?or K'8ost- euda& syste#?*or a?1euda& a&&ian"e o no#adi" tri'a& "&ans?( 7ongtsen :a#!o "&ear&y a"$now&edged the 'a"$- wardness o Ti'et*and a&so that it was a "o#!onent !art o the "entra& go%ern#ent o the Tang Dynasty( There is an a""ount in =e"ords o Ti'etan Bings and .inisters o how Ti'et 'ought #edi"a& 'oo$s and "a&endars ro# the +an !eo!&e e%en 'e ore the ti#e o 7ongtsen :a#!o4 ?7ongtsen :a#!o hi#se& a&so renoun"ed ur and e&t gar#ents and donned the ine si&$ "&othes o the +an( +e ad#ired the #agni i"ent #ateria& and "u&tura& a"hie%e#ent o the Centra& 8&ains*and sent young !eo!&e ro# ri"h and !ower u& a#i&ies to study !oetry and &iterature( +e a&so in%ited inte&&e"tua&s ro# the Centra& 8&ains to standardi6e #e#oria&s and other do"u#ents(? 7ongtsen :a#!o wrote to the Tang >#!eror Tai6ong to "ongratu&ate hi# on his triu#!h in a war in >ast Hiaoning* saying4 ?Your .aCesty has "onDuered in e%ery dire"tion under hea%en* and now* a&& the !&a"es i&&u#inated 'y the &ight o the 7un and the .oon sha&& 'e the territory o Your .aCesty(? -n his &etter* he a&so e2!ressed his &oya&ty to >#!eror :ao6ong* stating4 '3t this ti#e* when Your .aCesty has Cust as"ended the throne*@ %ow to &ead #y Tu'o ar#y and other &oya&ists against any atte#!ts to &aun"h a re'e&&ion(? These a"ts !ro%e that 7ongtsen :a#!o hi#se& regarded Ti'et as 'eing under the &o"a& ad#inistration o the Tang Dynasty -t is there ore in"orre"t to re er it as a?de!endent state?or?%assa& state?o the $ind that a!!eared a ter the Tang Dynasy( <( Hau er* an 3#eri"an e2!ert on Ti'etan studies* e2!ounded u!on and identi ied ro# %arious ang&es the "o#!&ete !o&iti"a& stru"ture o Ti'et in the Tang Dynasty( .r( +an =u&in* howe%er* a ter "arrying out his own resear"h on the sa#e su'Ce"t in his The =oya& C&ans and F i"ia&do# in Ti'et*+an !ro%ed <( Hau er's argu#ent to 'e untena'&e( .r( +an !ointed out that4 ?The ad#inistrati%e stru"tues o Ti'et were not as so!histi"ated as those o the Tang Dynasty* to the e2tent that the two were 'eyond "o#!are?( .r(+an's o!inion is &arge&y "onsistent with the argu#ents that Ti'et was at that ti#e 'asi"a&&y a euda& no#adi" tri'a& a&&ian"e( 1urther "orro'oration o this "on"&usion "an 'e ound in histori"a&
data ro# &ate Tang Dynasty* the 1i%e Dynasties* and the )orthern and 7outhern 7ong Dynasties* through to the esta'&ish#ent o the Yuan Dynasty Tu'o de"&ined a ter the death o Dar#a Tsen!o* whi"h #ar$ed the end o the Tsen!o !eriod *when tri'es and their a&&ian"es disso&%ed( -t is re"orded in The +istory o the 7ong Dynasty that4 ?3t the end o Tang Dynasty* Tu'o de"&ined( Tri'es,the &arger o se%era& thousand househo&ds* and the s#a&&er o a'out one hundred househo&ds-se!arated ro# one another*and there was no &onger a united go%ern#ent?( 1ro# the 1i%e Dynasties through to the 7ong Dynasty*Ti'et 'asi"a&&y "onsisted o dis!arate regi#es* and its under&ying e"ono#y 'asis and ideo&ogy #ade the or#ing o a united !o&iti"a& syste# i#!ossi'&e( 3 +a!!y 1east or 9ise .en "ontains an a""ount o Tu'o at that ti#e4 ?9ars were ra#!ant in #ost !arts o Ti'et( 3&& the regions were su'di%ided into great and s#a&& ad#inistrations* with go&d and Cade strata* #eat eaters and tsa#'a eaters(? -n Chinese histori"a& re"ords* Ti'etans were re erred to as ?