Allowing New Hampshire Police Officers to Prosecute: Concerns with the Practice and a Solution

Nikolas Frye*
I. INTRODUCTION Unlike most jurisdictions, New Ham s!ire allows non"#ar certi$ied olice o$$icers to rosecute %iolation le%el o$$enses & and certain misdemeanors at t!e district court le%el. ' T!is ractice runs contrary to $undamental (merican rinci les o$ )o%ernment and law. For one, t!is ractice #lurs t!e distinction #etween en$orcement and t!e rosecution. *
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* (ut!or+s Note, I would like to t!ank -ieutenant .ark /odan0a o$ New Ham s!ire 1olice 2tandards and Trainin) $or allowin) me to inter%iew !im and $or sendin) me sylla#i $or two o$ t!e classes !e teac!es in olice rosecution, O$$icer as t!e 1rosecutor and t!e /asic 1rosecutor Course. I would like to clari$y t!at w!ile -t. /odan0a was willin) to su ly me wit! sylla#i and artici ate in an inter%iew, !e does not endorse t!e osition I take in t!is a er. I a laud -t. /odan0a+s teac!in) des ite t!e stance I take in t!is Note t!at olice o$$icers s!ould no lon)er rosecute in New Ham s!ire. His e$$orts ensure t!at under t!e current system a olice o$$icer !as some trainin) #e$ore rosecutin) in district and munici al court. Furt!ermore, t!is Note is not meant to dis ara)e New Ham s!ire olice o$$icers, #ut to criti3ue t!e New Ham s!ire )o%ernment $or not yet im lementin) a mandated munici al rosecutorial system. New Ham s!ire citi0ens s!ould #e roud o$ and t!ank$ul $or t!e outstandin) jo# t!eir olice $orce does in rotectin) u#lic sa$ety. . New Ham s!ire #ased its criminal statutes on t!e .odel 1enal Code w!ic! states, (n o$$ense de$ined #y t!is Code or #y any ot!er statute o$ t!is 2tate constitutes a %iolation i$ it is so desi)nated in t!is Code or in t!e law de$inin) t!e o$$ense or i$ no ot!er sentence t!an a $ine, or $ine and $or$eiture or ot!er ci%il enalty is aut!ori0ed u on con%iction or i$ it is de$ined #y a statute ot!er t!an t!is Code t!at now ro%ides t!at t!e o$$ense s!all not constitute a crime. ( %iolation does not constitute a crime and con%iction o$ a %iolation s!all not )i%e rise to any disa#ility or le)al disad%anta)e #ased on con%iction o$ a criminal o$$ense. .OD4- 14N(- COD4 5 &.6789: 8&;<9:. ' . See N.H. R4=. 2T(T. (NN. 5 7&,&6"a 8-e>isNe>is '66;:? see also /ilodeau %. (ntal, 799 (.'d &6*@, &67& 8N.H. &;<&: 8rea$$irmin) t!e Ari)!t o$ law en$orcement to rosecute criminal cases on #e!al$ o$ t!e 2tateB:? 2tate %. (#eri0k, *79 (.'d 76@, 76< 8N.H. &;@9:? 2tate %. -a 1alme, &@; (.'d '<7, '<9"<C 8N.H. &;C': 8statin) t!at a state olice o$$icer could rosecute and testi$y as a witness to t!e o$$ense in 3uestion under R2( 5 9@9,&*:? 2tate %. Ur#an, &66 (.'d <;@, <;<";; 8N.H. &;9*:. * . See infra 1art III.C.

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<7 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT D=ol. *<,**; (llowin) olice de artments to rosecute t!e crimes t!ey c!ar)e eo le wit! lea%es no real internal c!eck on t!e discretion o$ en$orcement a)encies.7 Furt!ermore, t!is ractice laces an indi%idual trained to t!ink like a olice o$$icer in an attorney+s osition. 1olice o$$icers are not re3uired to attend law sc!ool, and a $ew weeks o$ non"(merican /ar (ssociation a ro%ed rosecutorial trainin) may not make u $or t!is $act. 9 Finally, i$ olice rosecutors, like rosecutin) attorneys, !a%e rosecutorial immunity, !ow can t!ey #e !eld accounta#le $or misconductE Unlike attorneys, olice o$$icers are not su#ject to t!e New Ham s!ire Rules o$ 1ro$essional Conduct.C T!e a$orementioned ro#lems raise 3uestions a#out t!e $undamental $airness o$ olice rosecution. T!e most e$$ecti%e way o$ addressin) t!ese 3uestions is to eliminate olice rosecution alto)et!er and only use attorneys as rosecutors. T!is solution #etter rotects a de$endant+s due rocess ri)!ts, unam#i)uously !olds all rosecutors e3ually accounta#le $or t!eir actions, and considers t!e u#lic interest in kee in) down t!e cost o$ state re resentation in munici al court. To ensure $airness and ro$essional res onsi#ility in t!e New Ham s!ire criminal justice system, only #ar certi$ied attorneys s!ould ser%e as rosecutors. 1art II o$ t!is Note )i%es t!e necessary !istorical and $actual #ack)round $or understandin) !ow t!e New Ham s!ire le)islature, 2u reme Court, and (ttorney Feneral !a%e addressed olice rosecution. 1art III e>amines a %ariety o$ law"related ro#lems t!at result $rom olice rosecution and ar)ues t!at t!ey jeo ardi0e t!e $undamental $airness o$ t!e criminal justice system. 1art I= s!ows w!y re lacin) olice rosecutors wit! munici al rosecutors is t!e most cost"e$$ecti%e solution $or ensurin) $undamental $airness in t!e criminal justice system. In conclusion, New Ham s!ire s!ould let attorneys #e attorneys and olice o$$icers #e olice o$$icers.

II. TH4 HI2TORG OF 1O-IC4 1RO24CUTION IN N4H H(.12HIR4 New Ham s!ire case law, le)islation, and t!e (ttorney Feneral+s o$$ice all reco)ni0e t!e ractice o$ olice rosecution in one way or anot!er. @ T!ose su ortin) t!e ractice ty ically cite State v. Urban and New
7 9

. See infra 1art III.C. . See infra 1art III.(.'? see also (ndrew Horwit0, Takin t!e Co" O#t of Co""in a $lea% Eradi&atin $oli&e $rose&#tion of Cri'inal Cases , 76 (RII. -. R4=. &*69, &*'C"'@ 8&;;<:. C . See N.H. RU-42 OF 1ROF+- CONDUCT, 2tatement o$ 1ur ose 8'66<:, available at !tt ,JJwww.courts.state.n!.usJrulesJ conJ con"s.!tm. AT!e Rules o$ 1ro$essional Conduct constitute t!e disci linary standard $or New Ham s!ire la()ers. To)et!er wit! law and ot!er re)ulations )o%ernin) la()ers, t!e Rules esta#lis! t!e #oundaries o$ ermissi#le and im ermissi#le lawyer conduct.B Id. 8em !asis added:. @ . See discussion infra 1art II.("C.

