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Electrical For AV Guide
Electrical For AV Guide
Optimized Power Distribution and Grounding for Audio, Video and Electronic Systems
MAIN PANEL
Grounding Conductor
From Transformer
Technical (isolated) ground wire terminated in main panel only (no connection to sub panel ground)
conventional outlet
Rev. 4b
Table of Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................... 1 A Note about Signal Paths .............................................................................................. 2 Ground Loops and Signal Interconnections .................................................................... 2 Signal Wiring: Unbalanced & Balanced Interfaces .......................................................... 3 AC Magnetic Fields & Their Effect on Signal Wiring ........................................................ 4 Electric Fields & Their Effect on Signal Wiring ................................................................ 5 Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) ................................................................................ 5 Important Things to Remember When Designing & Installing Audio/Video Systems ....... 6 North American Product Safety Certification ................................................................... 7 Dealing With Electrical Inspectors and Electrical Contractors ......................................... 8 Typical 120-Volt Receptacles Used For Electronic Equipment ........................................ 9 Receptacle Wiring - Common Errors and the Correct Way ........................................... 10 AC Power Wiring Types ................................................................................................ 11 AC Magnetic Field Strengths from Different Wiring Types ............................................ 13 Calculating System Load .............................................................................................. 13 Calculating Amplifier Circuit Requirements ................................................................... 15 Single Circuit Sequencer Systems ................................................................................ 16 Multiple Circuit Sequencer Systems .............................................................................. 17 Simplified Grounding Guidelines for Audio, Video and Electronic Systems ................... 18 Isolation Transformers (Separately Derived Systems): Benefits and Wiring Methods ... 19 Isolation Transformer Neutral-Ground Bonding Methods .............................................. 20 Electrostatic (Faraday) Shielding in Power Transformers.............................................. 22 K-Rated Three Phase Power Transformers .................................................................. 23 Typical Three Phase Services ...................................................................................... 24 Phasing of Supply Conductors ...................................................................................... 25 60/120V Symmetrical (Balanced) Power Systems ........................................................ 26 Ground Myths ............................................................................................................... 28 Neutral-Ground Reversals and Bootleg Grounds .......................................................... 29 Neutral-Ground reversals .............................................................................................. 30 Steps to Troubleshoot Bootleg Grounds and Neutral-Ground Reversals ....................... 32 Auxiliary Ground Rods ................................................................................................... 34 Intersystem Bonding (Cable TV, Satellite TV, Telephone) ............................................. 35 Power Quality Problems ................................................................................................ 36 Power Quality Problems: Voltage Regulation ................................................................ 36 Other Power Quality Problems ...................................................................................... 36 Electrical Noise.............................................................................................................. 37 Power Conditioning ....................................................................................................... 38 The System Approach to Power Quality ........................................................................ 39 Ground Voltage Induction (GVI) .................................................................................... 40 Isolated (Technical) Ground vs. Safety & Building Ground ............................................ 43 Isolated Ground Receptacles ........................................................................................ 45 Wiring Isolated Ground Outlets and Conventional Outlets when using a Sub Panel ...... 46 Isolated Ground Power Strip in a NonIsolated Rack .................................................... 47 Isolated Rack with Standard Power Strip (not isolated ground receptacles) .................. 49 Flexible Connections to Isolated Equipment Racks ....................................................... 50 Main Considerations When Implementing Surge and Spike Protection ......................... 52 Surge and Spike Protection Technologies ..................................................................... 53 Surge Suppressors and Noise on Safety Ground Wires ................................................ 55 Single-Point Technical (Star) Ground vs. Daisy-Chain Grounding of Racks .................. 56 Enhanced Rack Bonding ............................................................................................... 57 Introduction to Star Grounding, Signal Reference Grids & Mesh Grounding ................. 58 Star/Isolated Grounding ................................................................................................. 58 Signal Reference Grids ................................................................................................. 59 Mesh Grounding ............................................................................................................ 59 Authors .......................................................................................................................... 60 References .................................................................................................................... 60
Preface
Note on the Rev. 4b Edition: Since its initial publication, Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures has been periodically reviewed for accuracy. This document undergoes frequent maintenance and will continually be modified to include the most current industry thinking and consensus. The primary changes in this edition are focused on AC power wiring and ground voltage induction, isolation transformer wiring methods, surge/spike protection technologies, and troubleshooting bootleg grounds and wiring errors. Many clarifications have been included, and some typos have been corrected. ********************************************************************************************************************************************************** In providing this information, the intent is not to make audio/video system professionals into electricians. They do however need a basic understanding of proper design and installation of power distribution and grounding to avoid potential noise and safety problems. In order to get a good understanding of how some potential power and grounding problems present themselves, basic knowledge of power distribution is required. It is the intent of this document to provide this information. Every state, city and municipality in the United States is responsible for its own safety standard for electrical installations. While some choose not to adopt any standard, most adopt and enact the widely-accepted National Electrical Code (NEC) or a version of the NEC enhanced to reflect the needs of their respective jurisdictions. Each is at liberty to incorporate additional requirements or remove exceptions, as they see fit. The state of New Jersey, for example, replaced the term authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) with electrical subcode official before enacting the NEC standard. Always b e sure to check the requirements of the local authority having jurisdiction. The information presented in this paper is based on the NEC as it is written. Some areas may have more rigid requirements; however, the NEC is generally the minimum requirement. The NEC is updated every three years. This document is based on the 2008 version. The NEC is not intended to be used as a design specification or an instruction manual for untrained persons. Some experienced installers have problems adapting the NEC to specific installations. Much of the problem is due to the many exceptions to the rules. The fact is there are more exceptions than there are rules. In addition many rules refer to, and are superseded by, several other sections of the NEC. This document should help to clarify the intentions of the NEC as it relates to audio and video systems.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
UNBALANCED interfaces are widely used in consumer electronics and generally use RCA connectors. Unbalanced interfaces are very sensitive to noise currents! Because the grounded conductor (generally the cable shield) is a path for both the audio signal and power-line noise current, any noise voltage drop over its length, due to its resistance, is directly added to the signal. This mechanism, called common-impedance coupling, is responsible for the majority of noise problems in unbalanced interfaces. Therefore, reducing the resistance of the shield conductor can reduce noise. Some tips to lower noise: - Obviously, avoid unbalanced interfaces whenever possible! - Keep cables short those over a few feet long are potential problems - Use cables with heavy braided-copper shields instead of foil and drain wire - Use a high-quality signal isolation transformer at the receive end of the cable - Do not disconnect the shield at either end of any unbalanced cable Unbalanced signal interconnections should be avoided whenever possible because theyre extremely vulnerable to ground loop currents. Even at a shield resistance of 0.5 ohm, 0.3 milliamps of loop current can impact the lower 30 dB of a CDs 95 dB dynamic range. Note: When a high level of dynamic range is not required, it may be acceptable to use very short unbalanced cables with very low shield resistance.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
Remember that signal cable shields are NOT intended to function as a safety ground! Safety grounding must be accomplished by the grounding conductor in the power cord.
