The Tsu language of Central Nigeria and its affinities

[DRAFT CIRCULATED FOR COMMENT -NOT FOR CITATION WITHOUT REFERENCE TO THE AUTHOR

Roger Blench & Barau Kato Kay Williamson Educational Foundation 8, Guest Road Cambridge CB1 2AL United Kingdom Voice/Ans 0044-(0)1223-560687 Mobile worldwide (00-44)-(0)7967-696804 E-mail rogerblench@yahoo.co.uk http://www.rogerblench.info/RBOP.htm

This printout: June 11, 2012

Roger Blench and Barau Kato

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 1 2. Location, history and sociolinguistic situation ......................................................................................... 1 2.1 Nomenclature 1 2.2 Location and settlements 1 2.3 Language status 1 2.4 Alumu/Tsu culture and history 1 3. Phonology..................................................................................................................................................... 5 3.1 Vowels 5 3.2 Consonants 6 3.3 Tones 6 4. Morphology.................................................................................................................................................. 6 4.1 Nouns 6 4.2 Verbs 8 5. Tsu wordlist ................................................................................................................................................. 8 References ...................................................................................................................................................... 30 TABLES Table 1. Tsu vowels......................................................................................................................................... 5

Roger Blench and Barau Kato 1. Introduction

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment

This is an annotated wordlist of the Tsu language, spoken in Plateau State, Nigeria. The first wordlist of Tsu was collected by Roger Blench with the assistance of Selbut Longtau from the Chief Mathys Akwe (50 years old) and Musa Akwe (59 years old) in Chessu-Sarki on the 8th of January 1999. Mr. Yakubu A. Ameh (38 years old) was kind enough to speak the examples clearly for the tape. Barau Kato took over checking and collection of Tsu in January 2003 and we are grateful to the people of Chessu for their help in expanding the lexical data. The wordlists were collected as a one-shot exercise and the transcription must therefore be regarded as very preliminary. This analysis was prepared by Roger Blench, who added the comparative observations1. This document is being circulated to scholars for comment. 2. Location, history and sociolinguistic situation 2.1 Nomenclature These languages have previously been referred to as Arum-Chessu and seem to have been first recorded in Maddieson (1972). The correct name of the language and people is as follows; Arum Chessu Alumu Tsu

The plural form is made in both languages by adding mbo to any substantive. The initial a- in Alumu is probably an old plural prefix. 2.2 Location and settlements Chessu (a Hausaised form of Tsu) is a single settlement divided into two villages about a kilometre apart, called Chessu Sarki and Chessu Madaki. These villages are on the Wamba Fadan Karshi road of Akwanga Local Government Area of Plateau State. The Arum live in several settlements, also along the same road, the chief of which is Arum Kado. These are shown in Map 1. The other settlements of the Alumu are as follows; Arum-Tsabo Arum-Tumara Arum-Kurmi(Gbira) 2.3 Language status To judge by the size of their settlements, there must be under 2000 speakers of Tsu and perhaps 5000 speakers of Alumu. Both languages seem to be well maintained, with informants showing no hesitation in producing lexical items. 2.4 Alumu/Tsu culture and history There are virtually no references to these people in the ethnographic literature. Temple (1922:267) mentions Arum as a clan of the Mama (i.e. Kantana) but has nothing further to say. Ames (1934:258-259) mentions Arum, Chesu and Turkwam, and says;
1

Map 1. Location of Alumu and Tsu settlements

Fadan Karshi

ESCARPMENT

25 km. HASHA Chessu KANTANA Arum Kado Akwanga

Arum-Sarki Arum-Chugbu Arum-Chine

Wamba

I am grateful to Kay Williamson () who assisted me with external parallels and other comments.

-1-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment

The origin of Arum, Chesu and Turkwam is uncertain. It has been said that the founders of the first two came from the adjoining district of Ayu of the Jemaa Emirate and that Chesu, which was formerly called Fiacha, was part of Arum until it moved to its present site. His account seems to be somewhat confused, to at least at odds with traditions collected more recently (JOHLT?). The major source of information is CAPRO (ined.) and most of the rest of this section is based on this document2. Alumu traditions record that they came from Bauchi through the Gindiri (Mangu) area to Sha (Bokkos), where they settled for some time. Due to conflicts, they later moved to Ayera, Angama and Klashi. From Klashi the individual clans dispersed and founded the present villages, including Arum Jimara, Arum Tsabo, Arum Tumara, Arum Anbra, Arum Sarki (Tava), Arum Chubo, Arum Chini and Chessu. The people hold a tradition that they are an off-shoot of Konkulere of Bokkos LGA. They left their brother because of insecurity due to wars and lack of sufficient farm land. The Alumu are bounded on the east by the Mama, on the south by the Bu, to the west and north are the Ninzam and Toro respectively. The traditional etymology of their name means "people of great eloquence". Although there are some minor differences between the speech of each settlement, all the people can understand one another. The people repudiate the idea that they are part of the Kantana people, but they have some similarities in cultural practices and beliefs. Among the Alumu the major occupation is farming. The main crops are guinea corn, maize, yam, cassava, acha, cocoyam, sweet potatoes, beans, cow-peas and palm oil. The people also rear goats, sheep, chickens and pigs; goats and chickens especially are used for marriages. Dogs are kept for hunting and security purposes. Individuals go hunting as well as groups. For group hunting, a day is set and every man comes out for the expedition. For successful hunting it is expected that no man should have any sexual contact with a woman the night before the hunting trip. Anyone who breaks this rule will cause bad luck. The people traditionally pierce their ear lobes and nostril. Women pierce the lower lips and insert a straw. Other decorative items include beads, necklaces and anklets. They live in traditional round mud houses, built close to each other and roofed with grass thatch. But in recent years modern structures are fast overtaking the old ones. Politically, the affairs of the people are managed by the family or clan heads. There are also community leaders who take decisions concerning the community. The community leaders serve as religious chief priests. Today there is centralized authority with the chief carrying the title Agamo who lives in Arum Sarki. Childbirth When a woman is pregnant, a rope from the Mangam section of the masquerade cult is tied on her for protection against any misfortune that might befall the woman or the conceived child. When the woman gives birth to a baby boy, a horn is blown and the Mangam cult comes out, hailing the new born baby. But it is not so at the birth of a female baby. Any child can be named the very day that he/she is born. However, the woman and the child remain in the house until the umbilical cord falls off. Traditionally, children were tied to their mothers' backs with an animal skin. But today, they are tied on the back using a wrapper or a piece of cloth. Also among the Alumu there is the custom of consulting a seer before or after delivery to safeguard the child, particularly if the mother has had a previous miscarriage. To redeem the woman from miscarriage, certain rites are performed and the woman is later taken to the river for a special bath by the Agalama cult.
2

I am grateful to Patience Ahmed and Lois Fuller for giving me preliminary access to this important text, which may never now be published.