'6&'K NE* +AM$S+IRE $OLICE $ROSECUTORS <9 Ham s!ire Re%ised 2tatute (nnotated 8R2(: section 7&,&6"a as aut!ori0in) olice o$$icers to rosecute. < H!ile t!e Urban case law and R2( section 7&,&6"a aut!ori0e olice rosecution, recent law s!ows t!at t!ere is a trend in New Ham s!ire toward eradicatin) its ractice. (. T!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court and 1olice 1rosecution In State v. Urban, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court decided Aw!et!er t!e rosecution $or a misdemeanor in a munici al court #y a c!ie$ o$ olice or a olice o$$icer is ro!i#ited D#y R.-., c. *<6 section '*K.B ; T!e de$endant, c!ar)ed wit! drunk dri%in), ar)ued t!at t!e statute $or#ade olice o$$icers $rom rosecutin) misdemeanors. &6 4>aminin) t!e !istory o$ olice rosecution in New Ham s!ire and t!e a lication o$ t!e statute in )eneral, t!e court concluded t!at t!e le)islature !ad not intended to $or#id olice o$$icers $rom rosecutin) crimes, #ut only $rom racticin) law in ci%il roceedin)s.&& In s!ort, Urban narrowly !eld t!at olice rosecution did not %iolate R.-. c. *<6 section '* #ecause t!e statute was intended to re%ent olice o$$icers $rom actin) as ci%il attorneys, not $rom re resentin) t!e 2tate in criminal matters.&' Rele%ant case law $ollowin) Urban inter reted its !oldin) more #roadly.&* For e>am le, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court denied a de$endant+s motion to dismiss in State v. La $al'e, w!ere a state olice o$$icer was ermitted to rosecute and also testi$y as a witness a)ainst t!e de$endant.&7 (lt!ou)! R.-. c. *<6 section '* was not at issue, &9 t!e court declared t!at At!e 3uestion Din La $al'e !ad #een decidedK ad%ersely to t!e de$endant in State v. Urban.B&C Furt!ermore, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court e> lained t!at t!e statute at issue in La $al'e aut!ori0ed olice o$$icers to rosecute t!e o$$ense in 3uestion. &@ .issin) $rom t!is reasonin)
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. Urban, &66 (.'d at <;<";;? N.H. R4=. 2T(T. (NN. 5 7&,&6"a. . Urban, &66 (.'d at <;@. (ccordin) to t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court, R.-., c. *<6 5 '* states t!at ADnKo s!eri$$ or de uty s!eri$$, olice o$$icer, consta#le or city mars!al s!all #e su$$ered to a ear in any court or #e$ore a justice as attorney $or any arty in a suit.B Id. &6 . Id. && . Id. at <;@";<. &' . Id. at <;<. &* . See ,ilodea#, 799 (.'d at &67& 8e>cludin) olice rosecution $rom t!e New Ham s!ire le)al de$inition o$ t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law:? La $al'e, &@; (.'d at '<9"<C 8!oldin) t!at a state olice o$$icer could testi$y as a witness in a trial !e rosecuted under R2( 5 9@9,&*:? Aberi-k, *79 (.'d at 76@"6< 8a$$irmin) La $al'e, &@; (.'d '<7:. &7 . La $al'e, &@; (.'d at '<9. /ecause no case law !as o%erruled La $al'e, it remains )ood law? olice o$$icers can, and o$ten still do, act as rosecutor and witness in t!e same case. Id. &9 . Id. &C . See id. &@ . Id.

<C CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT D=ol. *<,**; was an e> lanation as to w!y an o$$icer did not %iolate a de$endant+s due rocess ri)!ts #y actin) as #ot! witness and rosecutin) attorney. &< T!ou)! er!a s t!rou)! unsound lo)ic, La $al'e made clear t!at t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court inter reted Urban as aut!ori0in) olice rosecution #eyond t!e sco e o$ R.-. c. *<6 section '*.&; In &;@9, t!e le)acy o$ Urban resur$aced in State v. Aberi-k.'6 (s it did in Urban, t!e 2tate in Aberi-k rosecuted t!e de$endant $or o eratin) a motor %e!icle w!ile under t!e in$luence o$ alco!ol. '& (t trial, w!en t!e rosecutin)Jarrestin) o$$icer took t!e stand as a witness, t!e de$endant o#jected to t!e rocedure, ar)uin) t!at it %iolated due rocess. '' In e>aminin) t!e de$endant+s claim, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court e> lained t!at La $al'e !ad already Adecided ad%ersely to t!e de$endant+s contention.B'* T!e lan)ua)e o$ t!e !oldin), almost identical to t!at o$ La $al'e,'7 le$t muc! to #e desired. Howe%er, t!e court in Aberi-k at least attem ted to o$$er a rationale $or w!y it would not consider t!e de$endant+s alle)ed due rocess and e3ual rotection claims. '9 First, it e> lained t!at im ro%ement in t!e current rocedure was a task $or t!e le)islature, not t!e court.'C 2econd, t!e de$endant !ad s!own Ano al a#le injury,B '@ only At!e e>istence o$ t!e ossi#ilitDyK,B '< meanin) !e could not claim eit!er a due rocess %iolation or denial o$ e3ual rotection o$ t!e law. '; Des ite t!is dicta, Aberi-k merely rea$$irmed La $al'e #y !oldin) t!at Urban !ad created a #lanket rule t!at olice o$$icers could rosecute certain misdemeanors and %iolations.*6 -ater le)islation com licated t!is matter $urt!er #y steerin) New Ham s!ire on a at! toward eliminatin) olice rosecution. /. T!e New Ham s!ire Feneral Court and 1olice 1rosecution 1ro onents o$ olice rosecution in New Ham s!ire are most likely to cite R2( section 7&,&6"a w!en 3uestioned as to w!et!er t!e Feneral Court aut!ori0es olice rosecution. *& H!ereas ot!er New Ham s!ire statutes
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. See id. . Id. '6 . Aberi-k, *79 (.'d at 76<. '& . Id. at 76@. '' . Id. '* . Id. at 76<. '7 . Co'"are id., (it! La $al'e, &@; (.'d at '<9. '9 . See Aberi-k, *79 (.'d at 76<. 'C . Id. '@ . Id. '< . Id. at 76<? see infra 1art III 8addressin) in!erent ro#lems in olice rosecution and ro%idin) $urt!er analysis o$ t!is line o$ recedents in more detail:. '; . Aberi-k. *97 (.'d at 76<. *6 . See id. *& . See 4"mail $rom Lane 4. Goun), N.H. 2enior (ssistant (ttorney Fen.

'6&'K NE* +AM$S+IRE $OLICE $ROSECUTORS <@ !a%e e>isted w!ic! aut!ori0ed olice rosecution in certain circumstances,*' R2( section 7&,&6"a is t!e #roadest and most recent declaration.** T!e statute, entitled A.unici al 1rosecutors,B states t!at,
T!e selectmen o$ towns or t!e a ro riate a ointin) aut!orities are !ere#y aut!ori0ed to a oint and com ensate one or more 3uali$ied mem#ers o$ t!e New Ham s!ire #ar to ser%e as munici al rosecutors to re resent t!e state, in "la&e of "oli&e offi&ers , in cases in%ol%in) ci%il causes, %iolations and misdemeanors wit!in t!e jurisdiction o$ t!e munici al or district courts e>ce t as ro%ided in R2( 5 96'"(,'6"a and R2( 5 96','C"c. 2aid munici al rosecutors s!all ser%e at t!e leasure o$ t!e a ointin) aut!ority. Two or more munici alities may en)a)e t!e ser%ices o$ a sin)le munici al rosecutor as ro%ided in R2( 5 9*"(. Not!in) in t!is section s!all #e construed to ro!i#it t!e state olice $rom rosecutin) any %iolation or misdemeanor in any district or munici al court in t!is state.*7

Interestin)ly, R2( section 7&,&6"a does not e> ressly aut!ori0e olice rosecution.*9 On t!e contrary, t!e statute aut!ori0es towns to a oint munici al rosecutors*C and only mentions t!e a#ility o$ olice o$$icers to rosecute in assin).*@ Furt!ermore, t!e le)islature clearly articulates in R2( section 7&,&6"a t!at a ointed munici al rosecutors s!ould #e A3uali$ied mem#ers o$ t!e New Ham s!ire #ar.B *< In essence, w!ile t!is statute does not eradicate olice rosecution, *; it does encoura)e a )radual dissolution o$ t!e ractice. T!is is e%ident $rom t!e $act t!at t!e statute allows munici alities to s!are a rosecutor. 76 2uc! an e>ce tion ro%ides a cost e$$ecti%e alternati%e to olice rosecution $or smaller localities. T!e $inal ortion o$ R2( section 7&,&6"a )i%es some insi)!t into !ow t!e Feneral Court mi)!t en%ision t!e $uture o$ olice rosecution in New Ham s!ire. H!ile t!e o%erall conte>t o$ t!e statute $a%ors an end to t!e ractice o$ local olice a)encies rosecutin) t!eir own crimes, it also e> ressly rotects t!e ri)!t o$ New Ham s!ire state troo ers to continue rosecutin) crimes in district courts. 7& T!ere$ore, t!e o%erall intent o$ t!e
8Lan. *& '6&&, &',** 42T: 8on $ile wit! aut!or:. *' . See s#"ra 1art II.(. ** . -etter $rom 1!ili T. .c-au)!lin, (ttorney Fen. o$ N.H., to -auren L. Noet!er, 4s3., /elkna Co. (ttorney 8Lune '<, '66': 8on $ile wit! t!e aut!or: D!ereina$ter -etter $rom 1!ili T. .c-au)!linK. *7 . See N.H. R4=. 2T(T. (NN. 5 7&,&6"a 8-e>isNe>is '6&&: 8im lyin) aut!ori0ation o$ olice rosecution: 8em !asis added:. *9 . Id. *C . Id. *@ . See id. *< . Id. *; . See id. 76 . Id. 7& . See id.

<< CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT D=ol. *<,**; statute seems to $a%or limitin) olice rosecution to state and not local a)encies. T!is %iew makes sense w!en considered in li)!t o$ ot!er le)islation a$$ordin) rosecutorial owers to s eci$ic state a)encies, suc! as Fis! and Fame7' and t!e -i3uor Commission.7* T!us, w!ile t!e state le)islature !as not eliminated olice rosecution alto)et!er, its intent seems to #e to limit its sco e and, ultimately, disen)a)e local olice a)encies $rom t!e ractice.77 Doin) so would undou#tedly !el reconcile rosecution ractices in New Ham s!ire wit! R2( section *&&,@, w!ic! ro!i#its t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law. 79 C. T!e (ttorney Feneral+s O$$icial 2tatement on 1olice 1rosecution On Lune '<, '66', (ttorney Feneral 1!ili T. .c-au)!lin o$$ered !is o$$icial inter retation o$ R2( section 7&,&6"a #y releasin) an internal memorandum to New Ham s!ire County (ttorneys, as well as .unici al 1rosecutors.7C T!is o inion letter e> lained t!e !istory and role o$ olice rosecutors in New Ham s!ire.7@ -ike t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court and t!e Feneral Court, .c-au)!lin rea$$irmed t!at olice o$$icers could still rosecute %iolations and certain misdemeanors. 7< Howe%er, t!e tone o$ .c-au)!lin+s memorandum tended to $a%or t!e le)islature+s encoura)ement in R2( section 7&,&6"a to !a%e towns !ire munici al rosecutors.7; T!e Feneral Court, .c-au)!lin e> lained, enacted t!e statute in &;@@ in order to Amo%e away $rom t!e use o$ olice rosecutors.B96 T!e reason $or t!is was t!at Adistrict court rosecution D!adK #ecDoKme increasin)ly com le> and time consumin).B 9& In ot!er words, t!e Feneral Court 3uestioned t!e a#ility o$ t!e olice rosecutor to com etently re resent t!e state in w!at !ad #ecome com le> le)al matters.9' H!ile t!e (ttorney Feneral a eared to take a neutral role in con%eyin)
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. Id. 5 '6C,'C. . Id. 5 &@;,9;. 77 . See id. 5 7&,&6"a 8'66;:. 79 . See id. 5 *&&,@"a to $ 8'669:. Currently, New Ham s!ire reconciles t!e ractice o$ olice rosecution wit! R2( 5 *&&,@ %ia judicial inter retation o$ t!e statute. See ,ilodea#, 799 (.'d at &67&. In ,ilodea#, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court e>amined R2( 5 *&&,@ in a conte>t unrelated to olice rosecution, #ut still s eci$ically Area$$irmDedK t!e ri)!t o$ law en$orcement o$$icers to "rose&#te criminal cases on #e!al$ o$ t!e 2tateB in its !oldin). Id. 7C . -etter $rom 1!ili T. .c-au)!lin, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound. 7@ . See enerall) id. 7< . Id. at '. 7; . Id. 96 . Id. 9& . Id. 9' . See id.

'6&'K NE* +AM$S+IRE $OLICE $ROSECUTORS <; t!is in$ormation to a)encies statewide, !is o inion !id in t!e enum#ras o$ t!e memorandum. For e>am le, .c-au)!lin noted, A.ost New Ham s!ire cities and a lar)e num#er o$ towns !a%e e>ercised 7&,&6"a . . . and currently em loy attorneys as rosecutors.B9* T!is statement, w!ile )enerally neutral, su))ested t!at, in .c-au)!lin+s %iew, olice rosecution in localities was 3uickly #ecomin) a $eature o$ t!e ast. 2econd, .c-au)!lin or)ani0ed t!e memorandum into t!e $ollowin) sections, New Ham s!ire -aw, C!an)es in 1ractice, .unici al 1rosecutors, De artment o$ 2a$ety 1rosecutors, ()ency 1rosecutors, 1u#lic (ccounta#ility, 2u er%isory (ut!ority, T!e Domain o$ 1olice C!ie$s, 1rosecutorial Discretion in C!ar)in) Decisions, and t!e Conclusion.97 H!ile munici al rosecutors, state troo ers, and a)ency rosecutors 8e.). li3uor ins ectors, $orest ran)ers, etc.: recei%ed an entire section dedicated to t!eir rosecutorial owers and res onsi#ilities, 99 local a)ency olice o$$icers did not. 9C T!ese su#tle in$erences wit!in t!e memorandum indicate t!at t!e (ttorney Feneral+s O$$ice ro#a#ly a)reed wit! t!e Feneral Court+s o#jecti%e in R2( section 7&,&6"a o$ )radually re lacin) olice rosecutors wit! munici al rosecutors. III. 1O-IC4 1RO24CUTION (ND TH4 1OT4NTI(- 1RO/-4.2 TH4 1R(CTIC4 R(I242 (. 1olice 1rosecutor Muali$ication and t!e Unaut!ori0ed 1ractice o$ -aw Former C!ie$ Lustice /ur)er once said, A1olicemen do not !a%e t!e time, inclination, or trainin) to read and )ras t!e nuances o$ t!e a ellate o inions t!at ultimately de$ine t!e standards o$ conduct t!ey are to $ollow.B9@ T!ose o osed to olice rosecution would ro#a#ly a)ree wit! t!e $ormer C!ie$ Lustice and ar)ue t!at !is lo)ic a lies to olice conduct in t!e courtroom as well. Indeed, ro#a#ly t!e most common sense ar)ument t!at can #e directed a)ainst olice rosecution is t!at olice o$$icers are not 3uali$ied to #e lawyers, e%en in district court. T!is ar)ument seems articularly stron) w!en considered in t!e ost"R2( section 7&,&6"a conte>t, w!ere c!an)es in t!e law !a%e resulted in lon)er and more com licated district court rosecutions. 9< Does t!is mean t!at non"#ar certi$ied olice rosecutors en)a)e in t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ lawE
9* 97

. Id. . See enerall) id. 99 . See id. at *. 9C . See enerall) id. at '. 9@ . /i%ens %. 2i> Unknown Named ()ents o$ Fed. /ureau o$ Narcotics, 76* U.2. *<<, 7&@ 8&;@&: 8/ur)er, C.L., dissentin):. 9< . -etter $rom 1!ili T. .c-au)!lin, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound, at '.

;6

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CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Trainin)

D=ol. *<,**;

T!e 2tate o$ New Ham s!ire !as no statutory re3uirement t!at all olice o$$icers recei%e trainin) in rosecution. 9; Ne%ert!eless, t!e New Ham s!ire 1olice 2tandards and Trainin) Council o$$ers a num#er o$ electi%e courses on rosecution to olice o$$icers w!o wis! to su lement t!e #asic trainin) t!ey recei%ed w!ile attendin) t!e olice academy. C6 T!e %arious classes tau)!t include two sur%ey courses on olice rosecution, a class on e%idence, and one addressin) t!e to ics o$ oral ar)ument and courtroom conduct.C& O$ t!ese classes, t!e two most o ular are, unsur risin)ly, t!e sur%ey courses.C' T!ese two courses are entitled AO$$icer as t!e 1rosecutorBC* and A/asic 1olice 1rosecution.BC7 AO$$icer as t!e 1rosecutorB is t!e s!orter o$ t!e two )eneric rosecutorial classes.C9 It lasts two days and co%ers a wide %ariety o$ im ortant le)al to ics and ractices.CC Day one #e)ins wit! a #asic o%er%iew o$ t!e role o$ t!e olice rosecutor in district court. C@ Followin) t!at introduction, o$$icers recei%e trainin) in ways to conduct le)al researc! and inter ret cases and an o%er%iew o$ ertinent rules o$ e%idence. C< T!e second art o$ day one re ares t!e o$$icer $or t!e actual trial. C; T!e o$$icer learns %arious ty es o$ motions? a#out t!e court com laint 8includin) its re3uirements and )eneral rules on statutes o$ limitations:? w!at occurs at a #ail !earin)? !ow to roceed at trial? and w!at a lea a)reement is. @6 Day two o$ t!e course $ocuses on teac!in) t!e o$$icer !ow to rosecute at an (dministrati%e
9;