NEVER LIFT, OR OTHERWISE BYPASS THE POWER CORD GROUND IT COULD BE FATAL!! Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
Radio frequency interference (RFI) in systems can arise from many sources, including transmissions from nearby radio transmitters. All conductors act as antennas at certain frequencies, including speaker wires. Twisting speaker wires is one way to prevent them from acting as differential mode antennas; this prevents RFI coupling from the amplifiers output to the amplifiers input via its feedback-loop components. Twisting wires greatly reduces their susceptibility to both RFI and AC magnetic fields. Although using signal interface cables and balanced interconnects can be effective at reducing the severity of RFI problems, the most effective solutions must be designed into the equipment by the manufacturer in the form of appropriate filtering, shielding, and proper shield terminations.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
* On a regular basis, NRTL Inspectors also visit the factories where the NRTL listed products are manufactured to ensure products are manufactured according to NRTL safety standards. * NRTL Inspectors also visit the factories where the NRTL listed products are manufactured
In advertising, labeling or marketing products, all NRTLs specifically forbid the use of the following terms: Approved Pending Made With Recognized Components Be skeptical of equipment that is marked in such a way.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
Most electrical inspectors (who are usually very experienced electricians) dont know much about audio, video or communications design and installation. What they usually do know very well is electrical safety and power distribution, as far as wiring and associated wiring methods are concerned. For the most part, they are only concerned with safety and not performance. For example, while an electrical inspector may consider an incorrectly installed isolated (technical) ground system safe, it may create multiple ground paths, which could contribute to system noise problems. In most areas of the country an electrical contractors license is required to do any type of electrical work (sometimes even low voltage). An electrical permit, issued by the municipality, is almost always required. If you are caught doing work without a permit you could pay more in fines than what you might earn on the job. If youre not a licensed electrical contractor, its a good idea to develop a working relationship with one. Inspectors Will Look For: 1) Permits and licenses (State and local law). 2) Wiring installed in a neat and workmanlike manner. -NEC: 110.12/640.6/720.11/725.24/760.24/800.24/820.24/830.24. 3) Wiring methods that are consistent with the area youre working in. Places of Assembly, such as churches, schools and auditoriums require different wiring methods than residential installations. 4) NRTL Listed equipment. NEC: 110(Labeled)/110.2 5) Honest answers and somebody there to give them, during the inspection (Dont leave a person with limited knowledge at the job site to wait for the inspector!) Youll Need To: 1) Know where the circuit breakers are that feed the equipment, and be sure the breakers are marked. NEC: 110.22 2) Know the electrical load of your equipment and be sure wiring is of adequate size. NEC: 220/210.19 3) Ensure low voltage wiring is not installed in the same raceway or conduit, or in close proximity to the power wiring - NEC 725.136 (unless exempted by this article) 4) Know your local codes that may supersede the NEC, which is often the case in large cities. If your equipment is installed properly, and looks like it, you most likely will not have any problems with the inspector.
Arguing with an inspector is like wrestling with a pig in the mud After a while you realize the pig likes it. (Author Unk nown)
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
NEMA 5-20R
Isolated Ground
Do not modify the plug on your equipment to match a receptacle that is not intended to work with your equipment. (NEC-406.7)
Twistlock Terminal Identification X,Y L W G Phase Legs Line Neutral Ground
NEMA 5-20R
20 amp circuit accepts NEMA 5-15P or NEMA 5-20P plug
NEMA L5-15R
15 amp circuit accepts NEMA L5-15P plug
NEMA L5-20R
20 amp circuit accepts NEMA L5-20P plug
NEMA L5-30R
30 amp circuit accepts NEMA L5-30P plug
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
PROPER
WRONG
WRONG
Note: The NEC 200.6(A) designates neutral conductors to be colored white or light gray. To facilitate printing we use light gray to represent neutral colors throughout this paper.