-2-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment

In return the woman offers a goat or chicken to the priest for sacrifices. If a woman in labour is finding it difficult to give birth and is bleeding much, the Waro masquerade is called upon to help. It is believed among them that when the Waro comes, before he goes back to the shrine the woman will give birth. The Alumu do not practice circumcision, although in recent years it is done according to Muslim or modern medical practice. Initiation Boys aged fifteen and above are gathered in one place for initiation. Traditionally, before initiation a boy is expected to have no affair with a girl or else he has to pay a goat for the rite of purification before the initiation rite. After the boys gather, they are introduced into the three classes of the Waro cult, which include Mangama, Asuwuriwuri, and Klanglene. Before the initiation process begins, the boys are expected to pay fees of chickens, goats or dried meat to the priest or elders in charge. Other things expected from the boys include palm oil, salt, acha and beniseed. The initiation process, which sometimes lasts for a year, includes training (orientation into manhood) and discipline, in order to make the initiates responsible men in the society. They are warned never to reveal the secrets of the gods to women. In fact, during the process they are not allowed to talk to women, especially younger women. For this reason the boys are asked to cover their mouths with leaves. The leaves are removed when an antelope is killed during the hunting exercise done by the boys. As part of the initiation, the boys are introduced to various objects and their functions in the cult. Marriage: Among the Alumu, when a baby girl is born the person who wants his son to marry her brings some palm oil in a vessel, part of which is rubbed on the baby's lips. Once this is done it signifies that the person is interested in the girl for marriage. This is further followed up with the gift of beniseed oil, palm-oil, palm kernel and salt. If these items are accepted by the girl's parents, the girl is betrothed. From this time, the suitor goes regularly to work in her parents' farm until the girl grows up. When the girl is ready for marriage, the bride price is paid. It includes twelve goats, well prepared beans in a big container and some other things. After all is paid, the bride is escorted to her husband's house. The escorts play flutes with a very good melody to keep her company. If the groom is from a different village, when the bride reaches the gate of the village they stop until a hoe is given to them. This is repeated when they approach the groom's house. The escorts return home the following day after the marriage feast. Polygamy is common. Adultery is forbidden. Divorce is also practiced especially when adultery is confirmed. Burial When an elderly person dies, information is sent to all the relations far and near. It is expected that the grandsons and in-laws of the deceased will be present during burial. However, this depends on what the deceased said before death. Sometimes a man chooses who among the children should be responsible for his burial and where he should be buried. In that case, until the selected person comes, the corpse cannot be buried. That person must be the first to dig at the location of the grave before others join him. Young children cannot be present or go near the grave during burial. The grave is dug some feet into the ground then a tunnel is made off to the side in which the corpse is laid. The corpse is buried prostrate. A man is buried with his left hand under the head, facing the east while a woman is the opposite. Sometimes chickens and goats are tied to the deceased's leg and buried with the corpse. Three or four months after burial, the grave is opened and the skull is removed and examined to find out whether or not the deceased was a witch. This marks the end of the mourning period. Before the last mourning feast the wife remains disguised in the state of mourning. -3-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment

When a powerful member of the secret masquerade cult dies, his burial is controlled by the cult. Some men, before they die, tell the cult to punish or chase their wife away from the house, particularly if she is a stubborn woman. Such orders are carried out by the cult. The deceased's possessions are inherited by the children or brother. Religion God, known as No, is recognized as the Supreme God but there are several minor deities found among the people. The Alumu people believe that God is in heaven (womenza). But the small gods found among them are Agalama, Da and the secret dodo cult which is further subdivided into Mbuka, Gulla, Gbegbe (Jakawa), Gbasha, Mangama and Kaburu. The household gods, (Wura and Da) are kept by individual families or clans. The cult is represented by stones of different shapes and sizes. This cult is consulted by the heads of families before going out for hunting. The blood from animal sacrifices is shed on the bow and arrows with hope of success. Dashafe is a twins cult that is represented by two small pots kept for worship. Only twins are entitled to have this cult. Chickens are sacrificed and beer is offered to it. These household cults are represented in the farm to ward off theft. Another god worshipped by the people is Agalama which is represented by a tree. This cult is believed to prevent miscarriage and to stop bleeding during delivery. Its rite is performed in the river and the hair of the supplicant is shaved. The masquerade cult is highly feared by everybody in the area. At the feast organized for the dodo, women are not allowed to take part, only men who are formally initiated into the cult. The dodo cult maintains law and order in the society. For example, Kaburu is the dodo that announces festivals or ceremonies and warns people against quarrels. Mbuka and Gula are the masquerades that discipline rude or disrespectful women. Jakawa (Gbegbe) does the same, while Mangama settles quarrels between families or husband and wife. Gbasha is said to be the part that relates with women. In whatever case, the masquerade is believed to be a spirit of the dead ancestors. Therefore it is respected and feared. Sacrifices of goats, chickens etc. are made in honour of the masquerade. There are two recognized festivals in the area, namely, Anbiyi and Anhuguri. The Anbiyi festival is celebrated in December after the harvest of guinea corn. It is the time that the first fruits are offered to the gods in appreciation. Another feast in March/April is organized to plead for a fruitful farming season. here are still many devotees of these gods in the area. A few of them have accepted Islam, especially in Arum Sarki, Tumara and Tsabo.

-4-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato Christianity

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment

The first missionary to visit the area to preach was Mr. Hepburn, in 1936, followed by Mr. Douglas in 1939 to evangelize the Wamba area. Having been established in Kago station, the gospel spread to other places which led to the founding of Arum station, probably at Arum Kado, 1952. Among the Alumu, the coming of the gospel led to severe persecution and opposition from the people. The persecution was against the missionaries and the converts because of the colour of the missionaries' skin. The people believed that the preachers would reveal the secrets of their gods to women, and that the gospel would cause the people to refuse to worship their traditional gods which to them, would result in serious difficulties. The teaching of no work in the farm on Sunday was strongly opposed by the people. The converts were beaten severely, refused wives, and sometimes food. But with time the people and the chiefs that were opposing the gospel changed their attitude. Today, a church is found in almost every Alumu village. 3. Phonology The phonology of Alumu/Tsu is based on rapid observations and should therefore be regarded as tentative at this stage. 3.1 Vowels Tsu probably has ten phonemic vowels; Table 1. Tsu vowels Front Close Close-Mid Open-mid Open These can be arranged as follows; +ATR u i o e a -ATR i e () a o

Central

Back u

Mud, blblsa, appears to have nasalised vowels but this is so exceptional it is probably an error.

