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MEDIEV

byj L. Schrader

THE METROPOLITANMUSEUM OF ART

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Director's

Note

nimals both real and imagined have been prime subjects for art as far back as man first recorded them on the walls of cave dwellings. Not only artists but, later, writers and fabulists, naturalists and storytellers looked upon the animal kingdom as a source of study and instruction, of wonderment and fascination. Animals have been treated as natural phenomena to be objectively observed, but they also have been invested with extra significance as sacred symbols or as models for human behavior: few of us are unfamiliar with Aesop's dog in the manger and fox and grapes, or with La Fontaine's Fables. During the Christian era, the expressive power of animals perhaps reached its height in the Latin bestiaries of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. These books, labored over by the monks who copied them over and over again, combined factual, realistic observations of animal life with legend and served as allegorical texts for teaching clergy and laymen alike. Animals in their amazing diversity yielded illustrations and promulgations of desired behavior as well as warnings against misbehavior or evil. The collections of The Metropolitan Museum of Art abound in depictions of animals-chiseled in stone, woven into tapestries, painted on glass or wood, hammered in silver, and drawn and painted on the pages of manuscripts. The bestiary on the following pages has been assembled from this rich storehouse by J. L. Schrader, former Curator of The Cloisters, who has also provided the very informative and engaging introduction. Many of the animals are drawn from the art of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the medieval bestiary flourished. A few of them strike us as purely imaginative creations, altogether phantasmagorical, but to the medieval readers such beasts might actually have existed in a world far from their own. On the other hand, animals familiar to us today such as the whale and the ostrich were then as exotic and unknown as the unicorn, and their fanciful representations are a delight. The Metropolitan's collections are surely a source of inexhaustible wonder to be explored frorn unlimited vantage points. We hope that you will be entertained as well as educated by A MedievalBestiary
A

Philippe de Montebello Director

THE METROPOLITAN Frontcover:Lion tramplingvipers, aquamanile.North German (probably MUSEUMOF ARTBULLETIN Summer1986 Liibeck), about 1200. Insidecovers: Detailsof the Unicornat the Fountain, VolumeXLIV, Number1 from the Hunt of the Unicorn tapestry series. French or Flemish, late 15th or (ISSN 0026-1521)
early 16th century. Back cover: Dove holding a scroll in its beak. Spanish, 14th century

POSTMASTER:

Publishedquarterly? 1986 by The Museumof Art, Fifth Metropolitan Avenueand 82nd Street,New York, N.Y. 10028. Second-classpostagepaid Mailat New York,N.Y. and Additional Museum ing Offices.TheMetropolitan ofArtBulletinis providedas a benefit to Museummembersand availableby $18.00 a subscription.Subscriptions year.Single copies $4.75. Fourweeks' notice requiredfor changeof address

Membership Department,The MetroMuseum of Art, Fifth Avenue politan and 82nd Street,New York,N.Y. 10028. Backissuesavailableon micro313 film, from UniversityMicrofilms, N. First Street,Ann Arbor,Michigan. VolumesI-XXVIII (1905-1942) available as a clothboundreprintset or as individualyearlyvolumesfrom The AyerCompany,Publishers,Inc., 99 MainStreet, Salem, N.H. 03079, or from the Museum,Box 700, Middle Village,N.Y. 11379. GeneralManager of Publications:JohnP. O'Neill. Editor in Chiefof the Bulletin:JoanHolt. Editor:JoannaEkman. Design: MichaelShrover

Send address changes to

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o the medievalmind, the animalkingdomprovideda meansof gain-

ing perspective on the human condition and on the individual's place in the universe. It served as a reminder of humanity's oneness with God and his creations. Animal life, it was thought, was a fertile source of lore and information that could be used for religious instruction. From such an attitude sprang an association of animal symbolism with theological speculation that gradually took the form of a book known as the Latin bestiary, which described the habits and peculiarities of animals and derived religious homilies from them. Latin bestiaries emerged in England at the beginning of the twelfth century. They had no common author but arose, like the monasteries in which they were written and illustrated, from the bricks and mortar of collective effort. The "bricks" were more or less accurate observations of animal life; the "mortar," often of great density, was religious allegorical thought directed at moralization: and the whole was scumbled with the paint of fable and fancyvThe bestiaries were copied repeatedly, illustrated, and added to steadily for the next two centuries until about 1300, when they declined in use. Although England-and especially the north of England-remained first and foremost their home, bestiaries were imitated on the Continent and came to be among the most popular picture books of the Middle Ages. The medieval writer was, of course, not the first to assign human traits to animals or to invest them with sacred symbolism. The origins of animal lore in the bestiaries can be traced back before ancient Greek times-even to the dawn of civilization in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, when animal husbandry was first practiced. From those prehistoric times, the lore, consisting of gradually accumulated facts and myths, descended in oral tradition until it was collected in written accounts of animal life by Herodotus in the fifth century B.C. and in the Historia animalium of Aristotle a century later. Plutarch, the famous Greek biographer and moralist who lived until about A.D. 120, was the first to write on animal symbolism in a theological context. He asserted that the Egyptians believed they could discover mystical truths about the gods through their experience of natural phenomena, and therefore, for example, they attributed the features and traits of the jackal, the cat, the hawk, and other animals to members of the Egyptian pantheon. Pliny the Elder collected much of the earlier Greek written material in his first-century Latin opus, Historia naturalis, for its time a serious scientific work that was still regarded as such by medieval scholars a millennium later. Caius Julius Solinus, a third-century pagan compiler of learning, provided similar, though flagrantly irresponsible, animal descriptions and observations. But the immediate prototype for the Latin bestiary was a moralized treatise about animals written by an author who is believed to have lived in Alexandria, Egypt, perhaps as early as A.D. 200 and who is known only as "the Physiologus" ("the Physiologist"). His book-also called the Physiologus-summarized and codified the knowledge and beliefs of the ancients concerning less than fifty of the earth's animals, birds, and reptiles; it also derived from their examples moral teachings for the Christian believer. A Latin translation of the Physiologus very possibly was in circulation by the mid-fourth century and was certainly known early in the sixth century, by which time the writer's identity was long lost. Most twelfth- and thirteenth-century Latin bestiaries are primarily a repetition of the Physiologus text, almost verbatim, while interspersing new information and ideas extracted from Pliny's Historia naturalis and from more encyclopedic compendia, theological commentaries, and even the Scriptures. Among the authors drawn upon were Doctors of the Church, such as Saint Jerome and especially Saint Ambrose,

Introduction

1. MiniatureshowingHugh of Saint Victor,twelfth-centuryCanon Regular of the Abbeyof Saint Victor,near Paris, teachingfrom a book before three monks. English, second half of the 12th century.BodleianLibrary, Oxford,ms. laud. misc. 409, fol. 3 verso

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2. Illustrationfor the salamanderin a Carolingiancopy of an earlyPhysiologusmanuscript,in which is written that a salamanderplaced in a fiery furnaceor in an ovenfor baths will