Correct wiring
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Armor Clad Designated (AC) by the NEC, and sometimes called BX, its original manufacturers trade name. While it is the least expensive, is the least desirable for AV systems due to the fact that there is no supplemental grounding conductor (wire). The metal jacket, along with its aluminum bonding strip, is the safety grounding conductor and is detrimental to AV performance due to its higher comparative impedance than a solid piece of copper wire. Without a supplemental grounding conductor, the ground impedance and integrity is dependent on the length of the sheath and all the connectors and fittings (in series). BX cannot be used with isolated ground receptacles. Non-Metallic Sheath - designated (NM) by the NEC and commonly called Romex, is not permitted in places of assembly or in buildings of 3 or more floors. Romex cannot be used with isolated ground receptacles. Metallic Conduit must be installed as a complete system before the wiring is installed. The conduit is considered a grounding conductor. A supplemental grounding conductor may be installed. For AV installations it is recommended to use an insulated ground wire when metallic conduit is required or specified.
NEC Definitions Electrical metallic tubing, commonly known as EMT or Thin-Wall (NEC article: 358 EMT) Intermediate metal conduit, commonly known as Threaded Thin-Wall (NEC article: 342 IMC) Rigid metal conduit, commonly known as Rigid (NEC article: 344 RIGID)
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Armor Clad for Healthcare Facilities (AC-HCF) Aluminum Armor Clad for Healthcare Facilities (AC-HCF) is the best choice for Isolated Ground A/V systems. Like MC, it contains an additional grounding conductor, although with this type of cable it is permissible to use the metal jacket as the safety grounding conductor, as required with isolated ground installations. The biggest benefit is that the average proximity of the hot conductor and the neutral conductor with respect to the isolated equipment grounding conductor is nearly equal, virtually eliminating ground voltage induction (GVI), even on long runs. Steel Armor Clad for Healthcare Facilities (AC-HCF) Similar to aluminum armor clad AC-HCF, but does not address ground voltage induction as effectively as aluminum (see Ground Voltage Induction section of this paper). Two other problems are that steel clad is not readily available and is cumbersome to transport and install.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Worst Best
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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2
20 amp power strip required
There are many other factors that may increase the wire size required. The most common factors include: a) Length of run (voltage drop) b) Ambient temperature c) De-Rating: the number of conductors allowed in conduit based upon amperage and heat build-up
4
20 amp Circuit breaker required
1
Total continuous load 15 amps. 15 amps x 125%=18.75 amp wiring required
EQ DSP
Main Panel
X-Over
The smallest standard wire size that will handle 18.75 amps is #12 (20 amp)
Power Amp
Power Amp
Power Amp
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Program Type Individual Speech Individual Speech Compressed Rock Music Compressed Rock Music
Speaker Impedance 8 Ohms (Stereo) 2 Ohms (Stereo) 8 Ohms (Stereo) 2 Ohms (Stereo)
AC Current Draw 4.1 Amps 5.8 Amps 13.4 Amps 20.1 Amps
As you can see from the above example, the current draw varies considerably depending on the intended use of the amplifier and the impedance of the load(s) that it is driving. Although the NEC allows 100% circuit sizing for non-continuous loads, when sizing an amplifier AC circuit, the calculated load should be multiplied by 125% in order to determine the conductor size and over-current protection (circuit breaker) required. This additional capacity will allow for adequate headroom, and minimizes resistive voltage drop when the amplifier is required to reproduce peaks in program material. Calculation Example: If the calculated load is 17 amps, the minimum size conductor would normally be #12 copper (20 amps), however, when the 125% factor is applied (17 amps X 125% = 21.25 amps), the next standard wire size is #10 (30 amps). The gross over sizing of branch circuits may be somewhat restricted by the National Electrical Code in some cases. Consult the amplifier manufacturer for maximum circuit size specifications. Modifying or changing input connectors (plugs) could void the NRTL listing and the product warranty if it is done in such a manner that is inconsistent with the amplifier installation instructions.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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EQ
DSP
X-Over
OFF Sequence
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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J-Box
OFF Sequence
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
Proper grounding reduces only ONE source of noise (common-mode). Both the primary electrical system grounds and the signal interconnection system grounds need to be properly designed and installed to achieve a hum and buzz free system.
Electrical safety grounding is necessary to limit danger to the user from hazardous voltages due to lightning, power surges, and ground faults caused by equipment failure or conductor insulation failure. Proper electrical grounding assures safety by providing a low impedance path for tripping protective devices such as circuit breakers and fuses when a ground fault (shor t circuit to ground) occurs. This saves lives. Bypassing or defeating a safety ground to reduce noise is illegal, violates the NEC, is dangerous and should never be done!
Best practices dictate that equipment racks must be bonded together. Per the NEC (Article 640) or Authority Having Jurisdiction, it is best to bond ganged racks together with paint-piercing hardware and purchase racks with pre-installed ground studs for convenience and to ensure good conductivity.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Not Ideal for AV Systems: The neutral-ground bond in this type of wiring arrangement is at the first circuit breaker panel after the transformer. The busbar in the circuit breaker panel is a combination neutral / ground connection point, and ALL return current (i.e. neutral, fault, and system leakage current) flows through this busbar on its way back to the source of supply (the transformer). This current flow causes slight voltage differences along the length of the busbar. Since the busbar is the primary ground reference, these voltage differences will be seen as ground voltage differences between the chassis of interconnected equipment, and may manifest themselves as hum and buzz in the system (through the system cable shield interconnects).
Better for AV Systems: The neutral-ground bond in this type of wiring arrangement is at the transformer. The circuit breaker panel after the transformer contains a separate isolated neutral busbar AND a separate ground busbar. Return current on the neutral busbar has no effect on the grounding system.