-5-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato 3.2 Consonants Tsu consonants are as follows: Bilabial

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment

Labiodental

Alveolar t d

Alveopalata l

Palatal

Velar

Labialvelar kp gb

Glottal

Plosive Implosive Nasal Trill Fricative Approximant Lateral Approximant Tap Retroflex

p m

b f v

[] y

k g [x]

n [r] s z l r

h w

[] is the voiced labial-palatal approximant common in Plateau. The voiced velar fricative was only recorded in one word, t xlxl forget and may be an error. Orthographic conventions are as follows; t d 3.3 Tones Tsu has three level tones, and numerous glide tones that arise from sequences of level tones. The basic conventions are as follows; High Mid Low Rising Falling 4. Morphology 4.1 Nouns Tsu has entirely converted to a system of a single plural suffix, with no functioning noun-prefixes. Nonetheless, these can be recovered in part from the existing nouns, especially by comparison with cognate forms in other Plateau languages. The following tables presented some suggested fossil prefixes, in Tsu pairs, together with external cognates, which sometimes make clear that the initial is a prefix. Some have very few examples and may be only unidentified compounds. Unmarked c j sh zh ny ng hyw

-6-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment

The most common prefix is a- and - is probably its allomorph. aGloss Tree (generic) Mushroom Thorn Sand Farm Man Father Song -humu cf. Hasha i-hum, Leaf -u cf. Toro asu, Road -ki eCloud Mouth Grasshopper Spear Algae Tomorrow Large stone Cloud kuThatch roof Smoke Sun Evening Work Land/country Navel Bush-fowl gr -zu cf. Toro muzu n vii dm a reflex of the Niger-Congo #tom- root zimbr bu kuturu bu ky tre ve vr n s mb Tsu External cognates gb w tt a-sege a-yi a-tifa a-da

cf. Toro anzai cf. Toro eyi, Tarok anyn, Irigwe ky, cf. Toro atifa, cf. Hasha a-da

The Reshe example for leg suggests that this prefix is very conservative.

-7-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato 4.2 Verbs

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment

As with many Plateau languages, proto-Tsu-Toro (henceforth PTT) probably had a rich system of verbal extensions. PAT extensions seems to be unproductive synchronically and are only recoverable by morphological analysis and comparison with cognate forms in other Plateau languages. It is true, however, that verbal extensions are not easily elicited in rapid survey work and PTT may in fact have functioning extensions. The following examples are taken from Tsu, where the data is much richer than for Alumu. -ra/re -ra/re is the clearest case of such an extension, since cognate roots are recorded without the extension in other Plateau languages. Ask/beg for s.t. Become dry kwere cf. Toro kzi, Yeskwa kusa, Hasha kuse kwara cf. Berom hwgt, Aten hwohwo, Basa ihoo, cLela h&, Nj kng, Gworok kwt probably independent weakenings of the widespread #-koro roots. See BCCW, 30. fira mara #ma is a widespread root for give birth sere tra vira hwara

Gather/collect Give birth Hear Slaughter (animal) Want/need Wash -na Smash Snap in two Mould (pot) Know Enter Fight (in war) Finish (a task) Jump Swallow -i

kurana kyana mina wena nyi Alumu nyina mlana trna hwana mina

-i is not common in ATT languages but widespread elsewhere in Plateau and is thus included here. Be heavy Tear (cloth etc.) 5. Tsu wordlist No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Gloss Tree (generic) Leaf Root Bark (of tree) Tsu gb kk -8Commentary cf. Toro asu, cf. Toro riri cf. Toro kk, rii cf. Toro rii, hwae

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Gloss Branch Grass (generic) Vine (generic) Mushroom I Algae Rust Seed/stone/pip

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu vuvu bini hoondo w bu hg bir Commentary cf. Bu vuvu leaf,

12. 13.

Thorn Charcoal

tt imbi

14. 15. 16.

Dust Ash Ashes

huru to tir

17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Rubbish-heap Rubbish-pit Mud Clay Dew

kpvv tsyvv blblsa tsimi m

cf. Toro biro, Ningye be, Bu ibi, Shall biri, Tarok apr ultimately related to widespread Niger-Congo child roots. ? cf. Hasha i-tyok, Ningye ntu cf. Toro bini. The first element may be the widespread ii root for fire and the bini element for charcoal. If so, there are scattered cognates; Mada n-klambri, Kohumono pne, Bekwara -bi, Yala b, Degema b cf. Toro huru+, Bu iwuru, Hasha iwur vegetable ash used in cooking. #tu- is a NigerCongo root cf. Toro tu-era. The tu- element is a reflex of the widespread Niger-Congo root #toN(BCCW,5). cf. Toro avv, cf. Toro -r cf. Hasha eme, Ningye mme, Rukul mma, Tarok mmy, Yakam mya, also Mambiloid but almost certainly going back to an ancient Niger-Congo root #mecf. Hyam kpak+, cf. Toro tari, reflecting widespread NigerCongo #-ta- root cf. Toro anzay cf. Toro muzu also Mambiloid cf. Toro ara, Jili tra, cf. Toro amunu also Mambiloid cf. Toro awi, Ce wU$rU, cf. Jili pl,

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

Stone Large stone Flat stone Sand Smoke Fire Water Rain Cloud Thunder Rainy Season Harmattan Dry season Year Day

kpkp tre sege -z ra m w vr kpalala me yanz mbr men hu n -9-

cf. Hasha i-kusan, Ce kI-kUs+, cf. Plateau roots for sun and God #nom-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. Gloss Night Moon/month Sun Star(s) Cloud Wind God Sky World Ground Large River I Large River II Stream Pond Forest Mountain Hill Bush Farm Market*3 Compound Room Wall (of room) Veranda Thatch roof Kitchen Granary I Granary II Granary III Grain carrier Well* Road Path Village/settlement River-bank Swamp/wetland Place Today Yesterday Tomorrow Morning Evening

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu n nr n kpkpa ve ny n n-z n-z nzy nz r kr moogbe ms mogbogbo mbl gbgb kpgr ahr bini ay kpakpranda n-gba d kkn n ktr tsw kp lk eve gndz lg tv tsym ki ki ker a ker nfn kl bl tsii ndrm nml ky nereb nvi Commentary cf. Hasha i-sun, Toro tu-somo, cf. Hasha nwar, Toro nara, also Alumu God cf. Hasha i-kptik, Igbo kpkpnd = H. gajimare cf. ny evil wind also sun, sky also God

small ~ fini akr small ~ mo kr where fish are trapped ? cf. Nungu mamgba cf. Hasha i-gon, Toro a-kogoro, The ahoro element is likely to be a weakening of Proto-Benue-Congo #-kuli cf. Toro eyi, Tarok anyn, Irigwe ky, cf. Toro afy,

for women general inner grain store

small road

or blm

-10-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. Gloss Dawn Person/people Man, husband Woman, wife Child Household head Widow Wife Young man Barren woman Young girl Old person Father Mother Brother Ancestors Sibling (same father) Twin Friend Guest/stranger King/chief/ruler Hunter Thief Doctor Witch Sorcerer Corpse

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu iiini kyaguri ts mer ky wuri d kwe natsefa mer yb kuri ny ker d n tsimy d mb ts sr s zmy sni gm kygr duwi yuhu kygr wura mbia ggu komo Commentary not tone-marked cf. Nungu u-gr cf. Toro atifa, cf. Toro afiya, cf. Hasha a-mwe, Tikar mw, Jaku m@n, Bapi mw@n, Vute mon,

or afiya

cf. Hasha a-da, Nupe , Ibibio , Nj check!