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fourth-century bishop of Milan, whose Hexaemeron of about A.D. 386-88 discussed animals within a larger discourse on nature. Isidore of Seville, a renowned seventh-century Spanish prelate and scholar whose widely read compendium of knowledge known as the Etymologiae or Origines includes a long section on animals, is the second most quoted author after "the Physiologus." And in some versions of the bestiary, writings by Hrabanus Maurus, ninth-century archbishop of Mainz, are also paraphrased. Not only did the compilers of Latin bestiaries rely upon several authorities, but their varying approaches to the use of sources also led to numerous versions. For as time went by, the monastics, working independently of one another, entered into their transcriptions of the text newly selected scholastic interpretations, further information about animal subjects based on recent hearsay or personal observation, and additional chapters on previously unrecorded animals. During those revisions, compilers also had the opportunity to omit anything they considered false or speculative. If the incidences of scribes' errors and omissions are added to the preceding variables, one realizes that the textual recension of the total versions-that is, the special relationship of the redactions to one another historically-is decidedly complex. Although only about fifty manuscript Latin bestiaries survive today, they show enough variation to warrant division by scholars into four families. The most elementary bestiaries, like their model, the Physiologus, included about thirty-five or forty chapters and completely mixed together all kinds of beasts, fowl, and fish, but they always began with the lion, the king of beasts. The vastly improved second family increased the number of chapters to more than one hundred by adding material from other sources like Isidore, Solinus, and Hrabanus Maurus. This family, and the later and even more greatly expanded third- and fourth-family manuscripts, follow the order of contents suggested by Isidore'sEtymologiae: beasts (wild animals preceding domestic animals), followed by birds, reptiles, and fish (ocean species preceding amphibians). The animal considered most impressive in its category introduced each division: lion, eagle, dragon, whale.
4

Whileadding new animals,compilersalso attemptedto correct classifications of species.The ostrich, for example,whichhad been placed in twelfth-century the beasts manuscripts,was movedin the thiramong even ambivalence,preteenthto the sectionon birds. Still, uncertainty, vailedwith respectto some examples:the ant remainedwith beasts, and the bat and bee with birds (the latterin deferenceto Saint Ambrose);the sirenor mermaidwas sometimesclassifiedwith birds (probablybecause distanceprecludedarrivingat she sings), sometimeswith fish. Geographic a decisionabout the Niloticcrocodile,knownto be largeand to havefour simultaneously amongbeastsand legs, and so it was accommodated amphibians. in the secondand latermanuscript reclassification Progressive familieshas misledmany into viewingthe Latin bestiaryas a seculardocuBut not even the ment, as an earnestthoughnaivescientificendeavor. have served a scientificpurwould least the allegory-laden, Physiologus, for of the needs the had that been science,Pliny in concern; principal pose the imporboth Latin and Greekwas alwaysavailable.Tooveremphasize elementsin the bestiaryis to ignoreits fundamentance of natural-history tal affinitywith contemporary philosophy,whichsearchedthe visible universefor orderand harmonyand interpreted everythingallegorically in termsof a patternfor life and salvationthroughChrist.Such a desire the symbolicmeanings to classifythe things of this worldand to discover within them-which had sprungup earlierin the writingsof religious
thinkers such as Boethius (d. about A.D. 524) and Gerbert (later Pope

in the worksof Isidoreand SylvesterII, d. 1003) and was recognized of twelfth-century Hrabanus-became cornerstones thought. evidentin the twelfth-century These concernsare particularly writingsof Hugh of Saint Victor (d. 1142), the learnedCanonRegularof the prestigious Abbeyof Saint Victornear Paris.Hugh composeddiscourseson the harmonyof body and soul and expoundedthe symbolical essenceof the verymeans of salvation-always maintainingthat the in theirentiretyare to be interpreted allegorically. Scriptures

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of theearth.Fromthesamemanuas figure 2, fol. 17 recto(detail) script

3 drawing 8 out a snake from the cracks

3. Physiologus forthestag illustration

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5

as the authorof a cosmographical collectioncalledDe bestiiset aliis rebus (On Beastsand OtherThings), of which the coreis the influentialsecondfamilybestiarytext. Since Hugh'sauthorshipof the latterand of an accompanyingbook, conceivedas a glossary,is universallydoubted,these componentsof De bestiisare now called the Pseudo-Hugh of Saint Victor. the authorof the collection's firsthalf, an Aviarium-bestiarius, has However, been identified.These two books on birdsand beasts, respectively-and almostcertainlyone treatise-were writtenabout 1152 or laterby Hugo de Folieto (Hugh of Fouilloi),the head of a priorynear Amiens. Hugo de Folietodedicatedhis workto one Rainer,a convert,who treatise is now thoughtto havebeen a lay brotherwho used the illustrated was an important to teach less-educatedcolleagues.(The lay brotherhood monasticreform.) institutionof twelfth-century The enormouspopularityof the birdssectionof Hugo'sworkis attestedto by the frequencywith which it is bound with otherbestiary texts, includingthe Pseudo-Hugh of Saint Victor.These incidenceshave encouragedthe strongspeculationtoday that the bestiariesin general might havebeen introducedfor teachinglay brothers.Whenone considers versionof the Physiologus,knownas the Theobaldusthat a thirteen-chapter Physiologus,which precededthe bestiariesin the eleventhcentury,had been used to teach schoolboys,one at least sees the possibilitythat later monasticsdrewinspirationfrom this featureof theirearly educationwhen compilingthe bestiaries.One thing seems certain:the Latin bestiaryin e its heydaywas a book of the monastictradition. 4. Bestiaryillustration the representing crocodiledevouringa man. English Vco, In accordancewith that tradition,much of Pseudo-Hugh of Saint a Victor'stext is devotedto sermonizing.The readeris repeatedlywarned about 1185. The PierpontMorgar Library,New York,ms. m. 81, againstthe Devil and his ways; and eitherthe Devil'straitsor the Devil fol. 70 recto (detail himselfare said to be recognizedin many animals,especiallythe monkey, the fox, the wolf, the ass, the partridge,the dragon,and the whale. At times we find the authorpreachingagainstone of the SevenDeadly Sins. r/n He makes an exampleof the crocodilefor pride, of the viperfor lust, and of the partridgefor covetousness; and, more subtly,he goes at gluttonyby emphasizingthe lion'sabstinencefrom overeating.Similarly,he improvises means of praisingthe CardinalVirtues(justice,prudence,fortitude,and temperance),particularly underscoringthe firstwith the dramatictale of the mythologicalking Garamantes's dog. In discussionsof the coot and the dove, he commendsone of the SevenActs of Mercy,that of adopting foundlings. Lesservices and virtuesare also woveninto this moraltapestry.We are made to loathethe hyena'shypocrisyand to shake our heads at both the tigerand the monkeyfor losing offspringthroughfolly and prejudice, But we warm to the lion for his compassion,to the cranefor its respectively. orderliness,to the swallowfor its wisdom and ingenuity;and we haveto admirethe nightingalewhen told of her devotionto her young. When dogs are extolledfor theirfidelityand horsesfor theirdependability, and when the authorshowshis disdainfor the ibis becauseof its filthyhabits, we begin to see that the bestiaryis actuallya book about human behaviorgood and bad. In the bestiary,good and evil are also treatedon anotherlevelfor the serra,c>r as combatantforces-through animal subjectsthat have been described 5. Bestiaryillustration The examplesare derived,practically or "antipathetic." sawfish,which was said to haveenor -as "sympathetic" mous fins and to attemptoutflyin g withoutexception,from the Physiologus.That the lion is killed by snake n at sea. Fror any ship it encountered poison is antipathetic:no good is derivedfrom the snake'sbite. The the same manuscriptas figure4 sick lion seeking an ape to eat is a sympathetictheme, since the lion is able , fol. 69 recto (detail the stag drawingsnakes 1) to be curedby the ape he findsin nature.However, out of theirholes in orderto eat them as a cure is again antipathetic.For the stag'saction thereis the counteraction of the snakes'poison, which he
6