. Tele !one Inter%iew wit! -t. .ark /odan0a, Instructor, New Ham s!ire 1olice 2tandards and Trainin) 8Fe#. &<, '6&&: 8notes on $ile wit! t!e aut!or:. (ll New Ham s!ire olice cadets recei%e #asic trainin) in t!e rules o$ e%idence and rele%ant statutory aut!ority w!en attendin) t!e olice academy. Id. Howe%er, only 2tate troo ers and olice o$$icers $or s eci$ic state a)encies like t!e -i3uor Commission and t!e Forest 2er%ices recei%e s ecial in"!ouse trainin) $or t!e articular ty es o$ rosecution t!ey conduct on a re)ular #asis. Id. T!is means t!at, t!eoretically, a olice o$$icer could rosecute certain misdemeanors and %iolations wit!out any courtroom e> erience or trainin) i$ allowed #y t!e de artment. Id. C6 . Id.? see also N.H. 1O-IC4 2T(ND(RD2 (ND TR(ININF COUNCI- , TR(ININF C(-4ND(R &6, '9 8'6&&:, available at !tt ,JJwww. stc.n!.)o%JTrainin)Calendar. d$ D!ereina$ter C(-4ND(RK. C& . Inter%iew wit! -t. .ark /odan0a, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound. C' . Id. C* . See C(-4ND(R, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound, at '9. C7 . See id. at &6. C9 . Co'"are id. at &6, (it! id. at '9. CC . -t. .ark /odan0a, O$$icer as t!e 1rosecutor &"' 8'6&6: 8un u#lis!ed sylla#us: 8on $ile wit! t!e aut!or:. C@ . Id. C< . Id. C; . Id. @6 . Id.

'6&'K NE* +AM$S+IRE $OLICE $ROSECUTORS ;& -icense 2us ension !earin) and a %iolation"le%el case. @& 4ssentially, all o$ t!e in$ormation learned on day one is )eared toward assistin) t!e o$$icer in re arin) $or and conductin) t!e ty es o$ !earin)s e> lained on day two o$ t!e course.@' T!e A/asic 1rosecutor CourseB co%ers all t!e material in AO$$icer as t!e 1rosecutorB more t!orou)!ly o%er a ten"day, si>ty"!our time s an.@* (lso discussed in t!is sur%ey course are t!e su#jects o$ e%idence, t!e e>clusionary rule and its relations!i to t!e Fourt! and Fi$t! (mendments, domestic %iolence law, and ju%enile law. @7 (t t!e end o$ t!is course, all t!e o$$icers artici ate in a criminal mock trial and take a written $inal e>am.@9 '. (de3uacy o$ trainin) and t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law

Des ite -ieutenant /odan0a+s su er# e$$orts, olice o$$icers still recei%e, at #est, minimal trainin) to er$orm t!e $unctions o$ a rosecutor. 1olice o$$icers are trained rimarily to en$orce t!e law, not ractice it, and $ourteen days wort! o$ rosecutorial trainin) does not c!an)e t!is $act. Indeed, t!e United 2tates 2u reme Court !as made clear in dicta t!at t!ere e>ists a su#stantial di$$erence #etween t!e role o$ lawyers and olice o$$icers in t!e le)al world. @C Furt!ermore, t!e Court !as also consistently su))ested t!at a olice o$$icer+s knowled)e o$ t!e law is less com re!ensi%e t!an a lawyer+s. @@ T!e Court+s osition seems justi$ied in li)!t o$ t!e di$$erent le)al work er$ormed #y t!ese two ro$essions and t!e amount and ty e o$ le)al trainin) eac! recei%es. ( com arison o$ t!e le)al trainin) o$ a New Ham s!ire /ar certi$ied attorney and an o$$icer c!oosin) to attend New Ham s!ire 1olice 2tandards and Trainin) !i)!li)!ts t!e %ast di$$erence in re aration. For e>am le, an as irin) New Ham s!ire attorney must success$ully com lete
@& @'

. Id. . Id. @* . -t. .ark /odan0a, /asic 1rosecutor Course 8'6&6: 8un u#lis!ed sylla#us: 8on $ile wit! t!e aut!or:. @7 . Id. @9 . Id. @C . See United 2tates %. -eon, 7C< U.2. <;@, ;''"'* n.'* 8&;<7:? ,ivens, 76* U.2. at 7&@ 8/ur)er, C.L., dissentin):. @@ . For e>am le, in United States v. Leon, t!e majority im lied a distinction #etween t!e le)al knowled)e #ases o$ a olice o$$icer and a lawyer #y creatin) a test t!at asked Aw!et!er a reasona#ly well trained o$$icer would !a%e known t!at t!e searc! was ille)al des ite t!e ma)istrate+s aut!ori0ation.B Leon, 7C< U.2. at ;''"'* n.'*. 4ssentially, t!e Court set $ort! t!at, i$ a ma)istrate misses an error on a warrant and t!e error is not e)re)ious, a court entertainin) a Fourt! (mendment com laint #ased on t!e de$iciency o$ t!at warrant s!ould resume t!at t!e olice o$$icer reasona#ly relied on t!e le)al e> ertise o$ t!e ma)istrate w!o determined t!e warrant was %alid w!en decidin) w!et!er to a ly t!e e>clusionary rule. Id. /y all means, t!is rule assumes t!at olice o$$icers !a%e a less com re!ensi%e understandin) o$ t!e law t!an trained attorneys and judicial o$$icials. Id.

;' CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT D=ol. *<,**; t!ree years o$ sc!oolin) at an (/( accredited institution and ass t!e New Ham s!ire /ar as well as an et!ics e>amination #e$ore racticin) law. @< Furt!ermore, t!e su#jects o$ law t!at -t. /odan0a co%ers in less t!an t!ree weeks at olice rosecutor sc!ool are ty ically re3uired, semester"lon) courses $or law students@; and are tau)!t #y attorneys. <6 (ttorneys as irin) to #ecome criminal rosecutors usually !a%e t!e o tion o$ takin) ad%anced criminal rocedure courses, as well as clinics in criminal law and e%idence.<& T!is means t!at t!e trainin) a #ar certi$ied attorney recei%es in t!e ractice o$ law is $ar more t!orou)! t!an trainin) any olice o$$icer could o#tain a$ter t!ree weeks o$ sc!oolin) at New Ham s!ire 1olice 2tandards and Trainin). 2ome jurisdictions re3uire attorneys to under)o )ruelin) trainin) in order to rotect t!e u#lic $rom incom etence in #ot! t!e ci%il and criminal justice systems. <' /y allowin) less 3uali$ied olice rosecutors to ractice law, New Ham s!ire e> oses its citi0enry to a $ar )reater c!ance o$ encounterin) incom etence in t!e criminal justice system t!an most states. -ike most states, New Ham s!ire ro!i#its t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law in an attem t to rotect its citi0enry $rom incom etence in t!e justice system.<* T!e New Ham s!ire Feneral Court !as !el ed de$ine t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law #y enactin) R2( section *&&,@. <7 T!e $irst and second su#sections o$ statute reads,
I. U on t!e attorney )eneral+s own in$ormation or u on com laint o$ any erson, includin) any jud)e or any or)ani0ed #ar association in t!is state, t!e attorney )eneral may maintain an action $or injuncti%e relie$ in t!e su reme or su erior court a)ainst any erson w!o renders, o$$ers to render, or !olds !imsel$ or !ersel$ out as renderin) any ser%ice w!ic! constitutes t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ t!e law. (ny or)ani0ed #ar association in t!is state may inter%ene in t!e action, at any sta)e o$ t!e roceedin), $or )ood cause s!own. II. T!e action may also #e maintained #y t!e #ar association o$ t!e state o$ New Ham s!ire.<9
@<

. Ne( +a'"s!ire ,ar Ad'ission% /eneral Infor'ation, N.H. LUD. /R(NCH, !tt ,JJwww.courts.state.n!.usJn!#arJinde>.!tm 8last %isited Oct. &9, '6&&:. @; . See. e. ., La( Co#rse Des&ri"tions, N4H 4NF-(ND -(H N /O2TON, !tt ,JJwww.nesl.eduJstudentsJre)istrarOcourses.c$m 8last %isited Oct. &9, '6&&:. <6 . See. e. ., F#ll Ti'e Fa&#lt), N4H 4NF-(ND -(H N /O2TON, !tt ,JJwww.nesl.eduJ $acultyJ$ullOtime.c$m 8last %isited Oct. &9, '6&&:. <& . See. e. ., La( Co#rse Des&ri"tion, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound. <' . 2T41H4N FI--4R2, R4FU-(TION OF -(HG4R2, 1RO/-4.2 OF -(H (ND 4THIC2 C7< 8<t! ed. '66;:. <* . See N.H. R4=. 2T(T. 5 *&&,@ 8'66;:. <7 . See id. <9 . Id. 5 *&&,@"a.