Ibibio sn, Mambiloid ken, cf. Hasha agm, a widespread East BenueCongo root. Also Chadic: Boghom, Geji gu,

A widespread East Benue-Congo root. cf. Hasha i-kum, Eggon okomo, Kulu ukum, Mambila kmn,

106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119.

Blacksmith Slave Masquerade Masquerade I Masquerade II Masquerade III Masquerade IV Masquerade V Masquerade VI Masquerade VII Masquerade VIII Masquerade IX Masquerade X Masquerade XI

kygr tandara hr s mgm gbegw kegene s wr gl gbka gb tsa mbra kmbr kaw ripwe -11-

Forbidden to women. cf. Hasha a-s has horns next to s

woman

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. Gloss Masquerade XII Masquerade XIII Masquerade XIV Race/running Punch Death Fear Name Grave Song Proverb Story Word Big word Lie Hunger

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu gbguri n knd gb ml kwe r sa kpny mumu trnatsia tso ntsia tifagba hrtsia nyo asub Commentary male

widespread

cf. Hasha i-hum, cf. Igboid

136. Egg

137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150.

Horn Tail Wing (of bird) Beak (of bird) Nest (of bird) Gum/glue Ant-hill Hole in ground Heap Hole in tree Smell Poison Bundle Firewood

tama zyom ngb kokoro i vr kk gg dg tsyo kpvru hwnd nyogwe ts kp i

cf. Hasha i-yu, Fyem y, Tarok ay. Also in Chadic, cf. Mangar yu, Hausa yunwa. cf. Hasha i-subwoy, Boya aibi, Tarok a, Nupe e. Cited in BCCW,33 and a NigerCongo root. The bV suffix, however, is distinctive to this area of Plateau. cf. Hasha a-tom, cf. Hasha i-um, Bruce note -dm

room of ant

used on arrows cf. Kadara ii, Reshe 0, $ Aten tson, possibly independent weakening of the Niger-Congo root for tree #-ti.

151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158.

Yam-heap War Work Divination (I) Divination (II) Divination (III) Divination (IV) Divination (V)

vr kyir g ndomo kb kgb were dy iros -12-

a reflex of the Niger-Congo #tom- root

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. Gloss Medicine Medicine I Medicine II Money Shadow Thing Strength Land/country Sleep Disease(generic) Smallpox ?? Prickly heat Cirrhosis Bone-sickness Bilharzia ?? Gonorrhoea Jaundice Epilepsy Headache Migraine Diarrhoea Cough Whooping cough Eczema Goitre Boil (small) Boil (large) Crooked body Sore/wound Leprosy Head

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu w ttur mm hgr llu ndr& wwna nzimbr lmla b dm kwaa mari bhr rye nmi n koho nn ygmi mbmbk bar nv hri kpi kpi my hnna were b kpkpr kpkpr bbu amo hhw fl gb iro akere iro gbu ttur bl km kp yoyo Commentary

feel cold in the bones feel pain when urinating

kpnd agba is swelling on the neck cf. Hasha ifr cf. Hasha ifr as a result of magical attack

191. Eye

192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197.

Face Forehead Skull Cheek Nose Ear

tm gbom kkr kp m sn t

cf. Yangkam pi, Takaya pwe, Kadara epe, Kuda ukpay cf. Eggon y, Irigwe ry, Yala y, Arum y, Nupe eye+, (BCCW, 36). Also in Chadic: cf. Fyer yuur, Mangar yw and related forms in other Ron languages cf. Hasha i-tm forehead cf. Sambe gbo, Toro igbm bone of head cf. Sambe kuga, ? cf. Mbd. mouth - + #to. cf. Sambe tn, Hasha i-tu, Horom t, Fyem hut, Bo ut, Ningye t, also throughout Tarokoid, but a PVC root #tuN-. -13-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. Gloss

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu Commentary The - element is likely to be an old prefix e.g. Fyem hu-t. cf. Hasha anye, Eggon anyu, a Niger-Saharan root cf. Tarok alm+, Mabo de-rem, cLela drm, ultimately PNC #-lima cf. widespread jaw ? cf. Toro addm

198. Mouth 199. Tooth 200. Tongue 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. Throat Neck Jaw Chin Elbow Shoulder Armpit Fist Arm Hand

n ine limi dzndzgb agb wrkm ddm ba r ngb hrgba gnv ngb v

cf. Eggon -gb,

cf. Tarok aw, Aten w, Cara v, Berom vw, probably all weakenings of the widespread #bok- forms (BCCW,2). cf. Reshe -kn, Kohumono k-hn animal leg$, cf. Toro bn but widespread cf. Toro i-yara, cf. Nj, Kegboid cf. Toro gbr Widespread in BC, also referring to hips, waist and reconstructed by Blench (ms.) as #-im for Proto-Benue-Congo. This root is discussed in Williamson (1989,b:257). There is an old NC root #-ma which is largely replaced by #siN roots in BC. Also Mumuye s 'waist'. cf. Toro itu, cf. Toro kpanda

211. Palm 212. Leg 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. Foot Female breast Stomach Navel Thigh Knee Nail (Finger/toe) Back

gb v hwan mb hwana bn yr gb ritsi gblo kkr s

221. 222. 223. 224. 225.

Buttocks Penis Vagina I Skin Bone

u kpnd h binat ku

cf. Fyem huhp pl. ahp, weakened from the more widespread #kup. Cf. Bo ukp, Pe ukup, Tarok akp and Yakam kup and PB #-kubi

226. Rib 227. Vein

hn -14-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 234. Gloss Blood Breath Tear Sweat Saliva Urine Faeces

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu my ene muy hrhr t r bi ina in ddm hr Commentary same as heart (238.) ? cf. Hasha huhune, widespread ? cf. Hasha pri. cf. Nupe ebi+ #bi- is an extremely widespread Niger-Congo root hair of chin cf. Toro addm cf. Rukul ahr, Toro ahr, Horom z liver, Fyem u-zo pl. a-zo liver, Ayu aor, Lungu izur same as breath (229.).

235. Hair 236. Beard 237. Liver

238. 239. 240. 241.

Heart Intestines Body Meat

ene mryr t we

cf. Toro i-wu, Hasha i-vwe, Yangkam vi, widespread in Jukunoid as wi, suggesting a regional root #-vwi. See BCCW,1 where this is treated as a weakening of Jukunoid #-bi and is treated as a semantic shift from Proto-NigerCongo goat. this root is widespread in both Plateau and adjacent Chadic languages

242. Animal (Bush) 243. Cow 244. 245. 246. 247. 248. 249. 250. 251. 252. 253. 254. 255. 256. Bull Calf Goat He-goat Castrated goat Sheep Ram Dog *Cat *Pig *Horse *Donkey Elephant

wey lndo t hlndo m lndo b b zn tai tsa tai va ms m dya m

cf. Tarok @l,

cf. Tarok v, cf. Ngas mus. A common term in this region originally derived from Hausa

257. Buffalo

yr

as Hausa cf. Bu ninyi, Toro nyi, Yangkam nyi, Mada nyi, Yala ny. An old Niger-Congo root (BCCW, 34). cf. Toro yari, Rukul -yt, Cara -yt pl. yat, Yakam yyet, Nupe eya, Mbd, PB #-ti reflecting a more widespread root #-yati in East Benue-Congo. See also Daffo yt -15-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. Gloss 258. Lion 259. Leopard

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu grgre kw Commentary cf. Horom ky, Fyem kwe, Hasha ehwe, Jari -kw, Rukul kwi related to old Niger-Congo root #-gbe, -kpe

260. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276. 277. 278. 279.