&o"a& househo&ds?and?outsiders?(The 7tory o 7ong LK +istory o the 7ong Dynasty states4 ?The "usto#s o the Tangarts and Ti'etans are si#i&ar* in that its !eo!&e are di%ided into'&o"a& househo&ds*'that &i%e in "ities adCa"ent to those o the +an !eo!&e* and 'outsiders' who stay in re#ote areas and &i%e on the !ro"eeds o 'anditry('Ti'etan !eo!&e &i%ing in the inner areas had #ore o!!ortunities to a""e!t the +an "u&ture* and were there ore regarded as?&o"a& househo&ds?(Those who &i%ed urther out were regarded as?outsiders(?The?&o"a& househo&ds? were a"tua&&y ethni" grou!s &i%ing around agri"u&tura& areas* and the?outsiders?were no#adi" Ti'etans( 5i6hitong ian' (a 29/-%o&u#e "hroni"&e 'y 7i.a :uang* "o%ering a !eriod o 1*362 years through to the >!o"h o the 1i%e Dynasties* "ites De!uty .inister o Court 7e"retariat +an 0i as saying4 ?3!art ro#'&o"a& househo&ds'in Aingyuan and 0in eng* there are innu#era'&e?outsiders?in Cuo$u* >r6hu* Degu* <a&i"heng* HaCia"heng* 5hi2iao"heng* :uwei6hou*Banggu* Tao* +e*Han* Die* Yan6hou* 5onger and 0ingtang"heng(3s the ?outsiders? 'e&onged to tri'a& "&ans o %arious si6es* with no syste#ati" ad#inistration* it is i#!ossi'&e to gain a "&ear !i"ture o their &i e and #odes o !rodu"tion(? The so-"a&&ed tri'a& "&ans "onstituted a 'asi" so"ia& and !o&iti"a& organi6ation* and a&so a"ted as #i&itary units( The Tu'o 3r#y +istory o 7ong Dynasty re"ords4 7anyang Ca#!4i8 gates*3/ 'ig se"ts* /3 a#i&y na#es* 180 "&ans* ar#y o 3*/67( Hong"heng Ca#!4K gates* ; 'ig se"ts* 3/ s#a&& "&ans* 3/ a#i&y na#es* ar#y o 2*0K/( :ong#en Ca#!42 'ig gates* 17 se"ts* 17 a#i&y na#es* 17 s#a&& "&ans* ar#y o 1*70/( :uwei Ca#!* 172 gates* 171 a#i&y na#es* 12 'ig "&ans* 16*970 s#a&& "a#!s( The sa#e 'oo$ re"ords4 Ca!tured 381 Tu'o #i&itary o i"ia&s ro# nine "a#!s o Yuan6hou* together with 7*736 so&diers or# 229 "&ans( These re"ords show that "onsanguinity was sti&& an i#!ortant &in$ in Tu'o so"iety* and that it o ten had a !o&iti"a& un"tion(This was reDuent&y #entioned in 7ong Dynasty histori"a& re"ords4 Three hundred thousand Tu'o so&diers surrendered and were o ered a#nestyJ 1*900 househo&ds and 22 "&an &eaders surrendered( Ca!tured 270 "hie s and o%er ;00 Tu'o se"ts( F ered a#nesty and en&ist#ent to 30 "&ans(/*800 househo&ds o &oo "&ans o the 5husuwei surrendered( These "&ans were under the "ontro& o tri'a& "hie s that were o ten a&so euda& &ords( F%er the "ourse o history* 'oth o&d and new "&ans had their ro&e to !&ay within the !o&iti"a&* #i&itary and re&igious arenas( This era o dis"rete regi#es "a#e to an end our hundred years &ater* when the .ongo&ians* with their ar#ored "a%a&ry* o""u!ied >uro!e and 3sia( 3s <uddhis# rose and de%e&o!ed*Ti'etan tri'a& &eaders were gi%en su!!ort ro# the Yuan "entra& go%ern#ent( 1ro# then on* ser do# gradua&&y too$ ho&d in Ti'et* and ad#inistrati%e and re&igious !ower "o#'ined as Ti'et 'e"a#e a Yuan ad#inistrati%e region(