SINGLE PHASE 120/240V TRANSFORMER ELECTROSTATIC SHIELD MAIN PANEL POWER INPUT TO LOADS AS SHORT AS POSSIBLE GROUNDING ELECTRODE CONDUCTOR INSULATORS NEUTRAL GROUND
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Noise path
Load
Load
Electrostatic Shield
All transformers have capacitance between the primary and secondary windings, which allows higher frequencies of common-mode noise to pass as shown in the diagram above left. Utilizing an electrostatic (Faraday) shield between the windings reduces this capacitance and provides a path for the noise to flow back to its source - as shown in the diagram above right.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Harmonics primarily originate in equipment such as: a) Computers and other equipment with switch mode power supplies that do not employ power factor correction b) Electronic Ballasts c) Motors and Controllers that use variable frequency drives d) Most lighting dimmers e) Power amplifiers and other equipment with DC power supplies containing large capacitors
Oversized neutral
Some problems created by harmonic currents are: a) Over-heated neutrals b) Over-heated transformers c) Malfunctioning generators d) Burned-out motors e) Tripped circuit breakers
K-Rated transformers do not eliminate harmonics. They are designed to tolerate the heating effects of harmonics created by much of todays electronic equipment, which contains switch-mode power supplies
Electrostatic Shield
Some features of K-Rated transformers are: a) Oversized neutral, since much of the harmonic current appears on the neutral b) Special high efficiency coil windings c) Attenuates triplen harmonic currents from the line d) Low impedance and temperature rise
*Note: single-phase transformers do not need a K-rating, as the harmonics pass through to the primary feeder.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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In larger commercial and industrial buildings you may find a 277/480 Volt three phase system. In this case, all 120V circuits are from separately derived systems using step-down transformers. There may be several 120V single phase systems throughout the building. Best practices dictate that you designate one of these as your technical power system, using an electrostatically-shielded isolation transformer near your technical power distribution panel.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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A major disadvantage of balanced power systems is the requirement for ground fault circuit interrupter receptacles (GFCI). These receptacles can trip due to normal ground leakage currents. When the GFCI receptacles are disabled or bypassed, the system becomes an electrocution hazard!
Hot 60 Volts 120 Volts 120 Volts 60 Volts GFCI Type receptacle required
Neutral
Ground
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Equipment with 3-Prong Power Cord fed by Symmetrical (Balanced) Power Transformer
Equipment with 2-Prong Power Cord fed by Symmetrical (Balanced) Power Transformer
Line 120V 60V C1 C2 Equipment Chassis B C3 C4
Inter-Chassis Current
Equipment Chassis A
60V
Since the noise reduction achievable with this scheme is typically only 6 to 10 dB, symmetrical (balanced) power transformers are not a cost-effective method of reducing system noise. The primary benefit (reduced common-mode noise) is due to the fact that these systems are inherently isolation transformers, whether the output is balanced or not. A standard, unbalanced shielded isolation transformer will do nearly as well without the disadvantages of a balanced output power transformer For reducing noise, it is more cost-effective to use a signal transformer to isolate unbalanced signal interconnections or eliminate them and use balanced signal interconnections which are inherently immune to the effects of leakage currents.
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Ground Myths
Myth #1) An Isolated Ground system is not connected to ground. MYTH BUSTED! Isolated ground systems connect to ground at the neutral-ground bond point in the main circuit panel, and must be insulated from any other ground connections. If equipment is mounted in a rack, to conductive rack rails, the rack itself must also be insulated from any other grounds, including concrete or conduit, to function as designed. Myth #2) A supplemental (auxiliary) ground rod is a place where noise wants to go. MYTH BUSTED! Noise will always flow back to the source; noise does not want to flow to earth. In addition, the NEC mandates that any supplemental (auxiliary) ground rod be bonded to the neutral-ground bond of a separately derived system, the main service neutral-ground bond or the grounding electrode system. Improper bonding of a supplemental (auxiliary) ground rod is dangerous! Any attempt to use a supplemental (auxiliary) ground rod as a magical sink for noise will most likely fail, and result in circulating currents flowing in the ground wires, most likely adding to noise problems. There is no wire from an airplane to earth, yet it has an effective grounding system. Myth #3) The earths soil is an effective safety grounding point. MYTH BUSTED! Earth ground is not a substitute for safety ground. Driving independent, un-bonded ground rods into the earth does not provide a low enough impedance to trip circuit breakers, is a violation of the National Electrical Code, and can be life threatening when used as a safety ground. (see diagram to right) Myth #4) More grounds = quieter systems. MYTH BUSTED! Ground only where required for safety. Any additional grounds may provide or create additional paths for ground loops and increase system noise. The only exception to this is when a mesh grounding scheme is used (refer to the Mesh Grounding section of this white paper).
Hot
Neutral Short
DANGEROUS
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If a branch circuit is under load, a bootleg ground anywhere on that branch circuit will always cause excessive current to flow in the safety ground system of that circuit and reduce the amount of current being returned on the neutral conductor. This will happen regardless of any of the following factors: Location of the bootleg ground on that branch circuit Which receptacle the load is plugged into on that branch circuit Receptacle type Box material (metal or plastic)
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Neutral-Ground reversals
Although rare, neutral and ground conductors can inadvertently be swapped when wiring a receptacle or wired outlet strip. If a branch circuit is under load: a neutral-ground reversal at a standard receptacle that is mounted in a grounded metal box will act as a bootleg ground and will always cause excessive current to flow in the safety ground system and reduce the amount of current being returned on the neutral conductor, regardless of where the neutral-ground reversal is on that branch circuit, and regardless of what receptacle the load is plugged into on that branch circuit a neutral-ground reversal at a standard receptacle that is housed in a plastic box, or at an isolated ground receptacle, is commonly diagnosed by connecting a load to that receptacle and mea suring the current as described in the Steps to Troubleshoot Bootleg Grounds and Neutral-Ground Reversals section of this paper. This condition can be hard to diagnose, as the receptacle can either have no load plugged into it, a steady load plugged into it or an intermittent load such as a refrigerator, resulting in unintentional current flow on the grounding system only if: o a 2-prong or 3-prong current drawing load is connected to that specific receptacle; or o any 3-prong grounded device, which is also grounded by another means (e.g. through grounded rackrail), is plugged into that receptacle, even if it is not powered on
Return current, when flowing on a grounded signal wire (even in part), can add unwanted voltage (noise) to the signal path, resulting in hum and buzz.