Hippo Warthog Monkey (generic) Baboon Patas monkey4 Squirrel (ground) Squirrel (tree) Rat (generic) Bush-rats I Bush-rats II Bush-rats III Bush-rats IV Bush-rats V Bush-rats VI Bush-rats VII Pygmy mouse Fat mouse Giant rat5 Cane Rat6 Hare7

wm tmbiri yerma hha yerma ta t kpn kwi ug w mbla kw aa kwi atsa kw ii gri kyr w hw ts bibiya sm

cf. Hasha e-he pl. he-he,

cf. Hasha -kw, Fyem kwi, Pe ikuu, probably also Tarok pi. Ibibio k

Widespread Cf. Cara ium, Tarok zum, but a root widespread within Plateau, also Hausa zm cf. Hasha agak cf. Toro kuru, Ninzam akru, Bu kuru, Nungu mekru, Kuteb -kr, Ufia k-kw. May be linked with #-kuru forms for tortoise. cf. Ningye nte

280. House-bat 281. Fruit-bat 282. Nile crocodile

br ga kr

283. 284. 285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290.

4 5 6 7

Chameleon Agama lizard Skink Gecko Toad River frog Edible frog ??

tnd gm rb gms vr wr gboma kkrd

Erythrocebus patas (Cretomyces sp.)

(Thryonomys Swinderianus)
(Lepus Crawshayi)

-16-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 291. 292. 293. Gloss Land tortoise Turtle Snake (Generic)

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu kpkpgr kpkpgrm y Commentary

cf. Horom y snake sp., reconstructed as generic for snake in Benue-Congo as #-yoCo (Blench ms.) = H. guza = H. kasa brownish = H. mesa = H. gobe da nisa small black snake eats rats green snake = H. maciji ruwa = H. maciji kwara small, white, can jump. cf. Hasha i-hup, cf. Toro aharaba. PB #-kd, but an ancient Niger-Congo root and worldwide (Blench 1997).

294. 295. 296. 297. 298. 299. 300. 301. 302. 303. 304. 305.

Spitting cobra Snake I Snake II Snake III Snake VI Snake V Snake VI Snake VII Snake VIII Snake IX Snake X River crab

anig tsgr nu hhw y tr y kwi s znzr m kk h hrb

306. 307. 308. 309. 310. 311. 312. 313. 314. 315.

Fish (generic) Catfish Fish I Fish II Fish III Fish IV Fish V Fish VI Fish VII Bird (generic)

kp kpl kp hgr bu kfa llugu br zenz kpts kk

316. 317. 318. 319. 320. 321.

Chicken Cock Duck (Domestic) Guinea-fowl Hooded Vulture8 Village Weaver9

dye gb kza sr kpbi gwe

white fish sp. tsa white This is a widespread root for chicken. cf. Bu uk, Mada kk, Kahugu akoro and is probably a shortening of the t-k-r roots found in this group and outside BC. See BCCW, 43 and Williamson (1999) cf. Toro ade, cf. Toro agba, cf. Hasha a-saram, A widespread root in Benue-Congo and reconstructed for Proto-Benue-Congo as #-gba in Blench (ms.) bird of cattle

322. Cattle-egret10
8 9

kk lnd

(Neophron monachus) (Ploceus cucullatus)

-17-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 323. 324. 325. 326. 327. 328. 329. 330. 331. 332. 333. 334. 335. 336. 337. 338. Gloss Pigeon Black kite11 Owl (various spp.) Bush-fowl Kingfisher Nightjar *Pied crow12 Woodpecker Bird sp. Insect (Generic) Scorpion Butterfly Mosquito Spider13 Mason wasp14 Bee

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu kk b we kkk gr kk m b&b g kk psagb gw lo n grkpkp av ttana mbmb i nihiri mbrumbrs su Commentary

perhaps. bird of death. cf. Hasha i-kuk

small birds that go in groups Reflects a widespread Niger-Congo root #ena PLC *b

339. Sweat-fly 340. Fly sp. 341. Housefly

342. 343. 344. 345. 346. 347. 348. 349. 350. 351. 352. 353. 354. 355.

Ant (Generic) Louse (Human) Millipede Cockroach Termite Flying-ant Praying mantis Grasshopper Firefly Giant Cricket Earthworm Giant Snail Soap (Traditional) Oil

nna brkwri kphre ngb pd g gege s mmat yr tsgiri kpl sabulu t mn

cf. Hasha i-suk, Berom k, Ningye s, Bu i, Izere i pl. i, Horom s$k, ? what is firunzi it follows dirt cf. Hasha i-sisi, Tarok , Bu ini, Berom . Reconstructed as #-iN to ProtoBenue-Congo in Blench (ms.). Also LC Also in Chadic: Ngas ni, Mwaghavul nd, Tangale tn cf. Hasha a-na

What is kpgr? Tones? cf. Toro amn, Rukul manai, Berom ni, Aten noi, Gure mani, Central Kambari mni0^ and ultimately Hausa mai.

10 11

Ardeola ibis (Milvus migrans) 12 (Corvus albus) 13 (Acarina spp.) 14 (Belenogaster spp.)

-18-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. Gloss 356. Fat/grease

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu Commentary cf. Cara ibip, Hasha e-fef fat, Tarok m$pp animal fat, Chawai bap, Samba Nnakenyare byep. Reconstructed to East Benue-Congo as #-byep in Blench (ms.) cf. Toro ama, Rukul mmk, Horom, Fyem ma, Tarok m mn, but also Fulfulde manda cf. Tarok kp,

357. Salt 358. 359. 360. 361. 362. 363. 364. 365. 366. 367. 368. 369. 370. 371. 372. 373. 374. 375. 376. 377. 378. 379. 380. 381. 382. 383. 384. 385. 386. 387. 388. 389. 390. 391. 392. 393. 394. 395. 396. Soup/stew Porridge/tuwo I Porridge/tuwo II Sorghum-beer Sorghum-beer II Pito beer Palm-wine Honey Potash Potash water Peelings Funnel Filter Rag Floor-beater Handle (of tool) Sickle Cutlass Iron Axe I Axe II Adze Hoes (general) Hoe I Hoe II Hoe III Hammer Knife Comb Broom Sack Fireplace Shoe Cloth Mortar (wood) Pestle Pot (clay) (generic) Pot I (soup) Pot II (medicine)

m ma m kp girigb g gto kpygu ghye t at mto hn fr se kikuri gvda ktr ambhw ambdk kp hgr k ge gye zh zh hr zh haa zh mbr egbirigbi kwa mby kpgra y pr tr kptr hwn kwr t bi zu zu m zu wura -19-

used in soup What is kuku?