(3) <uddhis# had* sin"e the Tsen!o !eriod* s!read through the Centra& 8&ains and a&ong the 7ino-ndian 'order area( +owe%er*no Ti'etans were initiated as #on$s unti& the ti#e o Trisong Detsen($hri-srong -de-'tsan) in the se"ond ha& o the 7K"entury( The irst grou! o se%en !eo!&e* that in"&uded 7as-.i entered a #onastery as #on$s* whi"h is genera&&y regarded as the !oint where <uddhis# 'e"a#e esta'&ished in Ti'et( 8rior to <uddhis#* 7ha#anis# !re%ai&ed on the 0inghai-Ti'et 8&ateau and 3sian grass&ands( -t was "a&&ed?<on*? re erred to as?<&a"$ <on?'y outsiders* and had its origins in !ri#iti%e so"iety( <uddhis# and <on went through a !ro&onged and "o#!&i"ated !ro"ess o "on &i"t in Ti'et* and ea"h in turn e2!erien"ed 'oth !ea$s and di!s( -n the !ro"ess o "ontention 'etween <uddhis# and <on*howe%er* ea"h 'e&ie syste# a'sor'ed and e%entua&&y #e&ded* in &uen"ing &o"a& re&igious* !o&iti"a& and e"ono#i" &i e* as we&& as Ti'etan so"iety and "u&ture( The su!!ression o <uddhis# 'y Dar#a Tsen!o was the "u&#ination o a ier"e "on &i"t 'etween <on and <uddhis#*and "ontinued or a &ong ti#e( 3s &ate as the :e&ug 7e"t (<uddhist Ye&&ow 7e"t)!eriod* the great #aster Tsong-$ha-!a sti&& ad%o"ated "oo!eration with the <on( 3 ter the rise o the 7a$ya 7e"t 'etween the nKand the i6K"enturies* #onasteries o "onsidera'&e s"a&e 'egan to 'e 'ui&t* and "ertain te#!ora& &eaders a&so 'e"a#e re&igious &eaders( During the who&e !eriod o se!arate $ingdo#s* "ertain o&d aristo"rati" "&ans de"&ined* as others rose* whi&e others dis!ersed* in &ine with the nor#a& "ourse o history 3""ording to histori"a& re"ords* and &egend* the des"endents o Dar#a Tsen!o e&& into three se"ts4 the .arong* :uge* and <urong( They were s"attered o%er the who&e o Ti'et and as ar a ie&d as #do-$ha#s( 3""ording to resear"h 'y :(Tu""i* when the an"ient no'&es o Ti'et "a#e to !ower* they wou&d 'oast that their an"estors were ro# the north or the northeast( 1or instan"e* the !rin"es o :yan6e(rgya&-rtse) "&ai#ed that they had '&ood ties with Bing :esar* as did the )a#rin-!a o the .inya* whi&e the 0onggyai-'a (%!hyong-rgyas-!a) "&ai#ed $inshi! with the <a"hahor( The :nas-gsar &ords &i%ing a&ong the )yang-0u (#ya-ng "hu) =i%er 'etween :yan6e(rgya&-rtse) and 7higatse (g6his-$a-rtse)* "a&&ed the#se&%es des"endents o Tuyuhun( Des!ite the "enturies o #i2ing* #erging* and di%ergen"e o di erent grou!s and tri'es o Ti'et* Ti'etans were a&& nonethe&ess distin"ti%e in their &anguages and !hysi"a& "hara"teristi"s( The 0inghai-Ti'etan 8&ateau is not an idea& &i%ing en%iron#ent* 'ut ro# the 8a&eo&ithi" 3ge* to the )eo&ithi" 3ge* through to the -ron 3ge* other ethni" grou!s #igrated into Ti'et ro# the )orth and the )ortheast( This !heno#enon is "onsistent with "on"&usions drawn ro# the study o Chinese histori"a& re"ords( .ost o the an"ient no'&es o Ti'et united with the %arious rising se"ts within Ti'etan <uddhis#* and the resu&t was the or#ation o the no'i&ity with the "&ergy and in &ay so"iety These two strands o aristo"rats were inter-de!endent and "onstant&y dis!uted ownershi! o !asture(-n the 12th andK"enturies(#any no'&es Coined hands with re&igious &eaders so as to dou'&e their strength in ru&ing their tri'es and de%e&o!ing their in &uen"e( 1or the irst 30 years o the iK"entury* .ongo&ian ar#ies #o%ed towards the northwest region( Con ronted 'y su"h a strong ar#y* 7a$ya 8andita and his ne!hew %8hags!a were or"ed to esta'&ish re&ations with :odan* the grandson o .ongo& &eader :enghis Bhan( 3t that "ru"ia& !oint* the Ti'etan !eo!