'6&'K NE* +AM$S+IRE $OLICE $ROSECUTORS ;* /y a$$ordin) all #ar or)ani0ations standin), R2( section *&&,@ makes clear t!at one o$ its ur oses is to rotect t!e sanctity o$ t!e le)al ro$ession.<C T!e statute also e> lains t!at only #ar certi$ied New Ham s!ire attorneys are 3uali$ied to ractice law in t!e state. <@ New Ham s!ire olice o$$icers, unless #ar certi$ied, do not meet t!is de$inition. T!ere$ore, a lain readin) o$ t!e statute s!ows t!at olice rosecutors en)a)e in t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law. (ware o$ t!is inconsistency, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court reconciled R2( section *&&,@ wit! t!e 2tate+s continued ractice o$ allowin) olice o$$icers to rosecute t!eir own cases in ,ilodea# v. Antal.<< T!e court e> lained t!at determinations o$ w!et!er a erson or entity en)a)ed in t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law s!ould #e made on a case"#y" case #asis.<; In drawin) t!is conclusion, t!e court $ailed to ro%ide any de$inite $actors $or determinin) %iolations, lea%in) #road discretion to lower court jud)es to decide w!et!er a certain incident was t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law. ;6 T!e actual ortion o$ t!e statute, w!ic! de$ined t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law, was su$$iciently %a)ue enou)! $or t!e court to justi$y its !oldin). ;& 4%en t!ou)! ,ilodea# dealt wit! t!e ri)!t o$ a medical e> ert to ractice law, t!e court ne%ert!eless Area$$irmDedK t!e ri)!t o$ law en$orcement o$$icers to "rose&#te criminal cases on #e!al$ o$ t!e 2tateB in dicta.;' /y makin) t!is oint w!en it was not at issue in t!e case, t!e justices im liedly acknowled)ed t!at olice rosecution $it R2( section *&&,@+s de$inition o$ t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law. ;* /. Due 1rocess Concerns ( natural result o$ allowin) olice o$$icers to en)a)e in t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law is a su#stantial increase in t!e likeli!ood t!at due rocess %iolations will occur durin) ad%ersarial roceedin)s. ;7 De$endants deser%e ade3uate due rocess re)ardless o$ t!e nature o$ t!eir o$$ense, ;9 and suc! ri)!ts s!ould include #ein) rosecuted #y a com etently trained lawyer w!o !as no su#stantially %ested interest in t!e rosecution and will not act
<C <@

. See 5 *&&,@. . Id. << . ,ilodea#, 799 (.'d at &67&. <; . Id. ;6 . Id. ;& . T!e statute reads, ADNKo erson s!all #e ermitted commonly to ractice as an attorney in court unless !e !as #een admitted #y t!e court and taken t!e oat! rescri#ed in R2( 5 *&&,C.B 5 *&&,@. ;' . ,ilodea#, 799 (.'d at &67&. ;* . See id. ;7 . See. e. ., N4/. 2U1. CT. R., 5*"96&.@ ACon$lict o$ InterestB 8'6&':. ;9 . See U.2. CON2T. amend. PI= 8statin) t!at a 2tate s!all not deny A an) erson o$ li$e, li#erty or ro erty wit!out due rocess o$ lawB: 8em !asis added:.

;7 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT D=ol. *<,**; as a witness a)ainst t!e de$endant at trial. ;C ( olice o$$icer+s inade3uate trainin) and e> erience in t!e courtroom cou led wit! t!eir un#ridled ower to #ot! en$orce and rosecute t!e law %iolates $undamental rinci les o$ (merican democracy and a de$endant+s due rocess ri)!ts. ;@ &. Ri)!t to a com etent rosecutor

In State v. Rollins, Lustice 2outer e> lained t!at in New Ham s!ire, Aan a ointed or elected rosecutor is a#solutely immune $rom lia#ility arisin) $rom t!e institution o$ a criminal action and t!e resentation o$ t!e 2tate+s e%idence.B;< He justi$ied t!is rule #y statin) t!at A rosecutorial immunity strikes a #alance #etween t!e com etin) e%ils o$ lea%in) t!e wron)ly rosecuted de$endant wit!out le)al recourse, and su#jectin) t!e conscientious rosecutor to t!e constant t!reat o$ lia#ility in t!e a$termat! o$ e%ery ac3uittal.B;; Unmentioned in 2outer+s lo)ic is t!e resum tion underlyin) it, t!at t!ose rosecutin) crimes !a%e ade3uate e> erience and trainin) in t!e ractice o$ law. &66 Frantin) a#solute immunity to indi%iduals w!o !a%e minimal trainin) and e> erience in t!e ractice o$ law would de$eat t!e ur ose o$ t!e rule, w!ic! is to make sure t!at a com etent rosecutor can Amake discretionary decisions a$ter e%aluations o$ e%idence t!at will #e su#ject to !onest dis ute in close cases Dwit!outK . . . t!e t!reat o$ a dama)e action D$rom t!e de$endantK.B&6& H!en olice o$$icers, w!om t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court im lies are inade3uately trained under R2( section *&&,@, &6' act as rosecutors, a lication o$ t!e rule in Rollins is unjusti$ied. T!e de$endant+s interest in !a%in) le)al recourse i$ t!e rosecutor errs )rows e> onentially, as does t!e likeli!ood t!at t!e rosecutor will not er$orm !is duties ro erly. &6* T!e !armonic A#alance #etween t!e com etin) e%ilsB descri#ed #y Lustice 2outer no lon)er e>ists w!en t!e rosecutor is a non"#ar certi$ied olice o$$icer.&67 In s!ort, t!ese de%elo ments a$$ect t!e likeli!ood t!at t!e de$endant will not recei%e due rocess, &69 es ecially i$ t!e de$endant is ro se.&6C For e>am le, unless t!e jud)e acts as more t!an a disinterested mediator in t!ese situations, olice rosecutors may introduce e%idence
;C ;@

. See Horwit0, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound, at &*@C"@<. . See discussion infra 1art III./. ;< . 2tate %. Rollins, 9** (.'d **&, **' 8N.H. &;<@:. ;; . Id. &66 . See enerall) id. &6& . Id. &6' . See s#"ra 1art III.(.'? ,ilodea#, 799 (.'d at &67&. &6* . See s#"ra 1art III.(.'. &67 . See Rollins, 9** (.'d at **'. &69 . See id. &6C . Common sense dictates t!at a de$endant wit! no le)al counsel and no le)al trainin) is less likely to construct constitutional ar)uments t!at will e>clude rele%ant e%idence $rom !is trial.