must first survive in order to regain health. Altogether, the recurring sympathetic and antipathetic themes are intended to persuade us that God has provided solutions to every threat or contingency. Pseudo- Hugh of Saint Victor turns our attention to men like himself in the chapter on doves, which he compares in ten ways to those who preach. (Hugo de Folieto expanded these points to eleven chapters and set them at the head of his Aviarium.) Few of the observations in this chapter are so incisive as that about the dove's not mangling things with its beak. This is construed as a paradigm for preachers, who are supposed not to "falsify the Scriptures as the heretics do." The complaint of heresy was a common one among clerics in the Middle Ages. Pseudo-Hugh of Saint Victor launches another attack against heretics in the chapter on vultures, whose believed ability to breed without fertilization offers him the chance to reaffirm dogma about the Virgin Birth of Christ. Thus, symbolism in the bestiary operates on several levels, from simple metaphors to elaborate allegories built on lore about the lion, the pelican, the phoenix, the panther, and the eagle. In the eagle story the sun, to which the bird flies, represents the light of Christ; and the triple plunge into the fountain, thefons Christi, is symbolic of the rite of baptism. Yet the theme also has overtones of the Resurrection, to which the author alludes on several occasions. He states explicitly that the lion's breathing life into its cubs on the third day after birth is symbolic of Christ's rising from the dead after three days of entombment. Closely linked to the Resurrection is the idea of salvation, which nowhere has been more poignantly expressed in symbolic terms than in the allegory of the mother pelican who tears her breast on the third day of her infants' demise and covers the corpses with her blood for their renewal. Her blood is Christ's blood, and one of the central messages of Christianity is made clear: Christ died that men may live. Number symbolism abounds in the bestiary. The lion's profile is sketched in a trinity of features; the number of months the female bear lies in after parturition is three for no apparent reason other than the author's need to regulate the visible world by numbers that have theological significance. So great was the concern for mystical numbers that Book Four of the combined Hugo de Folieto and Pseudo-Hugh of Saint Victor text is a sort of glossary that includes listings of selected natural phenomena under alphabetically arranged numbers. Pairs of horns on animals are discerned to be symbolic of the Testaments, Old and New. The single horn, the unicorn's, is said to be recognized in the Psalm passage, "He hath raised up a horn of salvation for us in the house of his son David"; and the unicorn itself is likened to Christ. The method of capturing the unicorn is filled with allegorical meaning. As Christ was born of a virgin's womb, so the unicorn embraces a virgin in the forest. When his subsequent betrayal is described and his death by the hunter's spear implied, we are to derive the notion of Christ's betrayal and crucifixion. It is perhaps the potency of this allegory alone that kept belief in the unicorn alive until at least the Age of Reason. One might wonder how so many fictitious or imaginary subjects could have crept into the bestiary and could have been tolerated in a monastic environment. First, some of the lore-about the griffin, the siren, and the centaur, for example-derived from ancient writings that were considered quite reliable, even though Solinus, the supplier of much of this fabulous information, was actually the most unreliable and sensationalist classical author. Second, many of the entries resulted from etymological confusions. Nevertheless, there were obviously mythical creations of relatively recent origin that were valued for the stimulation they provided the reader attempting to imagine the extent of God's creation. Acceptance of the more recent fables may be partly explained by

6. Bestiaryillustrations,combinedin one miniature,representing the lion: from hunters while escaping effacing its trackswith its tail; breathinglife into its young; being attackedby a scorpion;sparinga helplessman; and eating an ape. English,early 14th century.CorpusChristiCollegeLibrary, Cambridge,ms. 53, fol. 189 (detail)

7. Bestiaryrepresentations of the lion cross and eagle on the Kremsmunster can be securelyattributedto the use of an illustratedmanuscriptmodel. In the cross'slowerright quadrantis the Resurrection allegoryof the aged eagle flying to the sun, singeing its wings, and returningto earth, whereit plungesinto waterand renewsitself. The analogyto rebirthis at least as ancientas the Old Testamentfigure David, one of whose sacredsongs containsthe phrase, "so that thy youth Detailof a is renewedlike the eagle's.7" discoidcross. Austrian(Salzburg)or English, about 1160-80. Benedictine Austria Abbey,Kremsmiinster,

an attitudeformedin minds completelyreceptiveto, and captivatedby, the of Saint John.The conceptof "prodigy" visionsdescribedin the Revelation is also a factor.In medievalthought, prodigiouscreatures werenatural realitiesthat man plainly was not meant to experience.Accordingto this logic, the amphisbaena(a serpentwith a head on eitherend) and the manticore (a human-headed,scorpion-tailed lion), for example,might seem monstrousbut not necessarilyunreal;if they wereadmissibleas prodigies, no denialof the laws of naturewas confronted.At the same time, some of the hybridanimalsof antiquity(Pegasus,the Hydra) wereopenlydiscredited,and subtledoubtswerecast on some carriedin the repertory; wheneverPseudo- Hugh of Saint Victorquestionsan animal'sexistence,he localizesit to Ethiopia. The compilersof bestiariesweremore carefuland selective,on the them or who executedthe sculptural whole, than the artistswho illustrated decorationof churches.About1125, Saint Bernardof Clairvaux registered vehementcomplaintsabout the "ridiculousmonsters"he had seen sculpted on the faces of churcheshe had visited-from beastswith serpents' joined with other animalparts. tails to horses'forepartsor hindquarters in the bestiariesoften betraythe same uncertainty Illustrations called upon to noticedat times in the systemof classification.Whenever or he misunwas which which he an animal with represent unfamiliar, of fantastic limner fell back on a stock beastsor else the repertory derstood, drewthe wronganimal. In the beasts sectionsthe crocodilecame to be illustratedas a hyena-likecreaturesupportedon fourlong legs (fig. 4); in and the amphibianssection, as a two-leggedserpentwith ears. Worms salamanderstake the formof snakes, while snakes-practically without exception-take the form of eared serpents. Some of the tales wereso popularthat they wereillustrated by seriesof miniaturesin narrativesequence.By the end of the fourteenth century,the cycle illustratingthe lion was expandedto encompassa dozen or more scenes; the lion seekingan ape to eat was a particularfavorite themesweregivenspecialattention (fig. 6). Sympatheticand antipathetic by the illuminators,as weresensationalsubjects,such as the serra,or sawfish (fig. 5), and the whale. bestiaries Contraryto common belief,the influenceof illustrated remainedlargelywithin the domain of book art; theirrepresentations illuminatedtextsand servedmostly in the productionof other,derivative book ornaments.Even then, in view of the lack of a comprehensive study of the bestiaryminiaturesthemselves,it is difficultto assessthe extentof theirapplicationin the decorationof the initialsand marginsof other manuscripts.But any claim to the bestiary'swide influenceon sculpture and the decorativearts must meet with the objectionthat by the time the firstbestiariesappeared,or beforethey had had time to exertany influence, bestiarysubjects-especially the most fantasticones-already adornedthe jambs, lintels, voussoirs,and capitalsof churchesin France, of elephantswith Italy,Germany,Spain, and England.Representations castles on theirbacks, for example,parallelthe bestiaryrenditionof that subjectbut may show familiarityonly with the storyin the Physiologus (see fig. 9). There appearto be few instancesof any directconnectionbetween the bestiariesand othermedia. A twelfth-century octagonalpierin the churchat Souvigny,France, has a verticalrowof bestiarysubjects,each accompaniedby its inscribedname. The sectionof a twelfth-century Englishivory staffor handlein the Victoriaand AlbertMuseumin London of birdsand beasts-from ones in the upperregisexhibitsa classification ter that fly in the air to ones belowthat crawlon theirbellies.However, what may be the only survivingobjectwith representations copiedin their entiretyfrom the miniaturesof a bestiaryis a piercedmetalworkdiscoid

cross in the treasury of the Benedictine Abbey in Kremsmiinster, Austria (fig. 7). In the segments defined by its cruciform design are delicately chased scenes of the lion breathing life into its young and of the eagle flying to the sun and back, subjects chosen to parallel the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ, which appear above them on the object. Influence of the bestiary may be detected to a slight degree in the marginal decoration of an early fourteenth-century manuscript known as The CloistersApocalypse. Among the pen-drawn drolleries is a woman's torso attached awkwardly to the comparatively well-drawn body of a lion that appears to have been lifted from a bestiary. More important, however, is the presence of a female wolf biting her own foot-clearly, it seems, a bestiary derivation (fig. 8). Also in the Metropolitan Museum's collection is a thirteenth-century German painted box, presumably for game pieces, decorated with ten roundels that convey the spirit of contemporary bestiary miniatures but include the hare, an animal that did not enter the bestiary until the following century (see fig. 10). The thirteenth century witnessed the appearance of several rhymed French bestiaries, all, with one exception, translated directly from the Physiologus. Usually the most carefully illustrated of these, and certainly the longest and most artistically composed, is the Bestiaire divin by Guillaume le Clerc. Written about 1210-11 and dedicated to a certain Raoul (was he perhaps also a lay brother?), it was copied in both France and England. Also in that century many chapters of Pseudo-Hugh of Saint Victor's bestiary were incorporated into a lengthy cosmographical treatise by the Florentine Brunetto Latini (d. 1295) and translated into French as Li livres dou tresor.