&e #ade the wise "hoi"e o re&ying on the Yuan "entra& go%ern#ent to !reser%e Ti'et's !o&iti"a& syste# and or# a uni ied &o"a& ad#inistration(This e%ent was %i%id&y re"orded in the a#ous histori"a& do"u#ent $nown as 7a$ya 8andita'sHetterto the Ti'etans( 9hen Bu'&ai Bhan* the ne!hew o :odan as"ended to the throne* he !atroni6ed 8hag!a %!hags-
!a o the 7a$ya 7e"t as we&& as Bar#a 8a$shi( -t is "&ear that the !o&iti"a& and e"ono#i" !owers awarded the Ti'etan 7a$ya 7e"t ena'&ed greater "ontro& 'y the "entra& Yuan go%ern#ent* 'y whose i#!eria& edi"ts their !ri%i&eges were stri"t&y de ined( 1ro# as ear&y as the Tsen!o !eriod* Tu'o had 'egun to &earn the #ethods o &and #anage#ent and !o!u&ation "ontro& e#!&oyed 'y the Tang Dynasty The Tu'o esta'&ished a househo&d registration syste# in its su'ordinate areas* so that ta2 "o&&e"tion* "or%ee &a'or and a dra t #ight 'e rationa&&y ad#inistered( The "entra& Yuan go%ern#ent "arried out "ensuses in Ti'et soon a ter its esta'&ish#ent( 7a$ya's Hinea& Des"ri!tion gi%es a genera& !i"ture o the so"ia& stru"ture o that ti#e4 ?There are si2 !o&es to a househo&d*na#e&y* the hus'and and wi e *two "hi&dren and two ser%ants(one #a&e and one e#a&e)* tota&&y si2 !eo!&e( <esides* a househo&d shou&d ha%e a horse and a don$ey* and "ows and shee! as we&& as a !ie"e o &and &arge enough to sow 12 .ongo&ian gra#s o seed( This $ind o househo&d is "a&&ed a +or Dud Chung*and 2;K +or Dud Chung or# a Dud Chen( Two Dud Chen !ut together are "a&&ed a =ta .go* and two =ta .go are "a&&ed a =gya <s$or( Ten =gya <s$or or# a 7tong <s$or* and ten 7tong <s$or are "a&&ed a Bri <s$or* whi&e ten Bri <s$or are a B&u* and ten B&u usua&&y "onstitute a region(? There were n ie&ds or !ro%in"es under the ru&e o the Yuan >#!eror( Though the three areas o Ti'et were not &arge* they were ne%erthe&ess regarded as a ie&d and 'estowed on 8hag!a* so that he "ou&d !ro%ide or the e2!enses o <uddhist ritua&s and "ere#onies( -t "an 'e "on"&uded ro# the a'o%e re"ords that?+or Dud?and?Dud?were 'oth units used in a "ensus( These two words are synony#ous* and their #eaning and !ronun"iation are si#i&ar to those o ?ordu?*whi"h in the .ongo&ian &anguage #eans "ity( -n the Ti'etan &anguage*?dud? #eans s#o$e(>a"h yurt* or "ir"u&ar dwe&&ing #ade ro# e&t and hide* had a "he#ney* and the nu#'er o "hi#neys indi"ated the nu#'er o house-ho&ds-the 'asi" so"ieta& units(There were a'out i%e or si2 !eo!