'6&'K NE* +AM$S+IRE $OLICE $ROSECUTORS ;9 o#tained t!rou)! %iolations o$ t!e de$endant+s constitutional ri)!ts and $ear no su#stantial recourse.&6@ '. Ri)!t to #e arrested and rosecuted #y se arate entities

(s Lustice 2outer e> lained in Rollins, one reason $or esta#lis!in) a#solute rosecutorial immunity is to insulate rosecutors $rom outside in$luence and, t!us, encoura)e t!em to make im artial decisions. &6< Des ite su ortin) t!is ro osition, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court !as re$used to acknowled)e t!at it cannot reconcile a#solute rosecutorial immunity wit! olice rosecution. &6; Indeed, t!e %ery idea o$ olice rosecution runs counter to Ro o(i&- v. O0Connell, w!ere t!e court !eld t!at courts may not a oint t!e re resentati%e o$ an interested erson to rosecute criminal actions.&&6 In Ro o(i&-, a county rosecutor mistook a criminal contem t case as #ein) Aci%il in natureB and decided not to rosecute it.&&& Followin) t!is de%elo ment, t!e director o$ New Ham s!ire+s -e)al (ssistance Domestic =iolence 1roject $iled an a earance on #e!al$ o$ t!e woman seekin) rosecution o$ t!e contem t c!ar)e.&&' T!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court deemed t!is ractice im ro er, and e> lained t!at a rosecutor could not ser%e Atwo masters,B &&* in t!is case t!e 2tate and t!e lainti$$, #ecause a rosecutor A!as a duty to t!e u#lic to ac!ie%e justice and a duty to t!e de$endant Dw!oK . . . Qis entitled to a $ull measure o$ $airness.+B&&7 Unlike munici al rosecutors, olice rosecutors !a%e Atwo"mastersB, t!e court and t!eir c!ie$.&&9 ( olice c!ie$ !as in$luence o%er su#ordinate o$$icers and a %ested interest in ensurin) t!at t!e olice a)ency+s er$ormance meets t!e locality+s e> ectations. &&C T!e c!ie$ also knows t!at one way to measure olice er$ormance is #y !ow many in%esti)ations lead

&6@

. H!ile t!e same can #e said o$ a oorly"trained lawyer, 1art III.(.& makes clear t!at olice rosecutors recei%e $ar less trainin) t!an a #ar certi$ied attorney. See s#"ra 1art III.(.& and accom anyin) te>t. T!ere$ore, t!e likeli!ood o$ error dramatically increases. See id. &6< . Rollins, 9** (.'d at **'. &6; . See Ro)owic0 %. O+Connell, @<C (.'d <7&, <77"79 8N.H. '66&:. &&6 . Id. &&& . Id. at <7'. &&' . Id. &&* . Id. at <7', <77. &&7 . Id. at <77. &&9 . See. e. .. DUTI42 (ND R421ON2I/I-ITI42 OF TH4 1O-IC4 CHI4F R4N2INFTON, N4H H(.12HIR4, !tt ,JJwww.town.kensin)ton.n!.usJ oliceJDuties.!tm 8last %isited Lan. &*, '6&': D!ereina$ter DUTI42 (ND R421ON2I/I-ITI42K. T!is jo# descri tion s!ows t!at rosecutin) olice o$$icers, unlike munici al rosecutors, must answer to t!e aut!ority o$ t!e olice c!ie$, not just t!e court. Id. &&C . See id.

;C CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT D=ol. *<,**; to rosecution.&&@ 2ince no se aration e>ists #etween law en$orcement and rosecution w!en olice o$$icers rosecute, t!e olice c!ie$ may dictate w!at in%esti)ations will #e rosecuted #ecause t!e olice c!ie$ !as direct aut!ority o%er all o$$icers.&&< T!e #reakdown in t!e di%ide #etween rosecution and en$orcement o$ t!e law jeo ardi0es t!e rosecutor+s a#ility to act im artially in makin) decisions and runs counter to t!e se aration o$ owers doctrine,&&; w!ic! is a $undamental tenet o$ (merican democracy.&'6 It also means t!at neit!er t!e rosecutor nor olice a)ency !a%e an outside c!eck on eac! ot!er w!en #rin)in) and rosecutin) c!ar)es, #ecause t!ey are one"in"t!e"same and su er%ised #y t!e olice c!ie$.&'& T!is, in turn, ultimately %iolates a de$endant+s due rocess ri)!ts, #ecause it remo%es $rom t!e judicial roceedin)s t!e A$ull measure o$ $airnessB romised #y t!e Ro o(i&- court.&'' *. Ri)!t to not #e rosecuted #y t!e witness a)ainst you

4liminatin) t!e #oundary #etween rosecutor and law en$orcement also allows t!e olice rosecutor to testi$y a)ainst t!e de$endant. &'* In La $al'e and Aberi-k, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court !eld t!at it was ermissi#le $or a rosecutin) o$$icer to testi$y as a material witness a)ainst t!e de$endant.&'7 In Aberi-k, t!e court $ound t!at it did not de ri%e t!e de$endant o$ a $air trial #ecause At!e witness" rosecutor $ollowed a traditional rocedure.B T!is distin)uis!ed t!e situation $rom cases in ot!er jurisdictions w!ere t!e ractice !ad #een c!aracteri0ed as a due rocess %iolation.&'9 I$ anyt!in), t!e court+s rationale seems lackin) #ecause #ot! t!e United 2tates 2u reme Court and t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court !a%e !eld traditional ractices to #e unconstitutional in t!e ast. &'C In $act, in State v. Martinea#, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court !eld t!at t!e traditional ractice o$ allowin) ri%ate citi0ens to rosecute o$$enses did not a ly to o$$enses carryin) a otential rison sentence o$ u to one
&&@

. See. e. .. 1O-IC4 -OF, TOHN OF C(.1TON N.H. 1O-IC4 D41(RT.4NT , !tt ,JJwww.cam tonn! d.or)Jw Jarrests"and"acti%ityJ 8last %isited Dec. '7, '6&&:. T!e $act t!at t!e olice de artment lists its arrest lo) online indicates t!at it understands t!at t!e community jud)es olice er$ormance at least in art on arrests and success$ul con%ictions. &&< . See DUTI42 (ND R421ON2I/I-ITI42, s#"ra note &&9. &&; . See Rollins, 9** (.'d at **'. &'6 . See Lo!n F. .annin), Se"aration of $o(ers as Ordinar) Inter"retation , &'7 H(R=. -. R4=. &;*;, &;7' 8'6&&:. &'& . See DUTI42 (ND R421ON2I/I-ITI42, s#"ra note &&9. &'' . See Ro o(i&-, @<C (.'d at <77. &'* . See La $al'e, &@; (.'d at '<9. &'7 . See id.? Aberi-k, *79 (.'d at 76<. &'9 . Aberi-k, *79 (.'d at 76<. &'C . See. e. ., /rown %. /d. o$ 4duc., *7@ U.2. 7<* 8&;97:? 2tate %. .artineau, <6< (.'d 9&, 97 8N.H. '66':.

'6&'K NE* +AM$S+IRE $OLICE $ROSECUTORS ;@ year.&'@ In a concurrin) o inion, Lustice Nadeau e> lained t!e rationale $or eliminatin) ri%ate rosecutions in statin) t!at ADjKusti$ication $or suc! rosecutions, . . . i$ DitK e%er e>isted, does not e>ist today. He no lon)er !a%e justice o$ t!e eace courts, nor do we en)a)e in unis!ment #y w!i in), or #y settin) in t!e stocks.B &'< Lustice Nadeau+s lo)ic s!ould a ly to olice rosecution. In $act, i$ t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court ado ted Nadeau+s osition on ri%ate rosecution wit! res ect to olice rosecution, it would reconcile inconsistencies wit!in its own case law and con$orm wit! t!e Feneral Court+s us! to re lace olice rosecutors wit! munici al rosecutors.&'; Traditional or not, allowin) rosecutors to also act as material witnesses a)ainst de$endants %iolates due rocess #ecause it remo%es im artiality $rom t!e rosecutorial decision"makin) rocess. &*6 It asks t!e olice o$$icer to se arate !is duties as t!e arrestin) o$$icer and material witness $or t!e state $rom !is duty to t!e court to im artially e%aluate t!e e%idence in $ront o$ !im and decide w!et!er to mo%e $orward wit! t!e case. &*& H!ile olice rosecution may !a%e assed muster in t!e early (merican eriod descri#ed #y Lustice Nadeau, it no lon)er does now t!at t!e rocess is more com licated and time consumin).&*' C. Disci line, 1olice 1rosecutors, 1rosecutorial Immunity, and t!e New Ham s!ire Rules o$ 1ro$essional Conduct

(lt!ou)! Rollins made clear t!at rosecutors were entitled to a#solute immunity $rom ci%il lia#ility, it did not!in) to cur# t!e New Ham s!ire
&'@ &'<