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Troubleshooting Overview From the name and definition, it might be thought that the presence of a bootleg ground on a dedicated branch circuit could be verified through the measurement of ground current. A properly bonded grounding system (of which branch circuit ground conductors are simply a part) provides multiple return paths for current to return to its source. The return paths include metal building beams, metal plumbing pipes & conduit and as such the current measured on a branch circuit ground conductor may be far lower than the total amount of current actually flowing throughout the grounding system overall. For these reasons, the most effective way to determine whether or not you have a bootleg ground or a neutralground reversal on a branch circuit is to do a direct comparison between the current flowing on the hot, and the respective neutral conductor (see drawing right). The easiest and most fool-proof way to compare the difference in current between line and neutral conductors is to put both conductors (of the branch circuit under test) inside the jaws of a clamp-on ammeter. The current measured should be no more than 20mA (this being normal ground leakage current). If the current measured is more than 20mA, then it is very likely that there is either a bootleg ground on that branch circuit, a neutral-ground reversal or an improperly shared neutral. To troubleshoot the likely cause, clamp the ammeter around the hot and neutral independently. The current measured on the neutral should never be greater than that measured on the hot conductor. If this is the case then the neutral conductor is being shared by more than one branch circuit on the same phase this is in direct violation of the NEC (article 100, Branch Circuit, Multiwire) and is hazardous, as the current flowing in the neutral conductor can easily exceed the rated capacity of the wire.
L1
L2 N
All Neutrals and grounds are terminated at the same bus point in a Main Breaker panel.
MAIN
Note: The green screw is the neutral-ground bond point, the screw mechanically bonds the neutral bus to the panel enclosure
Arrows indicate direction of current flow
Bootl in a
As the bootleg current flow is looking for a return path back to its source, its route can be any gounding conductive path, including AV cable signal cable shields
Bootleg ground at this duplex receptacle using a metal box (Note frayed wiring touching from neutral to the metal of box)
Ground connected through building metallic Infrastructure ground system bootleg current will flow where ever there is a path to get back to its source
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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MAIN
All Neutrals and grounds are terminated at the same bus point in a Main Breaker panel. Note: The green screw is the neutral-ground bond point, the screw mechanically bonds the neutral bus to the panel enclosure
0 .0
0
A
off
0 0.0
off A
0.0
off
Ensure that these preceding problems are addressed before proceeding to the next step (continued on next page).
Arrows indicate direction of current flow
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3. As shown in the diagram on the right, choose one receptacle on the branch circuit, plug a 100 watt light bulb test load into it, and put both hot and neutral conductors (of the branch circuit under test) inside the jaws of a clamp-on ammeter. If all receptacles on the branch circuit under test are properly wired, then the return current on the neutral will be exactly the same as the current on the hot wire and the ammeter will read zero. If its not zero, then somewhere on this branch circuit there is likely one or more of the following issues: a.) a bootleg ground anywhere on this branch circuit, including at receptacles, J-boxes, wiring clamps, etc. b.) a neutral-ground reversal in a metal box anywhere on this branch circuit c.) a neutral-ground reversal at the receptacle under load, and it is housed in a plastic box, or is an isolated ground receptacle To troubleshoot the likely cause, clamp the ammeter around the hot and neutral independently. If the current measured on the neutral conductor is approximately half that measured on the hot conductor then somewhere on this branch circuit there is either a neutral-ground reversal (in a metal box), or there is a bootleg ground at a receptacle. The current that would normally be returning on the neutral is now shared between the neutral conductor and safety ground system. If the current measured on the neutral conductor is substantially less than that measured on the hot conductor (close to zero) then condition (c) from above applies. All of the load current will flow on the safety ground conductor instead of the neutral conductor. 4. Repeat this process for each receptacle on the branch circuit in question.
MAIN
All Neutrals and grounds are terminated at the same bus point in a Main Breaker panel. Note: The green screw is the neutral-ground bond point, the screw mechanically bonds the neutral bus to the panel enclosure
100W
0 0.0
off A
Note: Neutral-ground reversals at a receptacle housed in a plastic box, or at an isolated ground receptacle, will cause excessive safety ground current to flow (and result in intermittent hums and buzzes) only when the receptacle is under a load. A quick way to detect a bootleg ground or neutral-ground reversal, without the need for qualified personnel, is to plug an inexpensive tabletop dimmer using a 100 watt incandescent light bulb into a branch outlet, and while adjusting the dimmer, listen for any change in system noise. If a bootleg ground or neutral-ground reversal is present, part of the neutral current will be flowing in the grounding conductor, adding to the signal path and noise will vary with the amount of neutral current. Note: in some cases, however, there are no wiring errors and this test can be misleading, as buzz can arise due to normal parasitic coupling that exists between multiple branch circuits housed in the same conduit or in close proximity to each other.
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Equipment
Power strip
Buss bar
Ground rods are meant to help lightning find its way safely to the earth. Putting one next to your equipment rack invites lightning to travel through the rack.
BAD IDEA!
Auxiliary Ground Rod
Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power into Rack Enclosures 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.