Not tone-marked

cf. Tarok k,

Not tone-marked

cf. Tarok atm, check!

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 397. 398. 399. 400. 401. 402. 403. 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. 411. 412. 413. Gloss Pot III Pot IV Pot V Pot VI Pot VI Pot VII Pot VIII Pot IX Pot X Pot XI Head-pad Basket (generic) Winnowing tray Mat (generic) Spear Bow Arrow

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu zwkp z trs we zu trs g z g te gmmwa da kpkpz agbu gbirigb tsgu kkr hr kr km tkpl mb ta sra Commentary for cooking porridge for men to cook meat in for cooking beer for mixing beer ??? for drinking water for putting palm-oil very large to store beer local eating tray Widespread #kata

Niger-Congo root #-ta cf. Toro ara, Doka ire-sala, Surubu u-ira, Hasha ikir, Kulu dekila, Piti uir. Also ? LC da, Mambila s. See BCCW,4

414. 415. 416. 417. 418. 419. 420. 421. 422. 423. 424. 425. 426. 427. 428. 429. 430. 431. 432. 433. 434. 435. 436. 437.

Quiver Chain Rope Stool Wooden door Fence Ladder Canoe Paddle Aeroplane Train Car Bicycle Bee-hive (log) Bee-hive (house) Bee-hive (?) Fish-trap I Fish-trap II Snare One Two Three Four Five

b zenzele i kpra d hamba agr kpkpgr kpvtrm girgi nz girgi ndzi gbo grundo gbk tnd d ss kn gbm krw gyw nyimbere hrwi taat aan atg trkf -20-

cf. Toro rii, cf. Toro ukpara, cf. Toro aida,

canoe of sky canoe of ground

what is this?

438. Six

cf. Toro tugu, Hasha atukun, Tarok tkn, Niger-Congo root #toon-. cf. Hasha ikwiv,

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 439. 440. 441. 442. 443. Gloss Seven Eight Nine Ten Eleven

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu trkf na tsytsy tsytsy nai grmv grmv hw nyimbere grmv hw hrw ts Commentary

444. Twelve I 445. Twelve II

Not tone-marked. NB. This is the old Plateau root for twelve which has been replaced by a new decimal construction

446. 447. 448. 449. 450. 451. 452. 453. 454. 455. 456. 457. 458. 459. 460. 461. 462. 463. 464. 465. 466. 467. 468. 469. 470. 471. 472. 473. 474.

Twenty Twenty-four Forty Hundred Black White Red Blue Yellow Green Brown Good Sweet Bitter Half Short Hot Cold Old New Wet Dry Smooth Clean Quick Bent thing Add to Answer (question) Ask a question

grmv hrw hrw ts grmv n grmv d grmv hgw tsa ata kpakpaw m ddp m m uru lnd nn birr kprkpr kprkpr yaha nn gbll a a tm hwara kkna znna i i hurna gynkp kera lf

cf. Toro hwa, cf. Toro a,

Not tone-marked.

Niger-Congo root # -fe. cf. Tarok -pipe, What is vuruna?

e.g. Cloth that is washed and looks clean

475. 476. 477. 478.

Ask/beg for something Awaken (someone) Bake in ashes Bark (dog)

kwr hg kwes kpgva -21-

cf. Surubu rivi, Nindem irib, Doka lirbi, Hyam libi, Hasha rifi, Ningye ryip, Rukul rip, Ningye ryip, (BCCW,6/9) cf. Toro kzi, Nyankpa kusa, Hasha kuse cf. Toro huga, cf. to fly (528.) cf. Toro guvu,

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 479. 480. 481. Gloss Be bent Be rotten Become dry

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu gnu hwn hwara Commentary cf. 471. cf. Toro hwana, cf. Berom hwgt, Aten hwohwo, Basa ihoo, cLela h&, N j kng, Gworok kwt probably independent weakenings of the widespread #koro roots. See BCCW, 30. cf. Toro nyuwa, Yangkam nwa, Ningye um, Che nyumu, LC lum cf. Sur wuri, Yakam wurok, Horom wil, Berom wlm, Len Mambila wl`, LC *fud cf. Toro mara, Ninzo m, Bu m, Che me, Hasha mai, Tarok me+, Bekwara m, reflexes of an old Niger-Congo root. See BCCW, 13. cf. Toro fya, Rukul fyi, Fyem fw burn off vegetation, Berom fwsh to burn food, cf. Toro sa, cf. Toro fifin,

482. Begin 483. Bite 484. Blow (flute etc.) 485. Build (house etc.)

i yuw w, wuri mn

486. Burn (fire burns) 487. 488. 489. 490. 491. 492. 493. 494. 495. 496. Buy Call (to someone) Carve (wood etc.) Catch ?? Chase s.t. Chew Choose Climb Come

y s kwn dy bi ktsi ry s k b

cf. Toro rya, cf. Toro sn, N j sl, PB #-ad cf. Toro ba, Tarok , Rukul ba, Fyem , Yakam i, but a widespread root in NigerCongo. Also Yiwom bl, Kulere bo cf. Toro ti, Kambari t$, possibly related to widespread Bantu roots #tb, #tum

497. Come out (of room) 498. 499. 500. 501. Continue (to do s.t.) ?? Cough Count

kt rtomo liya kpikpiru br

Not tone-marked. cf. Toro bere, Kadara pula, Bu bla, Ninzo br, Ninzo br, Mada bla, Kulung ala, Mbe pl, PLC *bd, PB #-bdcf. Toro kpere, Horom pwer

502. 503. 504. 505. 506. 507.

?? Cut down (tree) Cut in two Cut off (head etc.) Dance Die

mb kpa ga kira kwe

cf. Toro kyara, cf. Toro ku, Hasha kwe, Kenyi kie, Surubu kee, although these forms have developed from the more common Niger-Congo #-ku root. -22-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. Gloss 508. Dig (earth etc.) 509. 510. 511. 512. 513. Divide Do/make Drag Draw (water) Drink

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu m g lsa kp kp m wa ry Commentary cf. Yakam su, Sur i Fyem in, Tesu umu, Kulu em, Berom i cf. Tarok kap, cf. Toro rsa, also pull, uproot. cf. Toro pi, = pull water cf. Toro, Yakam, Sur, Tarok w. See also Mambiloid, LC The ri- is the old Niger-Congo root widely attested in Plateau. The ya is also found in some other languages, e.g. Kulu liya, Nindem rea, Gyem li, PLC *lia cf. Toro nyina,

514. Eat

515. 516. 517. 518. 519.

Empty Enter Equal, to be Extinguished, to be Fall (rain)

ndr makpe ny tsw mrndr hwa

520. 521. 522. 523. 524. 525. 526. 527. 528. 529. 530. 531. 532. 533. 534.