8. She-wolfbiting her own leg, from TheCloisters marginillustration fol. 25 recto (detail). Apocalypse, French (probablyNormandy),about 1320-30. The CloistersCollection, 1968 (68.174)

9. Elephantwith castle on its back, the lid of a carvedwood box. Germanor Swiss, 15th century,L. 77/8in. The CloistersCollection,1955 (55.28)

But these importantworkswereoutclassedby anotherFrench Bestiaire development.RichardFournival's mid-thirteenth-century d'amoursuddenlytransferred the bestiaryfromthe realmof theological speculationto the provinceof courtlylove. In this rhymedsecularwork, a lover's petitionsto his lady substitutefor the familiarreligiousallegorical thought. The Bestiaire d'amourshouldhaveservedas an omen that the fashionfor ponderousmoralizedbestiarieswas coming to an end. The quintessential bestiaryflourishedonly a few decadeslonger,perhaps becauseit had lost its originaluse or audience.Laterbestiarieswereoften
9

larger but diminished their impact through smaller illustrations and through the advent of naturalism in the style of painting. Bestiary representations enjoyed an afterlife when taken over into the complicated program of illustration in the unique mid-fourteenth-century Austrian Concordantiaecaritatis (Concordances of Charity) by Ulrich von Lilienfeld. And one of the most unusual events in publishing history was the printing of a thirteenth-century Latin bestiary in the small Piedmontese town of Mondovi between 1508 and 1512, with fifty-two woodcuts copied, no doubt, from manuscript illustrations.

10. Game box. German(Upper Rhenish),late 13th century,lindenwood, temperaon gesso, L. 103/16 in. Purchase,Gift of J. PierpontMorgan, NOTE: The presentbestiaryrelatesthe figuresof animalsthat may be seen in the by exchange,1976 (1976.327) medievalcollectionsof The Metropolitan Museumof Artto translations of the Pseudo- Hugh of Saint Victorbestiarytext in a CambridgeUniversityLibrary manuscript(II.24.6). The translations,which havebeen editedand corrected theAnimals especiallyfor the presentbestiary,are those of T. H. Whitein his Bookof Beasts, Opposite:ChristCreating on theSixth Day;ivoryplaque. South London, 1954. Textsfor the Owl and the Centaurare taken from othermanuItalian (Schoolof Amalfi),about 1085, scriptsas translatedby RichardH. Randall,Jr.,in A Cloisters New York, Bestiary; H. 414 in. Gift of J. PierpontMorgan, 1960. The more lengthymoralsand parallelshavebeen omittedas being not 1917 (17.190.156) of sufficientinterestto the modern reader,and in orderto keep the text within modest means. in many of the originalmanIn keeping with the practiceof illustration of the animals the exact of our are not a few counterparts uscripts, figures to wherever We have tried describedin the texts. possible supplyexamplesfrom the the twelfth and thirteenthcenturies, periodof the bestiary'sgreatestimporare from laterperiods. tance. Many,however, The readershould note that some of the architectural sculptureused in is from the Fuentiduefia the illustrations Apse, on permanentloan to The Cloisters are of frescoes of Spain, while threeof the illustrations from the Government from San Baudeliode Berlangaon loan from The Cloistersto the Museodel Prado in Madrid.

Forfurtherreading Latin and French Mediaeval FlorenceMcCulloch, Bestiaries, ChapelHill, 1960 to theEnd of theMiddleAges, Animalsin Artand Thought FrancisKlingender, London, 1971 10

creaAnd Godsaid, Let thewaters forth abundantlythemoving bring above the earth in the turethathath life, andfowl that mayfly firmaopen mentof heaven. thatmoveth, And Godcreated livingcreature greatwhales,and every whichthewaters aftertheirkind,and every forth abundantly; brought God that his kind: and saw it was good. after fowl winged andfill the And Godblessed them,saying,Befruitful,and multiply; waters in theseas, and letfowl multiplyin theearth. werethefifth day and themorning And theevening And Godsaid, Let theearthbring afterhis forth thelivingcreature the beast earth his kind: and it kind, cattle,and creeping after of thing, and was so. And Godmadethebeastsof theearthafterhis kind, and cattleafter theirkind, and every upontheearthafterhis kind:and thingthatcreepeth Godsaw that it was good.
-Genesis 1.20-25

11

should he word "BEASTS" for used be properly lions, leopards, tigers, wolves, foxes, dogs, monkeysand others that rage about with tooth and claw.They are accustomed to freedomby nature, and they go whereverthey want to go. T

will stand up to anybody.He is the Prince of All Animals.The courageof these creaturesis seatedin theirhearts. Theirbrowsand tail-tufts are an index to theirdisposition. Althoughthey fear the creakingof wheels, they are frightenedby fires even more so. Scientistssay that Leo has three His firstfeaprincipalcharacteristics: ture is, that he lovesto roveon the tops of mountains.That way the smell of approachinghuntersreachesup to him, and he disguiseshis spoorwith his tail. The lion'ssecond featureis, that when he sleeps, he seems to keep his eyes open. The thirdfeatureis, that when a lionessgives birthto her cubs, she brings them forth dead and lays them up lifelessfor three days-until theirfather,coming on the thirdday, breathesin theirfaces and inspirits them. Justso did the FatherOmnipotent raiseOurLordJesusChristfrom the dead on the thirdday. It is said the littersof these creaturescome in three. Shortlions with curly manes are peaceful;tall ones with plain hair are fierce. So far as theirrelationswith men are concerned,the natureof lions is

EOthe Lion, mightiestof beasts,

that they do not get angry unlessthey are wounded. The compassionof lions, on the contrary,is clearfrom innumerableexamples-for they spare the prostrate;they allowsuch captivesas they come acrossto go back to their own country; they preyon men rather than on women, and they do not kill childrenexceptwhen they are very hungry. lions abstain from Furthermore, over-eating;they only take food and drink on alternatedays and, when they have eaten too much, they pop their paws carefullyinto their mouthsand of

their own accordextractthe meat. A lion turns up its nose at yesterday's dinner and will go awayhungryfrom food that has been left over. In the roar of this beast is such naturalterriblenessthat many animals, which could escape his chargeby their speed, are paralyzedby the verysound of his voice. A sick lion searchesfor a monkeyto eat, by which means he can be cured. A lion fears a cock, especially a white one. He is harassedby the tiny sting of a scorpion,and snake poison kills him. A lion, like the king he is, disdains to have a lot of differentwives.
Below:Lion graspingcalf, columnsupport. Italian (probablyReggioEmilia),12th century.Opposite:Lion, fresco.Spanish (Burgos Province),about 1230