&e to ea"h househo&d o this $ind* whi"h was gene2a&&y re erred to as a ? a#i&y o i%e? in Chinese histori"a& re"ords( During the Yuan Dynasty*Ti'et "a#e under the ad#inistration o the Guan6heng-yuan (the Co#ission or <uddhist and Ti'etan 3 airs)( Ti'et had !re%ious&y 'een the res!onsi'i&ity o the 5ong6hiyuan)( -n the twenty- i th year o the Yuan Dynasty(1288)*the .inister o 1inan"e*7engge*!ut orward a suggestion to >#!eror Bu'&ai4 ?The 5ong6hi-yuan hand&es the #i&itary and "i%i& a airs o #inority nationa&ities in the western areasJ it is there ore suggested that this organi6ation shou&d 'e !ro#oted in status and its na#e "hanged to Guan 6heng-yuan(This organi6ation was there ore !ro#oted or# the se"ond to the irst ran$ with three sea&s*and its to! o i"ia& !ost he&d "on"urrent&y 'y 8ri#e .inister 7engge(3s a resu&t*the Guan6heng-yuan 'e"a#e an i#!ortant go%er#ent #inistry on the sa#e &e%e& as the 5hongshu-sheng (the -#!eria& 7e"retariat)* the 7hu#i-yuan (K>KK* <ureau o .i&itary 3 airs)* and the Yushi-tai C t &Ki&K* the Censorate)-the "ore units o the Yuan "entra& go%ern#ent(There were %arious de!art#ents and !ositions in the Guan6heng-yuan* su"h as the Guanweishisi (8a"i i"ation Co##ission)* the 5haotaoshi (o i"ia&s in "harge o #i&itary a"tion)* the 3n ushi (o i"ia&s in "harge o !a"i i"ation a airs)* and other regiona& &eaders( Ti'et was 'estowed 'y Bu'&ai Bhan on his son* Gi!ing 8rin"e 3uru"hi* as a ie do#( I!on the death o 3uru"hi*this ie do# was !assed on to 3uru"hiM&s 7on*5hen2i 9uCing 8rin"e Te#ur*and grandson* 7os!an*unti& the down a&& o the Yuan Dynasty( 3""ording to the +istory o the .ing Dynasty4?5hen2i 9uCing 8rin"e 8ona&a su'#itted tri'ete on 'eha& o Ti'etan tri'es?(This de#onstrates that during the who&e o the Yuan Dynasty* Ti'et was under the ru&e o the 6hen2i 8rin"e &ine( The "entra& go%er#ent o the Yuan Dynasty #ade Ti'etan <uddhis# an i#!ortant "o#!onent in its ru&ing #a"hine* in whi"h ser do# go%erned 'y a theo"ra"y was the 'asi" !o&iti"a& syste# o Ti'et( The Guan6heng-yuan o the Yuan Dynasty "ontro&&ed a %ast area o whi"h Ti'et was on&y a !ortion( 3""ording to the Ti'etan histori"a& re"ords*the Yuan Dynasty "entra& go%ern#ent di%ided Ti'et into 13 Ten thousand-househo&ds(Bhri-s$or '"u-gsu#)(3s an ad#inistrati%e unit*a $hri-s$or
'"u-gsu# #ight ha%e #ore or &ess ten thousand househo&ds that were under the ad#inistration o three 8a"i i"ation Co##issions* na#e&y*the I (d'us)*Tsang (gtsang) and )gari (#nga%ris)( -n 'ui&ding a great and uni ied dynasty(the .ongo&ians atta"hed great i#!ortan"e to trans!ort routes that a"i&itated #i&itary a"tion as we&& as e"ono#i" and !o&iti"a& a"ti%ities(The go%ern#ent 'ui&t ?5han"hi?(!ost-houses) on "o##on-&y used routes that "onne"ted the inner and western areas*and were Bey trans!ort and "o##uni"ation arteries whose e i"ient un"tioning*and #aintenan"e 'y the "entra& go%ern#ent was essentia&(Through a&&o"ation o ne"essary unds and the su!!&y o horses*"att&e and shee!*the "entra& go%ern#ent #aintained the nor#a& o!eration o these !ost-houses and su!!orted the !eo!&e that &oo$ed a ter the#( The anne2ation o Ti'et during the Yuan Dynasty as an ad#inistrati%e region was deter#ined 'y the "onte#!orary histori"a& a"tors(The good re&ationshi! 'etween the "entra& go%ern#ent and the &o"a& ad#inistration o Ti'et &aid a so&id oundation or the euda& ser do# that "a#e into or"e Ti'et in the .ing and 0ing Dynasties( -t a&so 8ro%ided a ra#ewor$ or the uture de%e&o!#ent o the euda& theo"ra"y o Ti'et(
<y4 TangJia-hong