Fall over Fear Feel (cold etc.) ?? Fight (in war) Finish (a task) Flog Flow (water etc.) Fly (birds) Fold (cloth etc.) Follow Forget Fry (in oil) Gather/collect Give

hwa r t nn gbll sr mln trna ml gb hg gn t t xlxl yg r g

cf. Toro hwa, Hasha hu, Fyem h, Aten hw, Berom hw (fall on top of s.t.), Yashi hu. The widespread Plateau forms have a labial velar, but ? cf. Wapan ko, Cara go, Jar ko, Yala gwo, PB #-gwa. as above

cf. awaken (476.) cf. be bent. cf. Toro gusu, cf. Toro tafa, cf. Toro hagara, Kurama aga, cf. Toro nage, Hasha nago, Aten n, Nindem nogo, Gworok nwak. Reflex of the widespread #a- (also as na and nga) root (see BCCW,45) cf. Toro mara, Widespread African root. PLC *mn cf. Toro nanzo, Plateau has various forms with a na- element that might be connected. ?? cf. come out -23-

535. Give II 536. Give birth 537. Go 538. Go out/exit

ng n mr nnz kti

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. Gloss 539. Grind 540. Grow (plants) 541. 542. 543. 544. 545. 546. 547. Hatch (egg) Hear Heavy, to be Heavy, to be II Hit (drum tc.) Hoe Hunt

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu hw tygb kp [sb] ser ii kmi mm nzoh l Commentary cf. Toro huhwa, cf. Toro gba, Sur gwak, Yakam gba, Tarok kp, Lokaa -tw but related to Ngas gwak to pound the egg. cf. Toro kpa, Tarok pwak, cf. Toro sere, cf. Toro rii, as of a load

548. 549. 550. 551. 552. 553. 554. 555. 556.

Jump Kill Know Lack Laugh Leak Lick Light, to be Lie down

hwn kwe wena ymkp wnee r en riikpe l

cf. Toro far, Fyem fofr, Hasha far, Tarok fr to be a good marksman. Also in Chadic: cf. Bokkos faar, Tangale para (n.), Ngizim br and Hausa frwt cf. Toro wana,

cf. Toro fn, cf. Aten lal, Tarok dl to stretch, Yeskwa lalo sleep, Mbe and Common Ekoid ll, PB #-ddsee hear cf. Toro sa fya, cf. Toro tv, cf. swallow (608.)

557. 558. 559. 560. 561. 562. 563. 564. 565. 566. 567. 568. 569. 570. 571. 572. 573. 574. 575. 576. 577.

Listen Look for Marry Mix Mix food Mould (pot) Open Plant (crop etc.) Play Pound (in mortar) Pour (liquid) Press Pull Receive Refuse Remember Repair Resemble Return Ride (horse etc.) Roast on coals

serm ts too tsy mn vuru by kpt kp sagr hwiy kp sa leke kn lesa tsy ndr b miya k yh -24-

cf. Toro kpa, see hatch

Not tone-marked.

cf. Toro yaha,

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 578. 579. 580. 581. 582. 583. 584. 585. 586. 587. 588. 589. 590. 591. 592. 593. 594. 595. 596. 597. 598. 599. 600. 601. 602. 603. 604. 605. 606. 607. 608. 609. 610. 611. 612. 613. 614. 615. 616. 617. 618. 619. 620. Gloss Run Say/speak ?? See Sell Send Set trap Sew Shake Sharpen Shine Shoot (arrow, gun) Sing Skin (animal) Slaughter (animal) Sleep Smash Smell Snap in two Speak Spit Spread in sun to dry Squeeze out Stand Steal Stir (soup) Store cocoyam in a hole Stretch oneself Suck (breast etc.) Surpass Swallow Take Take out Tear (cloth etc.) Throw Throw carelessly Twist (rope etc.) Uproot (tuber) Walk Want/need Wash Wear Weep

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu gb br tsifa nz r tm sum wn ss mya da kpa mumu tr lm r hwr nyigw kyna tsi to at l ggnna hg k yuhu vutunu tsy mgbasa nyifan mom rke min g gny mbr hwae tv km kp hende kir hwr wr kpag -25Commentary

? rep rot?

to sleep a sleep. See cognates under lie down

spit saliva

do theft

cf. to mould (562.)

Mbd squeeze km cf. drag (511.)

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 621. 622. 623. 624. 625. 626. 627. 628. Gloss Work I You He/she/it we you pl. They Thank you!

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Tsu ndm my nn w mbr mn mvi kwende Commentary

or gg

Edible and Useful Plants No. 629. 630. 631. 632. 633. 634. 635. 636. 637. 638. 639. 640. 641. 642. 643. 644. 645. 646. 647. 648. 649. 650.
15 16

Gloss Guinea-yam15 Yam sp. Aerial yam16 Red yam I17 Red yam II Water-yam18 Taro (Old cocoyam)19 Taro (Old cocoyam) II New cocoyam20* New cocoyam II Cassava*21 Sweet potato*22 Wild yam I Wild yam II Wild yam III Wild yam IV Tumuku23 Rizga24 Sorghum25 Fonio (H. acca)26 Fonio II Iburu (H. iburu)27

Tsu kr br nr kir lomo kama kir ta abasa lomo abasa gt abasa kb abasa kpn ii grm ll gbh atambo ktru ikdu umya hr kr kpkp yei yei hrtt loanword?

Commentary

Alumu cocoyam cf. Toro abs akb

cf. Tarok kr, cf. Tarok b,

(Dioscorea guineensis) (Dioscorea bulbifera) 17 (Dioscorea cayenensis) 18 (Dioscorea alata) 19 (Colocasia esculenta) 20 (Xanthosoma mafaffa) (H. wali) 21 (Manihot esculenta) 22 (Ipomoea batatas) 23 (Plectranthus esculentus) 24 (Solenostemon rotundifolius) 25 (Sorghum bicolor) 26 (Digitaria exilis) 27 (Digitaria iburua)

-26-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 651. 652. 653. 654. 655. 656. 657. 658. 659. 660. 661. 662. 663. 664. 665. 666. 667. 668. 669. 670. 671. 672. 673. 674. 675.
28 29

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Commentary

Gloss Iburu II Iburu III Maize*28 Rice*29 Cowpea30 Spiral cowpea Lima bean31* Other beans I Other beans II Other beans III Other beans IV Groundnut (Peanut)32 Bambara groundnut33 Garden egg34 Okra35 Chili pepper* (large)36 Birdseye chili*37 Tomato38 Egusi melon39 Edible squash40 Sorrel/roselle41 Jews' mallow42 Edible squash43 Sorrel/roselle44 Black sesame45

Tsu yei hgr yei t kr kmb ds kkm dos abgba pir sf dos kekere br hw hw pr mbr ndra zz kkr mbr masara kse tg agbaraa si lese l l na

cf. Cf. Toro ds, Tarok as, Irigwe z, Wapan a-so, Nupe ezo+. Also in Adamawa: Mumuye zk. See BCCW,8

Not tone-marked. long, red blotched pods and almost black beans = H. aci shiru cf. Tarok af,

small chili Not tone-marked. white mans garden egg

cf. Tarok agbntr, Not tone-marked.