12

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IGRIS the Tigergets his name from his rapidpace; for the Persians, Greeksand Medesused to call an arrowtygris.And from him the RiverTigrisis named, becauseit is the most rapidof all rivers.The beast can be distinguishedby his manifold specklings,by his courageand by his wonderfulspeed. Now the tigress,when she finds that one of her cubs has been stolen from her lair,instantlypressesalong the tracksof the thief. But the cubstealer,seeing that even though carried T

by a gallopinghorse he is on the point of being overcomeby the speed of the tigress,and seeing that no safetycan be expectedfrom flight, cunninglyinvents the followingruse. He throwsdown a glass ball, and the tigress,fooledby her own reflection,assumesthat the image in the glass is her little one. She pulls up, hoping to collect the infant. But only delayedby his hollowmockery,

she again throwsherselfwith all her might into followingthe horsemanand quicklythreatensto catch up with the fugitive.Again he delaysthe pursuer by throwingdown a second ball, nor does the memoryof his formertrick preventthe mother'stendercare. She curls herselfroundthe empty reflection and lies down as if to suckle the cub. And so, deceivedby the zeal of her own dutifulness,she loses both her revenge and her baby.
Tigerswith ramiformtongues, capital. Spanish (SegoviaProvince),about 1160

fear,flees into the cavesof the earth. There, unableto bear the smell, it becomes torpidand remainsimmobile beautiful,and excessivelykind. The only animal it considersan enemy as in death. is the dragon. The true panther,OurLordJesus Whena pantherhas dined and is Christ,snatchedus from the powerof the dragon-devilon descendingfrom satiated,it hides awayin its den and goes to sleep. Afterthreedays it awakes the heavens.He associatedus with and emits a loud belch, and a very himselfas sons by his incarnation, sweet smell-like the smell of allspice acceptingall, and gave gifts to men, -issues from its mouth. Whenthe leading captivitycaptive. other animalshaveheard the noise, The pantheris an animal with small spots daubedall overit; hence it they followthe pantherwhereverit can be distinguishedby circleddots goes, becauseof the sweetnessof this scent. Only the dragon, smittenwith upon tawny and also by its black-and-

has a truly nhe PANTHER rT variegatedcolorand is most

white variegation.It only has babies once, becausewhen the cubs have struckroot in the mother'swomb and begin to wax with the strengthof birth, they become impatient.So they tear the womb as being an obstacleto delivery. This dischargesthe litter,since it is spurredby pain. Thus, when the subsequentseed of generationis infused into it, it does not adhereto the damagedand scarredparts and is not accepted.
tapestryseries (see inside covers)

detail fromtheUnicorn Spotted panther,

15

he ANTALOPS [Antelope] is an

animal of incomparablecelerity, so much so that no huntercan everget near it. It has long horns shaped like a saw,with the resultthat it can even cut down very big trees. When it is thirsty,it goes to the great RiverEuphratesand drinks. Now thereis in those parts a shrubcalled Herecine,which has subtle, long twigs. Coming thereforeto the shrub, the 16

antelopebegins to play with the Herecine with its horns, and, while doing so, entanglesthem in the twigs. When it cannot get free itself aftera long struggle,it cries with a loud bellow.But the hunter,hearing its voice, comes and kills it.
Antelopeon a shieldsurrounded by ivy leaves,ceramicdish. Spanish (Manises, ValenciaProvince),about 1430-70

T
atchhifri. mall animal like a kid, exceedingly swift, with one horn inth4 middle of his forehead. No hunter can Biithe can be trapped by he following stratagem. virgir is led to where he lurks, nd there she is sent off alone into the ood. He quickly leapsinto her lap nd embraces her, and hence he gets aught. Qur Lord Jesus Christ is also a umorn spiritually. The fact that it has just ne horn on its head means what He imself said: "The Father and I are

ryswift because n principalities, nor powers, nor thrones, nor dominions could keep up with him, nor could Hell contain him, nor could the most subtle devil prevail to catch or contain him; hut, by thesole willof the Father, he came down into the virgin womb for our salvation. The unicorn often fights with elephants and conquers them by wounding them in the belly Unicornwith a dog on its back, aquamanile. German(Saxony),about 1400

This kind of wild animalis born in Hyperborean parts, or in mountains.All its bodily membersare like a lion's,but its wings and mask are like an eagle's. It is vehementlyhostile

AGRIFFIN is a winged quadruped.

to horses. But it will also tear to pieces any human beings that it happens across. Griffin within a Greek enameled border, medallion. French about (Limoges), 1100-50

they munch it up, it seducesthem, and she immediatelyconceives. Now the elephantand his wife to copulate. Its nose is called a proboscis(for representAdamand Eve. For when the bushes), becauseit carriesits leafthey were pleasingto God, beforetheir food to its mouth with it, and this looks provocationin the flesh, they had no the like a snake. knowledgeof sin. When, however, of Tree the ate of wife with themselves Knowledge, Elephantsprotect which is what Mandragora means, and ivorytusks. No largeranimalscan be her to fruits man, she found. The Persiansand the Indians, gave one of the and a wanderer made was collectedinto woodentowerson them, immediately on Paradise of out clear to had with other each sometimesfight they javaccount of it. elins as if from a castle. They possess When the propertime for being vast intelligenceand memory.They march about in herds. And they copu- deliveredarrives,the motherelephant walks out into a lake, and the water late back-to-back. comes up to her udders. Meanwhile, for remain pregnant Elephants the fatherelephantguardsher while two years, do not have babies more than once, and only haveone at a time. she is in labor,becausethereis a certain dragonthat is inimical to eleThey live three hundredyears. If one if a serpenthappens he a have to of them wants phants. Moreover, baby, goes with his wife eastwardtowardParadise, by, the fathertrampleson it and kills it. He is also formidableto bulls-but he and thereis a tree therecalled Manis and tree of the takes frightenedof mice, for all that. dragora.She first If an elephanttumbles down he then gives some to her spouse. When T here is an animal called an
ELEPHANT, which has no desire

cannot get up again. Hence he leans againsta tree when he wants to go to sleep, for he has no joints in his knees. For this reasona hunterpartly saws througha tree, so that the elephant may fall down when he leans against it. It is a fact that elephantssmash whateverthey wind their noses round, and whateverthey squashwith their feet they blot out. They neverquarrelabout their wives, for adulteryis unknownto them. Thereis a mild gentlenessabout them, for,if they happen to come man in the desacrossa forwandered erts, they offerto lead him back into familiarpaths. If by chance they do become involvedin battles, they take care of the casualties,collectingthe woundedand exhaustedinto the middle of the herd. fresco. witha howdah, Spanish Elephant 1120-40 about Province), (Soria

18

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his is an animal called the YENA [Hyena], which is accustomed to living in the sepulchresof the dead and devouringtheir bodies. Its natureis that at one momentit is masculine and at anothermoment feminine, and hence it is a dirtybrute. It is unableto turn round, except by a completereversalof its body, becauseits spine is rigid and is all in one piece. It frequentsthe sheepfoldsof shepherdsand walks roundthe houses T

of a night and studiesthe tone of voice of those inside with carefulear, for it is able to do imitationsof the human voice. In orderthat it may preyupon men called out at night by this ruse, it copies the sound of human vomiting. Such dogs as it has called out like this, it gobblesup with hypocritical sobs. And if by chance sportingdogs should crossits shadowwhile they are hunting it, they lose their voicesand cannot give tongue.