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Electrical Noise
Ground voltage differences, or 'ground noise,' between various locations in premises safety-ground wiring are the main driving force behind ground loops that cause hum, buzz, and video hum bar problems. 'Noise' in the context of AC power generally refers to energy at frequencies from 60 Hz up to a few MHz. For example, whenever a power circuit containing a reactive load is turned on or, especially, off by mechanical contacts (a switch or relay), a high-frequency (i.e., fast risetime) voltage or current "spike" (also known as a "transient") is generated. Many electrical devices create 60 Hz harmonics and high-frequency noise currents that can couple onto the safety-ground conductor. Such devices include computers, printers, electronic lighting ballasts, compact fluorescent lights (CFLs), lighting dimmers and anything with a "switch-mode" power supply (also known as 'solid state' or 'electronic') - see figure below. As these currents flow in the safetyground conductors, they add voltage differences to the safety ground system.
Many lighting dimmer controls use an SCR or TRIAC switch, which chops the sine wave. The reduced duty cycl e of the resulting wave achieves the desired effect of dimming. However, the extremely fast current rise time creates a large repetitive voltage spike twice per cycle. Rapid changes in current will always produce electrical noise. AV equipment itself can produce electrical noise and poorly designed equipment containing a microprocessor can couple digital hash into the safety ground system through its power supply or ground prong.
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Power Conditioning
Power Conditioning is a very misused term, with no industry standards to allow adequate comparison. Numerous products are marketed to cure AV system noise, lock-ups, reboots and various power quality issues. Many of these are sold partly by fear, partly by swindling and mostly on misleading education that lacks any basis in accepted engineering principles, meaningful data or realistic demonstrations. Some people may install power conditioners because they are led to believe that conditioned power will improve the way the system sounds or looks. However, except in rare and extreme situations, these attributes are determined primarily by the quality and topography of the safety ground system and the integrity of the signal path of interconnected equipment, not by the quality of the AC utility power. Two examples of such extreme situations where power conditioning may make a difference include: - when power is fed from a utility source that is shared by a nearby user of industrial machinery that injects high levels of RF noise, such as some welding equipment - when using electronic equipment with cheaply made and poorly designed power supplies, instead of higher quality equipment that provides adequate noise rejection. Most power conditioners are essentially low pass filters that are designed to attenuate high frequencies. However, for AV systems, problematic noise frequencies are under 25 kHz and are essentially unaffected by power conditioners, whose filtering action is typically effective only at frequencies over about 50 kHz. The following common problems result in many undesirable situations, including hum, buzz and noise in AV systems, none of which are solved by power conditioners: Power Conditioners do not solve any of these common problems
Effects of ground loops (hums, buzzes & video hum bars)
Power line common-mode noise AC magnetic field induction (hum & video roll bars) Cross phase coupling (doubles hums & buzzes) Shield current induced noise Pops, clicks and noise from arcing contacts Control system lock-ups Hissing at loud volumes during quiet passages
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Safety Service ground entrance meter Main service panel Neutral ground bond screw 1 SPD TYPE 2 1st stage SPD Service entrance load side surge & spike protection (all-mode)
30' Min
MAIN
2nd stage SPD SPD Surge & spike TYPE 3 protection (common-mode) 3 4 Filter & conditioner
5 Dedicated panelboard
MAIN
Load Center Main grounding electrode Local Shielded Isolation grounding transformer with electrode new neutral bond point to ground Single point dedicated isolated ground
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GRD
ISO GRD
Magnetic fields cancel each other when they cross in the green zone
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* trademark AFC Cable Corporation ** measured with AEMC 565 True RMS leakage current meter
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Mounting Screw
Yoke
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Wiring Isolated Ground Outlets and Conventional Outlets when using a Sub Panel
MAIN PANEL SUB PANEL (optional)
The grounding conductor (safety ground) and the grounded conductor (neutral) are bonded together only at the main service panel, at a separately derived transformer or immediately after a separately derived transformer. No further mechanical connection of the neutral and ground is allowed on the load side of the main panel.
Grounding Conductor
From Transformer
Technical (isolated) ground wire terminated in main panel only (no connection to sub panel ground)
conventional outlet
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Safety Ground
Conduit bonded to building safety ground Rack can sit directly on concrete
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Isolated Rack with Standard Power Strip (not isolated ground receptacles)
Isolate the entire equipment rack by connecting the power and signal conduits to the rack using non-metallic fittings. An insulated grounding conductor must be installed in the power conduit to comply with NEC requirements (Article 640.22) and must also be bonded to the racks ground stud. When the rack is sitting on or bolted to a semi-conductive surface, such as concrete, care should be taken to isolate the rack from the floor and mounting bolts. In some installations, it only takes a few milliamps of current to produce a noise problem. Isolating shoulder washers for installation of floor mounting bolts should be used. This is highly effective and is recommended* Rackmounted equipment does not have to be isolated from the rack. However, nonNeutral technical metallic connections To optional Line (stray grounds) must be buss bar Technical (Isolated) Ground isolated from the rack. An isolated ground power strip may be substituted for the standard one, but there is additional cost and no additional benefit.
Wire Nut Indicates Isolation Standard Power strip (not isolated ground outlets) Optional Buss bar
No insulators required
Mounting bolt
Use non-conductive (PVC) conduit fittings to isolate the conduit from the rack; allowed per NEC 640.23(B)
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In the following examples, the racks are grounded via a technical (isolated) ground, and isolated from the building safety ground. Additionally, these racks are isolated from the floor by use of insulated leveling feet (example 1), and rubber or plastic wheels (example 2, next page). Since power strip mounting hardware cannot be relied upon to conduct fault current, a bonding jumper must be installed between the power strip chassis and the rack.
Neutral
Example 1: With this hardwired power strip the bonding connection is between the technical (isolated) grounding conductor (in the junction box), and the rack.