(Zea mays) (Oryza sativa/ glaberrima) 30 (Vigna unguiculata) 31 (Phaseolus lunatus) 32 (Arachis hypogaea) 33 (Vigna subterranea) 34 (Solanum melongena) 35 (Abelmoschus esculentus) 36 (Capsicum frutescens) 37 (Capsicum annuum) 38 (Lycopersicon esculentum) 39 (Citrullus lanatus) 40 (Cucurbita pepo) 41 (H. yakuwa) (Hibiscus sabdariffa) 42 (H. lalo)(Corchorus olitorius) 43 (Cucurbita pepo) 44 (H. yakuwa) (Hibiscus sabdariffa) 45 Sesamum radiatum

-27-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 676. 677. 678. 679. 680. 681. 682. 683. 684. 685. 686. 687. 688. 689. 690. 691. 692. 693. 694. 695. 696. 697. 698. 699. 700. 701. 702. 703. 704.
46 47

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Commentary

Gloss Red sesame46 ??? Sesame leaves47 Bitterleaf48 Waterleaf*49 Plantain (Musa AAB) Banana (Musa AAA) Pawpaw*50 Gourd (Generic) Gourd-bottle51 Gourd-bottle II Gourd (spherical)52 Food gourd Tobacco* Sugar-cane* Loofah53 Cola Oil-palm54 Palm-fruit Palm-oil Palm kernel Raphia palm55 Fan-palm56 Canarium tree57 Custard apple58 Wild date-palm59 Baobab60 Silk-cotton Tree61 Strawberry tree

Tsu l gwe sn hgr tri m yb gbugbu mr nyat krbs hnd ngb ku kpi bgb ataba wa kkr gb hwe kp ahwe mn hwe hr nns kpm kpg tu kkr km tasa

bush type male banana bush banana

cf. Toro hwond, cLela -hn, Tyap hm, Hausa kondo, cf. Toro abu+, Tarok ab$, cf. Mama koro, Yak l-kl@, Basa ee-kle, cf. Pe ankaa, cf. Ninzo agbugba, Rindre ubga, Tarok ab, name of a grass in the bush as Hausa cf. Toro a-hw cf. Toro -wri cf. Toro a-mene cf. Toro a-horo = H. giginya

A widespread root in West Africa = H. tafashiya

(H. Riii) (Sesamum indicum) (H. karkashi) 48 Vernonia amygdalina 49 (Amaranthus spp) 50 (Carica papaya) 51 (Lagenaria siceraria) 52 (Cucurbita maxima) 53 (H. soso) (Luffa cylindrica) 54 (Elaeis guineensis) 55 (Raphia spp.) 56 (Borassus aethiopum) 57 (Canarium schweinfurthii) 58 (Annona senegalensis) 59 (Phoenix reclinata) 60 (Adansonia digitata) 61 (Ceiba pentandra)

-28-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato No. 705. 706. 707. 708. 709. 710. 711. 712. 713. 714. 715. 716. 717. 718. 719. 720. 721. 722. 723. 724. 725. 726. 727. 728. 729. 730. 731. 732. 733. 734. 735. 736. 737. 738. 739. Gloss Mahogany Shea tree62 Locust tree63 Locust fruit Locust-bean cakes Tamarind64 Terminalia sp.65 Black plum66 Tree sp. I Tree sp. II Tree sp. III Tree sp. IV Tree sp. V Tree sp. VI Tree sp. VI Tree sp. VI Tree sp. IX Tree sp. X Tree sp. XI Tree sp. XII Tree sp. XIII Plant sp. I Plant sp. II Plant sp. III Sodom apple67 Mushroom sp. I Mushroom sp. II Mushroom sp. III Mushroom sp. IV Mushroom sp. V Mushroom sp. VI Mushroom sp. VI Mushroom sp. VI Mushroom sp. I Mushroom sp. I

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Commentary

Tsu bs mr kpza i mr nyny trs mymya k kpu eengre mvl ttghl krin dzi sene tt yw t kpakur kpokp gb ikpv grugh dndon binygwe anygwe

also mere nyinyi

= H. baushe. Not tone-marked. = H. jan yaro used to make madadi large edible fruits like mangoes breaks hoe = H. gwaska used to make spoons very strong tree = H. kashin yawo small, edible fruits ogbono tree = H. kaushe = H. gwawo = H. sha zuma scented plant grown around the house against snakes plant used to treat catarrh local curry

wa ya nta ggw wa g wa sege wa yra mer mgbla nrnr wa londo cow mushroom shoto yirma

Musical Instruments No. 740.

62 63

Gloss Drum

Tsu kg

Commentary Barrel drum similar to Hausa gangaa

(Vitellaria paradoxa) (Parkia biglobosa) 64 (Tamarindus indica) 65 (H. baushe) 66 (Vitex doniana) 67 (Calotropis procera H. tumfafiya)

-29-

Roger Blench and Barau Kato 741. 742. 743. 744. 745. 746. 747. 748. 749. 750. 751. 752. 753. 754. 755. Drum Drum Drum Drum Flute I Flute II Cruciform whistle Zither Xylophone Horn I Horn II Gourd-rattle Ankle rattles I Ankle rattles II Ankle rattles III

Tsu Wordlist Circulated for comment Hourglass-drum similar to Hausa kalanguu Hourglass-drum with one head similar to Hausa kotso Tall (1.5 m), single-headed cylindrical drum with a pegged head and short legs shorter, wider version of the previous drum

kd tbaa gblgbl dz kpgri i ri gbt gg dz gb drmu pur kwakwara v gbaw kwakwara kwn

not an indigenous instrument

iron small palm-leaf boxes large dried fruit shells

References Abraham, R.C. 1962. Dictionary of the Hausa language. London: University of London Press. Ames, C.G. 1934. Gazetteers of Northern Nigeria. Volume IV. Bendor-Samuel, J. ed. 1989. The Niger-Congo languages. Lanham: University Press of America. CAPRO ined. An ethnic survey of Plateau State. Jos: CAPRO Research Office. Crozier, D. and Blench, R.M. 1992. Index of Nigerian Languages (edition 2). SIL, Dallas. Temple, Olive 1922. Notes on the Tribes, Provinces, Emirates and States of the Northern Provinces of Nigeria. Argus Printing and Publishing Co. Capetown. Westermann, D. 1927. Die Westlichen Sudansprachen und ihre Beziehungen zum Bantu. Berlin: de Gruyter. Williamson, K., and K. Shimizu. 1968. Benue-Congo comparative wordlist, Vol. 1. Ibadan: West African Linguistic Society. Williamson, Kay 1971. The Benue-Congo languages & N j. In Current trends in Linguistics 7 (ed.) T. Sebeok 245-306. The Hague: Mouton. Williamson, Kay 1973. Benue-Congo comparative wordlist: Vol.2. Ibadan: West African Linguistic Society.

-30-