This beast has a stone in its eye, also called a yena, which is believed to make a person able to foreseethe futureif he keeps it underhis tongue. It is true that if a yena walks roundany animalthreetimes, the animal cannot move. For this reasonthey affirmthat it has some sort of magic skill. detail fromtheUnicorn tapestry Hyena, backcover) series(seeinside

are enemiesto serpents. When they feel weighteddown by illness, they suck snakes from their holes with a snort of the nostrils and, the dangerof theirvenom having been survived,the stags are restoredto health by a meal of them. Aftera dinner of snake, they shed theircoats and all theirold age with them. Stags listenadmiringlyto the music of rusticpipes. Withtheirears prickedup, they hear acutely;with the ears lowered,not at all. When they change their feeding groundsfor loveof a foreignpasture,if by any chance they haveto crosshuge riversor seas, each restshis head on the haunchesof the one in front; and, since the one behind does the same thing for him in turn, they sufferno troublefrom the weight. Thusly supported,they
STAGS

hurry acrosswith the greatestpossible speed. Whenit is the stag'sappointedseason to rut, the malesof this speciesbell with a furyof concupiscence.Although the femalesmay be impregnated beforehand,theydo not conceiveuntil the time of the starArcturus.Nor do theybring forththeirbabiesjust anywhere, but they hide them with tender care, and, havingtuckedthem up in some deep shrubberyor undergrowth, theyadmonishthem with a stampof the foot to keep hidden. Whenthe littleones havebecomestrongenoughforrunning, the mothersteachthem to trot and accustomthem to leapingoverhigh places. Upon hearing the cry of hounds, stags place themselvesahead of a wind, so that their scent may blow in the

oppositedirection.All stand stock still, for which reasonthey make themselves an easy mark for archers. It is known that stags neverget feverish,so ointmentsmade from their marrowwill settle heats in sick men. Weread that many people who have been accustomedto eating venison from their early days have been immortal,and immuneto fevers,but it fails them in the end if they happento get killed by a single wound. The rennet of a fawn killed in its mother's womb is capital against poisons. Recumbent by a vine-scroll stagsurrounded of lastquarter brass motif, plate.German, the15thcentury

20

W?

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the Goat is an animal that called this becauseshe gets strivesto attain the mountain
APER

crags (aspera captet). Others call her Caprea, because of the rattling (of the dry droppings entangled in the pelt-or of her hooves?). But the latter are wild goats, which the Greeks used to call Dorcas because they can see so very acutely. These linger on the highest mountains and can recognize approaching people from far away, distinguishing the wayfarer from the sportsman. Goat performingmusic, margin illustration from the HoursofJeanned'Evreux, Queenof

France. French 1325-38 (Ile-de-France),

RSUS the Bear,it is said, produces a formlessfoetus, giving birth to somethinglike a bit of pulp, and this the motherbear arrangesinto properlegs and arms by licking it. She pups on the thirtiethday, from whence it comes that a hasty, unformedcreationis broughtforth. A bear'shead is feeble; the greatest strengthis in the arms and loins, for which reasonthey sometimesstand upright. If bears are afflictedwith a seriousinjury,they know how to doctor themselvesby strokingtheirsoreswith a herb, so that they are curedby the mere touch. They do not make lovelike other quadrupeds,but being joined in

mutual embraces,they copulatein the human way.The winterseason provokestheirinclinationto lust. The males respectthe pregnantfemales with the decencyof a privateroom, and, though in the same lairs for their lying-in, these are dividedby earthworksinto separatebeds. They bring forth very tiny pulps of white color, with no eyes. They graduallysculpture these by licking; and meanwhilethey cherishthem to theirbosoms so as to drawup the animal spirit, being warmedby this carefulincubation. During this time, with absolutelyno food for the firstfourteendays, the sleeplessshe-bears get so deeply drowsythat they cannot be woken up,

even by wounds; and afterbearing, they lie hid for threemonths. Then, coming out into the free daylight,they sufferso much from being unaccustomed to the light that you wouldtake them to be struckblind. Bearslook out for the hivesof bees and long for honeycombsvery much. They grab nothing moregreedilythan honey.Whenthey haveeaten mandrake they die-unless, for fear that the poison shouldgrow strongenough to destroythem, they hurryoff and eat ants to recuperate.
Bear,fresco.Spanish (SoriaProvince), about 1120-40

22

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beast called a MANTICORAis born in the Indies. It has threerowsof teeth that meet the face of a man, with alternately; gleaming, blood-redeyes; a lion's body; a tail like a scorpion's stinger; and a shrillvoice that is so sibilantthat it resemblesthe notes of flutes. It hankers afterhuman flesh most ravenously. It is so strongin the foot, so powerful
with its leaps, that neither the most

extensivespace nor the most lofty obstaclecan contain it.

voussoirof an arch. French Manticore, (Languedoc),12th century

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but goes on his way straight with tortuous windings. He is fraudulentand ingeniousanimal. i . iii

- <hi. ? - mself on the groundand holds his breath. The birds seeing that he is not
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to sit on him. As you can guess, grabsthem and n gobblesthem up.

The Devil has this same nature.

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the Hours oftJeanne dEvreux

24

breathor the shepherdswake up, she he wordLuPuS,a Wolf,is derivedfrom the Greek,Licus. goes upwind. And if a twig or anything else shouldmake a noise when her foot Thev are called that in Greek on accountof theirbites. pressesit, she bites her own foot. A wolf'seyes shine at night like The wolf'sstrengthis seatedin his chest and jaws; in his loins thereis lamps, and its natureis that, if it sees a reallyverv littleof it. His neck is never man first, it strikeshim dumb and triable to turn backward. umphs overhim like a victoroverthe voiceless.But also, if it feels itselfto Wolves onlv copulateon twelve days in the whole year.They can suffer have been seen first, it loses its own hungerfor a long time, and aftermuch ferocityand cannot run. It is reportedthat on the backside fastingthey eat a lot. of this animal thereis a small patch of The femalewolf goes to the fold like a tame dog, at a foot'space, and, aphrodisiachair,which it plucks off lest the sheepdognotice the smell of her with its teeth if it happensto be afraid T

of being caught. Nor is this hair, for which people are always trying to catch it, of any use unless taken off alive. The devil bears the similitude of a wolf: he who is always looking over the human race with his evil eye, and darkly prowling round the sheepfolds of the faithful so that he may afflict and ruin their souls. bv Rampantwolf on a shieldsurrounded brionvleaves,ceramicdish. Spanish (Valencia), about 1450-1500

\N

animal is more sagaciousthan ~o

CANIS the Dog; for he has more

perception than other animals, for he alone recognizes his own name. He esteems his master highly. There are numerous breeds of dogs. Some track down the wild creatures of the wood. Others guard the flocks of sheep vigilantly against infestations of wolves. Others, the house dogs, look after the palisade of their masters, lest it should be robbed in the night by thieves; and these will stand up for their owners to the death. They gladly dash out hunting with master, and will even guard his body when dead, and not leave it. In sum, it is a part of their nature that they cannot live without men. So much do dogs adore their owners, that one can read how, when King Garamantes was captured by his enemies and sold into slavery, two hundred of his hounds, having made up a party, rescued him from exile out of the middle of the whole battle line of his foes, and fought those who resisted. When Jason was killed in a quarrel, his

dog refusedfood and died of hunger. The hound of King Lisimachusthrew itself into the flameswhen its master's funeralpyrehad been lightedand was burntup by the firein companywith him. When a dog comes acrossthe trackof a hare or a stag, and reaches the branchingof the trail, or the crisscrossof the trail becauseit has split into more parts, then the dog puzzles silentlywith himself,seekingalong the beginningsof each differenttrack. He

showshis sagacityin followingthe scent, as if enunciatinga syllogism. By rejectingerror,the dog finds truth. haveoften proDogs, moreover, duced evidenceto convictculpritswith proofsof murderdone-to such an extentthat theirmute testimonyhas frequentlybeen believed. Its way of life is reportedto be perfectlytemperate.What is more, the tongueof a puppy makes a salvefor men'sintestines,if they are wounded. In licking a wound, the tongueof a dog heals the same. The dog'snatureis that it returns to its own vomit and gobblesit up again. And if it happensto crossa river carryingsome meat or anythingof that sort, when it sees its reflectionit opens its mouth and, while it hastensto pick up the other bit of meat, it loses the one it had.
Above:Dog at the feet of his deceasedmaslid. Spanish ter,detailof a sarcophagus (Schoolof Lerida),1299-1314. Below: Recumbent dog, heraldicbadge inscribed (in Spanish)"loyal."Spanish,15th century