Line 1 Neutral Flexible Conduit Bonding Jumper Non-Metallic Fitting Building Ground Technical (isolated) ground Indicates Isolation
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Equipment
Example 2: With this cord connected power strip the bonding connection is between the power strip chassis and the rack. Note: since the power strip is plugged into an isolated ground style outlet the power strip chassis is grounded via an isolated ground.
Rubber Cord
Bonding Jumper
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Floor Isolators
When properly configured, an isolated ground (also known as a technical ground or single-point ground) system is arranged electrically in a star pattern. Each rack is bonded to a common single point ground with separate equipment grounding conductors, reducing voltage drop. If paintpiercing hardware is not utilized while ganging racks together, star grounding is the recommended design. If the installation is in close proximity to RF sources (i.e. radio or TV transmitters), mesh grounding may be the best design. Please see the Mesh Grounding section of this paper.
Floor Isolators
When racks are connected in a daisy chain fashion, series resistances in the equipment grounding conductors can increase at each bond point. This can lead to potential differences between racks, which may lead to ground loops that interfere with the systems performance. This is not recommended unless paint-piercing hardware is used to gang the racks together.
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Routing signal conductors adjacent or close to a ground plane is a very effective and proven method of reducing the undesirable effects of Electromagnetic Conduction (EMC) in signal conductors (since the electromagnetic field is confined to the small space between the signal conductor and the ground plane). The greater the surface area of the ground plane, the lower the impedance and the more effective the protection, especially at higher frequencies. Metal chassis of racks are required by code to be bonded to ground for safety. One of the most effective ways to create a large surface area ground plane is to bond these grounded equipment racks together. One method is to grind the protective paint (or powder coat) from the ganging points where the racks join, and subsequently bolt the racks together. However, grinding exposes the base metal, which will then be subject to corrosion, defeating the intended purpose. When paint-piercing hardware is used to gang racks together, the opportunity for corrosion is minimized. Daisy-chain grounding techniques between the racks can then also be used without the possible associated disadvantage of additive resistances. Most electrical inspectors in the United States want to see bonding wires connected to the rack s grounding lug, so the elimination of the daisy-chain depends on the field requirements. Note: Daisy-chain grounding can be used in conjunction with paint-piercing hardware, as shown in the above diagram.
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Star/Isolated Grounding
In a star connection, ground points are all connected to a single point. The resistance (and the low frequency potential difference) between a rack and the ground point is the minimum, since the connection is direct. The resistance between two racks will, however, not be the minimum since the length of the connection from one rack to another is the sum of the resistance from one rack to ground, added to the resistance from ground to the second rack. In addition, Star systems can act as antennas. This is a significant problem in a facility that is near a source of RFI (such as a radio station), where the RF signal can cause large potential differences. Connecting endpoints in the star to each other would reduce the resistance but would, again, create a ground loop.
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Mesh Grounding
The figure to the right illustrates the topology of an effective mesh ground network. In a mesh connection, whether it is produced by a grounding grid or by ground wire interconnections, the impedance between any two points is minimized. Since there are multiple paths between any two racks, the ground current (and therefore, the potential voltage drop) in any one path is minimized. Mesh grounding may be required for sensitive digital and RF equipment found in telecom and other critical industries where higher frequencies are present. Note that creating a set of mesh connections can be logistically difficult and may increase the cost of an installation. For a more detailed insight consult: Lewis, Warren H. Handbook of Electromagnetic Compatibility. Chapter 8, Grounding and Bonding. Edited by Reinaldo Perez: Academic Press, Inc. 1995
Electrical bond to mesh
Good engineering practices should always be used to properly ground an installation. EMC Directive 2004/108/EC of the European Parliament states It should be possible to use harmonized standards for fixed i nstallations in order to demonstrate conformity with the essential requirements covered by such standards. Further, A fixed installation shall be installed applying good engineeri ng practices and respecting the information on the intended use of its com ponents, with a view to meeting the protection requirements Generally, star/isolated ground connections, which are recognized as good engineering practices in the US, are not usually recognized by the European regulatory agencies as good engineering practices. However, when properly employed star/isolated ground connections or mesh connections are effective means of minimizing ground currents and noise in electrical systems.
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Authors
This document was written by and in collaboration with: Henry W. Ott, MSEE Principle Consultant, Henry Ott Consultants Bill Whitlock President & Chief Engineer, Jensen Transformers Dale Shirk President, Shirk Audio & Acoustics Bruce Olson President, Olson Sound Design Neil Muncy President, Neil Muncy Associates Daryl Ebersole, P.E. Fournier, Robson & Associates, LLC Bob Schluter Chief Engineer & CEO, Middle Atlantic Products Jim Herrick Senior Design Engineer, Power Products, Middle Atlantic Products (N.J. Elect. Cont Lic 6748 / Elect Insp Lic 7702) Murray Williams Product Manager, Electrical and Electronic, Middle Atlantic Products Edited by: Rebeca Trautner Middle Atlantic Products
References
Parts of the text in this publication have been reprinted with permission from NFPA 70-2008 National Electrical Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02269. This reprinted material is not the official position of the National Fire Protection Association, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. Directive 2004/108/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 December 2004 on the approximation of the laws of the member states relating to electromagnetic compatibility and repealing Directive 89/336/EEC BICSI Telecommunications Distribution Methods Manual, 10th Edition IEC 61000-5-2 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Part 5: Installation and Mitigation Guidelines Section 2: Earthing and Cabling
K-Rated Transformer, I-Trap, Shielded Isolation Transformer material was provided by Acme Electric Corporation. Additional K-Rated Transformer information from Controlled Power Company and Federal Pacific Atkinson, Charles & Philip Giddings. Grounding Systems and their Implementation. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, Vol. 43, No. 6, June 1995.