. Martinea#, <6< (.'d at 97. . Id. at 99. &'; . Aberi-k allows olice rosecution, an e3ually e)re)ious %iolation o$ due rocess, to occur under t!e rationale t!at it is a traditional ractice. See Aberi-k, *79 (.'d at 76<? R2( 5 7&,&6"a 8s!owin) t!e le)islature+s intent to )radually re lace local olice rosecutors wit! munici al rosecutors:? -etter to 1!ili T. .c-au)!lin, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound. &*6 . Rule *.@ o$ T!e New Ham s!ire Rules o$ 1ro$essional Conduct ro!i#its #ar certi$ied attorneys $rom actin) as #ot! witness and attorney in a case #ecause it creates a con$lict o$ interest t!at could %iolate a de$endant+s due rocess ri)!ts. See N.H. RU-42 OF 1ROF+CONDUCT R. *.@ 8'6&&"'6&':, available at !tt ,JJwww.courts.state.n!.usJrulesJ conJ con"*O@.!tm. Non"#ar certi$ied olice rosecutors must #e !eld to t!is same standard, ot!erwise t!e 2tate would %iolate t!e Fourteent! (mendment 43ual 1rotection Clause #y a$$ordin) similarly situated criminal de$endants di$$erent le%els o$ due rocess. Cle#urn %. Cle#urn -i%in) Ctr., Inc., 7@* U.2. 7*', 7*; 8&;<9: 8statin) t!at t!e e3ual rotection clause s!ould #e read to mean t!at t!e )o%ernment must )i%e e3ual rotection under t!e law to ersons similarly situated:. &*& . Co'"are N.H. RU-42 OF 1ROF+- CONDUCT, s#"ra note &*6 and Rollins, 9** (.'d at **'. &*' . -etter $rom 1!ili T. .c-au)!lin, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source

;< CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT D=ol. *<,**; /ar (ssociation $rom disci linin) a rosecutin) attorney $or misconduct. &** .em#ers o$ t!e New Ham s!ire /ar are su#ject to t!e New Ham s!ire Rules o$ 1ro$essional Conduct.&*7 T!is means t!at, w!ile t!e rule in Rollins rotects t!e rosecutor $rom outside in$luence, it does not simultaneously a$$ord !im $ree rei)n to a#use !is ower. &*9 1olice rosecutors, on t!e ot!er !and, unless #ar certi$ied, are not su#ject to t!e New Ham s!ire Rules o$ 1ro$essional Conduct.&*C 1olice o$$icers, !owe%er, do !a%e a duty to t!eir a)ency, w!ic! can re rimand t!em $or misconduct. &*@ In most cases, t!e olice rosecutor+s c!ie$ would e>ercise t!is unis!ment. &*< T!is is ro#lematic $or two reasons, in some instances t!e olice c!ie$ is t!e olice rosecutor,&*; and, i$ not, t!e olice rosecutor and c!ie$ may !a%e a close relations!i $rom workin) to)et!er.&76 In eit!er instance, a artial decision" maker re%iews t!e o$$icer+s conduct, instead o$ a neutral #ody. &7& T!is ractice %iolates t!e se aration o$ owers doctrine and t!e c!ecks and #alances rocedure, #ot! o$ w!ic! are $undamental rinci les o$ democracy. In s!ort, allowin) olice rosecution creates a con$lict o$ interest $or t!e rosecutin) o$$icer at t!e local"le%el and, in turn, makes t!e New Ham s!ire criminal justice system a ear ille)itimate. &7' I$ Rollins a$$ords olice rosecutors a#solute immunity, t!en no reasona#le c!eck e>ists on t!em to rotect a)ainst a#use o$ ower. I$ Rollins does not a$$ord olice rosecutors a#solute immunity, t!en t!ey s!ould #e considered ri%ate rosecutors under Ro o(i&- and Martinea#. I=. 2O-UTION, 4ND 1O-IC4 1RO24CUTION T!e New Ham s!ire (ttorney Feneral and t!e New Ham s!ire -e)islature !a%e made it clear t!at t!ey %iew t!e days o$ local olice
not $ound, at '. &** . See Rollins, 9** (.'d at **'. &*7 . See N.H. RU-42 OF 1ROF+- CONDUCT, s#"ra note &*6. &*9 . See Rollins, 9** (.'d at **' &*C . See N.H. RU-42 OF 1ROF+- CONDUCT, s#"ra note &*6. &*@ . See Horwit0, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound, at &*&&"&'. &*< . N.H. RU-42 OF 1ROF+- CONDUCT, s#"ra note &*6. &*; . See. e. ., C!ief *arn, TOHN OF C(.1TON N.H. 1O-IC4, !tt ,JJwww.cam tonn! d.or)Jw J ersonnelJc!ie$"warn"'J 8last %isited Oct. @, '6&&:. &76 . 1olice O$$icers, #ot! acti%e and retired, see t!emsel%es as a community and $riends!i s undou#tedly de%elo as a result, es ecially wit!in a)encies. See. e ., *!at0s Ne( at N+$A, N.H. 1O-IC4 (22+N, !tt ,JJwww.n! olice.netJinde>.c$m 8last %isited Lan. &*, '6&':. &7& . H!ile one could ar)ue t!at a lawsuit a)ainst t!e olice de artment ser%es as a c!eck on olice rosecutors, t!e $our"justice dissent written #y Lustice /reyer in +#dson v. Mi&!i an e> lains t!ese are inade3uate judicial remedies #ecause t!ey are time" consumin) and e> ensi%e. Hudson %. .ic!i)an, 97@ U.2. 9<C, C&6"&& 8'66C:. &7' . S#"ra 1art III.

'6&'K NE* +AM$S+IRE $OLICE $ROSECUTORS ;; rosecution as num#ered. &7* Get, t!irty"$i%e years a$ter t!e enactment o$ R2( section 7&,&6"a, olice rosecution remains a re%alent ractice in t!e state.&77 T!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court !as $ostered its continuation #y a$$irmin) olice rosecution a$ter t!e assa)e o$ R2( section 7&,&6"a, e%en w!ere it was not at issue.&79 T!is #e!a%ior #orders on le)islatin) $rom t!e #enc!, es ecially w!ere t!e court+s e> licit a$$irmation is incom ati#le wit! t!e Feneral Court+s direction $or t!e $uture. &7C Unless t!e court re%erses its osition on olice rosecution, t!e Feneral Court can only sal%a)e t!e intended %ision o$ R2( section 7&,&6"a #y enactin) $urt!er le)islation.&7@ To re%ent t!e ro#lems in!erent in olice rosecution $rom $urt!er jeo ardi0in) t!e sanctity o$ t!e New Ham s!ire judicial system, t!e Feneral Court must enact law t!at e> licitly ro!i#its local olice a)encies $rom rosecutin). (. Re%am in) 2ection 7&,&6"a

T!e le)islature could ro!i#it local olice o$$icers $rom rosecutin) cases wit!out makin) drastic c!an)es to R2( section 7&,&6"a. T!e statute currently aut!ori0es localities to !ire munici al rosecutors to $ul$ill t!e rosecutorial duties o$ local olice o$$icers. &7< .oreo%er, t!e statute also ro%ides an economically sound and judicially $air su#stitute to olice rosecution #y encoura)in) munici alities to s!are a sin)le rosecutor. &7; T!e Feneral Court could sim ly amend t!e statute #y remo%in) t!e words Ain t!e lace o$ olice o$$icersB&96 and t!us end t!e de#ate o%er w!et!er t!e le)islature im liedly aut!ori0ed olice rosecution. To #e unam#i)uous, t!e le)islature could e%en enact a se arate statute or create anot!er section $or section 7&,&6"a, w!ic! e> licitly ro!i#its olice o$$icers $rom ser%in) as rosecutors $or munici alities. T!is would re%ent local olice o$$icers $rom rosecutin) crimes in district court, w!ile still allowin) state troo ers and e> licitly aut!ori0ed state a)encies to continue rosecutin) under t!e e>ce tions mentioned in section 7&,&6"a.&9& 2uc! a statute would eit!er o%errule t!e Urban line o$ cases or narrow t!e a lication to state troo ers and statutorily aut!ori0ed state a)encies.