26

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Sheep, wooly,defenselessin name its . its .body and placidin mind, gets ab oblatione-from the burnt sacrifice-because in the old days among the ancientsit was not bulls but that wereofferedup. Asheep They call some of them bi-dents, and these are the ones that havetwo longerteeth among the eight. the approachof wintera sheep 0 $ ,On gets hungryat pastureand roots up the grassinsatiably-because it foresees the severityof the winterahead and hopes to stuff itselfwith greenfodder beforeall herbageshall fail it underthe nipping frost. detail of a millefleurs Sheep, tapestry. late15thorearly16th Franco-Flemish, century

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RIES the Ram perhapsgets his name from Ares, the God of War-and hence, the males among the flocksare sometimescalled in LatinMares(Mars),or else the beast igmay get its name becauseit was or inally immolatedon altars-from . whence "Aries" becausehe was sacrificedaris (with altars)-and thus we get that ram in scripturewho was offeredup at the altar (ad aram).
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27

e get the name of APERthe WildBoar from its savagery (aferitate),by leavingout the letterF and putting P instead. In the same way, among the Greeks,it is calledsuagros,the boorishor country pig. For everythingthat is wild and rude we looselycall "boorish."

1W.V

andacorns, onoakleaves Boar treading last French escutcheon. carved (Herault), of the12thto early13thcentury third
nhe Greekscall Bos the Ox by the rT name of boaenand the Latins

call these creaturestriones becausethey tread the earth underfoot

like the stars of that name [Ursus Majorand Ursus Minor,constellations that were thoughtto resemblea wagon drawnby oxen]. The kindnessof oxen for for their comradesis extraordinary, each of them demandsthe companyof that other one with whom he has been accustomedto drawthe plough by the neck-and, if by any chancethe second one is absent, then the firstone's kindly dispositionis testifiedby frequent mooing. When rain is impending,oxen know that they ought to keep themselvesat home in their stables. Moreover,when they foreseeby natural

instinct a change for the betterin the sky, they look out carefullyand stick their necks from the stalls, all gazing out at once, in orderto show themselveswilling to go forth. There are fiercebulls of the wild ox in Germany,which have such immensehornsthat, at the royaltables, which have a notablecapacityfor booze, the people make the receptacles for drink out of them. dishwith of a ceramic detail Oxon a shield, thearmsof theBabau family. Spanish about Valencia (Manises, Province), 1450-70

their name dam gave CAMELS with good reason, for when they are being loaded up they kneel down and make themselvesloweror humbler-and the Greekfor low or humble is cam. Or else it is becausethe creatureis humped on the back and the wordcamurmeans "curved"in Greek. The Bactriansbreedthe strongest camels, but Arabiabreedsthe largest number.The two kinds differin this, that the Arabianshavehumps on the back. These Bactriansneverwear away theirhooves.They have fleshysoles with concertina-likepads, and from
A

these there is a cushioningcounteraction for the walkers,with no hard impedimentto putting down the foot. They are kept for two purposes. Some are accommodatedfor carrying a burden. Othersare more speedy,but cannot be given loads beyondwhat is fitting; nor are the latterwilling to do more than the accustomeddistances. When they come into season, they are so unbridledby the matterthat they run mad for the want of love. They detesthorses. They are good at putting up with the wearinessof thirst, and indeed, when the opportunityto drink is given them, they fill up with enough

both for the past want and for whatever lack may come in the futurefor a long time. They go for dirty watersand avoidclean ones. In fact, unlessthere shouldbe foulerdrink available,they themselvesstir up the slime with busy trampling,in orderthat it should be muddied. They live for a hundred years. If they happento be sold to a strangerthey growill, disgustedat the price. camel,ordromedary, Single-humped about fresco. (Soria Spanish Province), 1120-40

28

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he spiritedness of HORSES is exult in battlefields: great. They they sniff the combat;they are excitedto the fightby the sound of a trumpet.They recognizetheirenemies in battleto such an extentthat they go for theiradversaries with a bite. Some will let nobodyon theirback except their master. The horse of Alexander the Great, called Bucephalus,wouldneverdeign to carry anybodyexcepthis master. Thereare many storiesof him in battles,in which he broughtAlexander safelyout of the most terrible The horse of CaiusCaesarwould havenobodybut Caesaron his back. Whena victoriousadversarywas tryingto plunderthe King of the Scythiansafterbeing engagedin single combat, he was cut to pieceswith kicks and bitesby the king'smount. When King Nicomedeshad been killed, his steedrid itselfof life by fasting. When theirmasteris dead or dying, horses shed tears-for they say that only the horse can weep for man and feel the emotionof sorrow.
scrimmages.

In this particularkind of animal, the length of life is greaterin the male. Indeed, we read of a horse havinglived to be seventyyears of age. Wealso find it noted that a horse went on copulating to the age of forty. At birth, a lovecharmis delivered with the foal, which they carry on their foreheadswhen they are dropped.And if this weretaken away,the mother would not on any accountgive her uddersto the foal to be suckled. It is a commonbeliefthat four things are necessaryin well-bred horses. These are: figure,beauty,merit and color.Figure:the body powerful and solid in strength,the heightconvenient to it, the flanklong and narrow, the haunchesvery large and round,the chest spreadingwidely,the whole knotted with a mass of muscles,and the hoof dry and firmedwith an arched horn. Beauty:that the head be small and sound with the skin holdingclose to the bone, the ears shortand lively, the eyes big, the nostrilswide, the neck erect, the mane and tail dense, and a firmcurveon the hooves.Merit:that it shouldbe audaciousin spirit, swift of

foot, and tremblingin its limbs. The latteris an indicationof courage, becausethen it is easilyexcitedfrom a stateof deepestreposeand, once speed has been got up, it can be maintained withoutdifficulty. Colorto be looked for principallyin these animals:bay, golden, ruddy,chestnut,deer-colored, pale yellow,grey,roan, hoary,silver, white, flea-bitten,black. Next in order therecomes a mixed coloron a ground of black or bay; lastly,a piebaldor a stripeis the worst. The pace of a horse is judged from the twitchingof the ears, its spiritfrom the twitchingof the limbs. The deeper a horse dips his nostrilswhen drinking, the betterhis prospectsas a sire. The when virilityof horsesis extinguished theirmanes are cut.
Opposite:Bridledhorse, aquamanile.North German,late 14th or early 15th century.

Above: Hunter on horseback and three

dogs, detailof a fresco.Spanish (Soria Province),about 1120-40

31

he is called Mouserbecauseshe is fatalto mice. The vulgarcall, the Cat becauseshe her CATUS catches things (a captura)while others say that it is becauseshe lies in wait (captat),i.e. becauseshe "watches." So acutelydoes she glare that her eye penetratesthe shadesof darknesswith a gleam of light. Catplaying witha spindle, illustramargin tionfromtheHours d'Evreux ofJeanne

7.

j ,
;;
.

;
: , :~.., .