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References (cont.)
Bohn, Dennis. Why Not Wye? RaneNote 109, Rane Corporation, 1991. Bohn, Dennis. Interfacing Audio & POTS. RaneNote 150, Rane Corporation, 2002. Brown, Jim. Testing for Radio-Frequency Common Impedance Coupling (the Pin 1 Problem) in Microphones and Other Audio Equipment. New York, NY: AES 115th Convention, October 10-13, 2003. Brown, Jim. Shield Current Induced Noise Causes & Solutions. Synergetic Audio Concepts, Inc. Vol. 31 No. 3 Summer 2003. Brown, Jim. Shield Current Induced Noise Causes & Solutions Part 2. Synergetic Audio Concepts, Inc. Vol. 32 No. 1 Winter 2004. Brown, Jim. Pin 1 Revisited. Synergetic Audio Concepts, Inc. Brown, Jim. Pin 1 Revisited Part 2. Synergetic Audio Concepts, Inc. Brown, Jim & Bill Whitlock. Common-Mode to Differential-Mode Conversion in Shielded Twisted-Pair Cables (Shield-Current-Induced Noise). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: AES 114th Convention, March 2003. Burdick, Allen H. A Clean Audio Installation Guide. Syracuse, NY: Benchmark Media S ystems, 1997. Giddings, Philip. Audio Systems Design and Installation. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1990. Giddings, Philip. Power and Ground Update. Toronto, Canada: February 15, 1996. Holt, Mike. Grounding & Bonding NEC 250. Tamarac, FL: Mike Holt Enterprises Inc. August 2002. Holt, Mike. Grounding Versus Bonding. Mike Holt Enterprises Inc. 2005. Lewis, Warren H. Handbook of Electromagnetic Compatibility. Chapter 8, Grounding and Bonding. Edited by Reinaldo Perez: Academic Press, Inc. 1995 Macatee, Stephen R. Considerations in Grounding and Shielding Computer-Controlled Audio Devices. Mukilteo, WA: Rane Corporation, AES 13th International Conference, pp 135-139.
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References (cont.)
Morrison, Ralph. Grounding and Shielding Techniques Fourth Edition. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1998. Morrison, Ralph. Noise and Other Interfering Signals. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1991 Morrison, Ralph & Warren H. Lewis. Grounding and Shielding in Facilities. York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1990. Muncy, Neil. Noise Susceptibility in Analog and Digital Signal Processing Systems. Journal of the Audio Engineering Socie ty, Vol. 43, No. 6, June 1995, pp. 435-453. Muncy, Neil. Star Grounds, Loop Areas, and Electrical Safety in Project Studios, Edit Suites, & Other Compact Audio Installations. Toronto, Canada: December 15, 2001. Ott, Henry W. Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems Second Edition. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1988. Ott, Henry W. Electromagnetic Compatibility Engineering. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Rane Technical Staff. Sound System Interconnection. RaneNote 110, Rane Corporation, 1985, 1995, 2006. Simmons, J. Philip. Soares Book on Grounding (7th Edition). Richardson, Texas: International Association of Electrical Inspectors. Whitlock, Bill. Understanding, Finding, & Eliminating Ground Loops in Audio & Video Systems. http://www.jensentransformers.com/an/generic%20seminar.pdf Chatsworth, CA: Jensen Transformers, Inc. 2005 www.jensen-transformers.com. Whitlock, Bill. Hum & Buzz in Unbalanced Interconnect Systems. http://www.jensen-transformers.com/an/an004.pdf Chatsworth, CA: Jensen Transformers, Inc. 1996 www.jensen-transformers.com. Whitlock, Bill. System Problems and Equipment Manufacturers. Systems Contractor News, September 1997.
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Copyright 2002-2010 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc. ("Middle Atlantic Products"). All rights reserved. All original information, logos, charts, graphics, images, and/or nomographs herein are the sole property of Middle Atlantic Products.
Warning: Unauthorized reproduction, copying, display or revision of this reference guide, or the information, charts, images and content of the reference guide, is prohibited by federal law and is subject to federal prosecution. Middle Atlantic Products gives the viewer of this Reference Guide a limited nonexclusive license to view or print this publication in color. All uses of this Reference Guide must be for non-commercial purposes. The Reference Guide may not be copied or distributed without first obtaining the written permission of Middle Atlantic Products.
This Reference Guide is provided to the user for informational purposes only. Middle Atlantic Products makes NO WARRANTIES of any kind with regard to this document, including but not limited to liability for system failure due to design. The Reference Guide is provided "AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR NON-INFRINGEMENT. Some jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion of implied warranties, so the above exclusion may not apply to you. Middle Atlantic Products shall not be held liable for any damage, direct or indirect, actual or consequential, that may occur as a result of relying upon, using, following, or circumstances arising out of or in connection with this publication, or information provided, or referenced herein. Middle Atlantic Products, nor its officers, directors, employees, contributors nor agents shall be held responsible for any errors or omissions in this Reference Guide. Information in this publication is subject to update or change without notice at any time. References to other companies, their products or services, are provided without ANY WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED. Nothing contained in this Reference Guide should be construed as granting any right or license to use, reproduce, transmit, perform, publish, license, modify, rewrite, create derivative works from, transfer, store, or sell the content. This publication may be accessed by users internationally and may contain references to products or services that are not available in your country. These references do not imply that Middle Atlantic Products intends to, or will make, such products and/or services available in your country. This document is a guide only. Suggested wiring methods, described herein are not intended to supersede any National or Local codes or regulations. Work must be performed by qualified personnel only, which may include required licensing and inspection of work.
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