&7* &77

. See N.H. R4=. 2T(T. (NN. 5 7&,&6"a 8-e>isNe>is '66;:. . -etter $rom 1!ili T. .c-au)!lin, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound, at '. &79 . See ,ilodea#, 799 (.'d at &67& 8a$$irmin) olice rosecution si> years a$ter enactment o$ R2( 5 7&,&6"a:. &7C . Co'"are id., (it! N.H. R4=. 2T(T. (NN. 5 7&,&6"a. &7@ . Co'"are 5 7&,&6"a, (it! 2tate %. Ur#an, &66 (.'d at <;<";;. &7< . N.H. R4=. 2T(T. (NN. 5 7&,&6"a. &7; . Id. &96 . Id. &9& . Id.

&66

/.

CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT T!e /est 2olution

D=ol. *<,**;

4> licitly ro!i#itin) local olice rosecution is t!e #est solution #ecause it would encoura)e dis ensation o$ t!e same le%el o$ due rocess to de$endants in e%ery locality. Ha%in) #ar certi$ied attorneys ser%e as rosecutors in some munici alities and olice o$$icers in ot!ers does not )uarantee a consistent le%el o$ due rocess t!rou)!out t!e state. &9' Nor does it ro%ide t!e same le%el o$ due rocess )uaranteed #y t!e %ast majority o$ states, w!ic! ro!i#it olice rosecution. &9* H!ile New Ham s!ire !as a %ested interest in sa%in) money, ;6S o$ t!e ot!er states !a%e $ound %ia#le solutions t!at do not #ankru t ta> ayers and )uarantee a !i)!er le%el o$ due rocess.&97 No #asic rosecutorial trainin) can )i%e olice o$$icers t!e knowled)e #ase t!at t!ey would learn in law sc!ool, and e> ertise in en$orcement o$ t!e law does not translate into e> ertise in t!e ractice o$ law.&99 .oreo%er, sendin) olice rosecutors to law sc!ool would not sa%e New Ham s!ire money eit!er, as t!e state would likely !a%e to ay $or t!e o$$icer+s education and also increase !is salary a$ter !e com leted sc!ool and assed t!e #ar. T!us, it a ears t!at t!e #est solution is to !ire #ar certi$ied attorneys to ser%e as munici al rosecutors. T!is )uarantees a more consistent le%el o$ due rocess to de$endants t!rou)!out t!e state and is in line wit! w!at t!e majority o$ states !a%e im lemented to ensure $airness in t!eir judicial systems. &9C T!is is an economically $easi#le solution as well, #ecause R2( section 7&,&6"a allows munici al rosecutors to ser%e multi le localities.&9@ =. CONC-U2ION Lustice Nadeau+s lo)ic in Martinea# is correct, judicial ractices t!at %iolate a de$endant+s due rocess ri)!ts s!ould not #e continued sim ly #ecause t!ey are traditional. &9< Today, only common law le)al $iction ro ounded #y t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court e> licitly su orts
&9' &9*

. Cf. Horwit0, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound, at &*6C"6@. . Id. Horwit0 states t!at t!e !i)!est courts in New Ham s!ire and 2out! Carolina !a%e endorsed olice rosecution. Id. He also mentions t!at .assac!usetts, .aine, and Iowa may )rant statutory aut!ority to olice o$$icers to rosecute cases, and in t!e $ederal system some olice rosecution wit!out statutory aut!ority e>ists. Id. T!us, des ite t!e $act t!at Horowit0 su))ests t!at olice rosecution is Awide s readB in lower state courts, !e only s eci$ically oints to $i%e states t!at !a%e any laws endorsin) t!e ractice. Id. Furt!ermore, accordin) to !is researc!, only two o$ t!ese states, 2out! Carolina and New Ham s!ire, !a%e de$initi%ely e> ressed t!at olice o$$icers can rosecute misdemeanors. Id. &97 . Id. &99 . See s#"ra 1art III.(.'. &9C . Cf. Horwit0, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound, at &*6C"6@, &*@<. &9@ . N.H. R4=. 2T(T. (NN. 5 7&,&6"a. &9< . Martinea#, <6< (.'d at 99.

'6&'K NE* +AM$S+IRE $OLICE $ROSECUTORS &6& olice rosecution in New Ham s!ire.&9; Not only !as olice rosecution #een dis$a%ored #y t!e New Ham s!ire le)islature, #ut it is, #y statutory de$inition, t!e unaut!ori0ed ractice o$ law. &C6 In s!ort, t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court+s continued and e> licit su ort $or olice rosecution !as created countless contradictions and inconsistencies in New Ham s!ire law and !as com romised #ot! t!e le)itimacy o$ t!e New Ham s!ire criminal justice system and t!e due rocess ri)!ts o$ many de$endants. &C& /y sim ly con$ormin) to t!e reasona#le standards set $ort! #y t!e majority o$ states in t!is country, New Ham s!ire could end e)re)ious %iolations o$ due rocess ri)!ts wit!in its #orders and rea$$irm its commitment to $undamental rinci les o$ (merican democracy and law. (s #ot! $ormer (ttorney Feneral 1!il .c-au)!lin and Lustice Nadeau e> lain in t!eir res ecti%e o inions on olice rosecution and ri%ate rosecution, New Ham s!ire law and society !as c!an)ed dramatically in t!e last two !undred years. &C' Lust as ri%ate rosecution no lon)er !as a lace in New Ham s!ire juris rudence, neit!er does olice rosecution. T!irty"$i%e years a)o, t!e New Ham s!ire le)islature reco)ni0ed t!at New Ham s!ire criminal law !ad )rown com le> to t!e oint w!ere a reasona#ly well"trained olice o$$icer could no lon)er easily !andle t!e rosecution o$ many lower le%el o$$enses, !ence t!e reason it assed R2( section 7&,&6"a.&C* T!e com le>ity o$ t!e law !as only increased t!e

&9; &C6

See s#"ra 1art II.(. See s#"ra 1art III.(.'. &C& See. e. ., Rim#erly Hou)!ton, $oli&e $rose&#tors Offer So'e Minor Offenders a ,reak, UNION-4(D4R.CO. 8Dec. '*, '6&&:, !tt ,JJwww.unionleader.comJarticleJ'6&&&''*J N4H26@J@&''*;;<& 8last %isited Fe#. &C, '6&&:. Hou)!ton re orts t!at some New Ham s!ire 1olice 1rosecutors are o$$erin) to dro c!ar)es a)ainst indi%iduals $or tra$$ic %iolations i$ t!ey will ay money toward a local c!arity. Id. One o$ t!e olice rosecutors s!e inter%iewed admitted t!at most instances, D(Kre cases w!ere enou)! ro#a#le cause may !a%e #een $ound to issue a %iolation, #ut t!e rosecution later $eels it would likely not #e ro%en #eyond a reasona#le dou#t in court. It is t!ese instances w!ere a $ood #ank donation may #e a ro riate, #ecause ot!erwise t!e c!ar)e would ro#a#ly #e dro ed, accordin) to DCa tainK DDKudas!. Id. In ot!er words, some olice rosecutors circum%ent t!e reasona#le dou#t standard re3uired #y due rocess in a criminal settin) #y con%incin) indi%iduals w!o would not likely #e con%icted to acce t unis!ment administered outside t!e su er%ision o$ t!e court system. See id. ( #ar"certi$ied New Ham s!ire rosecutor would ro#a#ly #e !eld to more strin)ent re3uirements t!an olice rosecutors concernin) t!is issue. See N.H. RU-42 OF 1ROF+- CONDUCT R. *.@ 8'6&&"'6&':, available at !tt ,JJwww.courts.state.n!.usJrulesJ conJ con"*O<.!tm 8last %isited Fe#. &C, '6&&:. &C' . See s#"ra 1arts II.C., III.C. &C* . See N.H. R4=. 2T(T. (NN. 5 7&,&6"a? -etter $rom 1!ili T. .c-au)!lin, s#"ra note 4rror, Re$erence source not $ound.

. . .

&6' CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT D=ol. *<,**; likeli!ood and seriousness o$ due rocess %iolations. &C7 /ecause t!e New Ham s!ire 2u reme Court !as not let t!e Feneral Court )radually im lement a munici al rosecutor system, &C9 t!e Feneral Court must rea$$irm its osition as t!e lawmakin) #ody o$ New Ham s!ire and ass law e> licitly endin) olice rosecution in district court.

&C7 &C9

. .

See s#"ra 1art III./. See ,ilodea#, 799 (.'d at &67&.