'"!
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~~::'"?-~~~4

..

as if she were an elongated mouse. When she lives in a house, she movesfrom place to place with subtle .. cunning aftershe has had her babies, and lies each night in a differentlair.She pursuessnakes and mice.
There are two kinds. One keeps
afar

he is called a WEASEL (Mustela)

i'~i'~~

Z~~~~~~~~~-~~~

::"'.:i~;][~~~~~i~~~~~ ~birth

off in the forest, and the other wanders about in houses. Some say that they conceivethroughthe ear and give throughthe mouth, while, on the other hand, others declarethat they conceive by mouth and give birth by ear. Weaselsare said to be so skilledin medicinethat, if by any chancetheir babies are killed, they can make them come aliveagain if they can get at them. fromtheUnicorn detail Weasel, tapestry series(seeinsidecovers)

32

S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,~

gaLu

II

ow all BIRDSare called birds, but thereare a lot of them-for, just as they differfrom one anotherin species, so do they in diversity of nature.There are so many sorts of birdsthat it is not possibleto learn everyone, nor indeed is thereanybody who can penetratethe desertsof Scythiaand Indiaand Ethiopia,to know theirspeciesaccordingto their differences. They are called birds (a-ves) becausethey do not followstraight

roads (vias), but straythroughany byway.They are called the WingedOnes (Alites)becausethey mount with wings (alis) to the high places and reachthe heavenswith a rowingof plumes. The "wings" are the things in which the feathersallow exerciseof flight. Moreover, they are called wings

(alae) becausethe birds nourish (alant) and fostertheir chicks with them, by folding them up in these. It is known that the names of many birds are inventedfrom the sound of their voices. The particular kind of song they have suggestswhat men should call them. An odd thing is that the offspring of all birds are born twice: firstwhen the eggs are laid, then when they are formedand hatched by the heat of the mother'sbody.

:i

such wonderfuleyesightthat, when poised abovethe seas on motionlessplume-even out of human sight-he can see the little fishesswimming and, coming down like a thunderbolt,can carry off his capturedprey to the shore. And it is a true fact that when the eagle growsold and his wings become heavy and his eyes become darkened with a mist, he goes in searchof a
fountain, and, over against it, he flies up to the height of heaven, even unto the circle of the sun, and there he singes his wings and at the same time evaporates the fog of his eyes, in a ray of the sun. Then at length, taking a

the Eagle is said to have QUILA

the sunbeam is rejectedas being degenerate.Nor is it consideredworth educating such a molly-coddle. The mercyof a certainmere plebeianbird softensthis spartan headerdown into the fountain, he dips behaviorin the royalfowl. A bird himselfthreetimes in it, and instantly whose name is coot picks the baby up, he is renewedwith a great vigorof whetherit has been thrownout or just not recognized,and adopts the eagle's plumageand splendorof vision. It is claimedthat an eagle presents child and feeds and nourishesit with his young to the sunbeamsand holds the very same maternalzeal she shows the childrenup to them in mid-air with for her own offspring. his talon. And if one of them, when Above:Eagle with outstretched wings, lecstrickenwith the sun'slight, uses a tern from a pulpit. Italian(Schoolof Pisa), fearlessgaze of his eyes in staring at it, 14th century.Opposite:Eagle amid acacia that one is made much of, becauseit blossoms,undersideof a ceramicdish. has provedthe truth of its nature. But Spanish (Manises,ValenciaProvince), the one that turnsaway its eyes from about 1430-65

34

a I

"

the Cranetakes its name from its peculiarnote. For it is with such a cry (grus)that they make a low,continualmutteringsound to each other. Cranesgo about in propermiliformations. And, lest therebe a tary that wind high might preventtheirlight bodies from going straightahead to theirdestination,they eat sand and pick up small stonesto give themselves ballast.Then they rise quicklyto the heights, so they can see the territory they want to reach. Craneskeep a watchfulguard at night. Youcan see sentriesplacedin an orderlyway, and, while the remainder of the comrade-armyis sleeping, these march roundand roundto investigate whetherany ambushesare being attempted. They keep themselvesawakefor theirguard duty by holdingstonesin theirclaws and share the night watches equally,taking overin turn. If thereis an emergency,the sentriesshout. Youcan tell a crane'sage by its color,for in old age it becomesblack.
RUS

Crane,detailof a ceramicdish. Spanish (Manises,Valencia Province),about 1450-1500

he VULTURE does not make rapidflightson accountof the size of its body. Now vultures,like eagles, notice cadaverseven when they are beyond the seas. They see from a height, while flying, many things that are hidden from us by the mountainsin between. Vultures are said not to mingle in a conjugalmannerby way of nuptial intercourse.The femalesconceive withoutany assistancefrom the males and generatewithoutconjunction.The childrenthus born continue to a great age, so that theirlife is prolongedeven to a hundredyears. The bird can breedwithouta male, and nobody disprovesit. Yet when the betrothedVirginMaryherself so produces,people questionher modesty! Vulturesare accustomedto foretellingthe death of men by certain signs. The augursare warnedwhenever two lines of battleare drawnup against each other in lamentablewar-for the birdsfollowin a long column, and they show by the length of this column how many soldiersare to die in the struggle. T
Vultures, capital. Spanish (Segovia Province),about 1160

36

PSITIACUSor Parrot, which is a

nly from India can one get a

greenbird with a red collarand a large tongue. The tongueis broader than in otherbirds, and it makes distinct soundswith it. If you did not see it, you would think it was a man talking. It greetspeopleof its own accord, oo!" "or "Toodlesaying "What-cheer?

It learnsotherwordsby rote. A parrot'sbeak is so hard that if hurl the bird onto a rock from a you it height, savesitself by landingon its beak with its mouth shut tight, using the beak to absorbthe shock. Actually, its skull is so thick that, if it has to be taughtanything, it wants an occasional crackwith an iron bar. Up to two years

old, it learnswhat you point out to it quicklyenough and retainsit tenaciously,but afterthat it begins to be distraitand unteachable.
Parrots,detailof a brocadedcloth. Italian (Sicily),13th century

37

38

ENIX [Phoenix], the bird of Arain the whole bia, is unparalleled world. It lives bevondfivehundred years. When it notices that it is growing old, it builds itself a funeralpyreafter collectingsome spice branches;and on this, turningits body towardthe raysof the sun and flappingits wings, it sets fireto itself and is consumed.Then verily, on the ninth day afterward,it rises from its own ashes! It makes a coffinfor itselfof frankincense and myrrhand other spices, into which, its life being over,it enters and dies. From the liquidof its body a worm now emerges, and this gradually growsto maturityuntil, at the appointedtime, the phoenixassumes the oarageof its wings, and thereit is again in its previousspeciesand form! The symbolismof this bird thereforeteachesus to believein the Resurrection.

ELICANUSthe Pelicanis a bird

floral detail phoenixes Rising among sprays, of a brocaded cloth.Italian (probably 14thcentury Lucca),

that lives in the solitude of the River Nile, whence it takes its name. The pelican is excessively devoted to its children. But when these have been born and begin to grow up, they flap their parents in the face with their wings, and the parents, striking back, kill them. Three days afterward the mother pierces her breast, opens her side, and lavs herself across her young, pouring out her blood over the dead bodies. This brings them to life again. In the same way, Our Lord Jesus Christ calls us into being out of nothing. We, on the contrary, strike him in the face. That was why He ascended to the height of the cross and, His side having been pierced, there came from it blood and water for our salvation and eternal life. The Pelicanin Her Pietyv surrounded bv a vine-scrollmotif, brassplate. South
Netherlandish (Dinant or Malines). 15th

century

39

he SIRENAE [Sirens],

or Har-

the feet are winged. They give forth melodioussongs that are very lovely,

pies, so Physiologus says, are deadly creatures made like human females from the head to the navel, while their lower parts down to

and thus they charm the ears of sailormen and allure them. They entice these poor chaps by a wonderful sweetness of rhythm and put them to sleep. At last, when they see that the sailors are deeply slumbering, they pounce upon them and tear them to bits. That is the way ignorant and incautious human beings get tricked by pretty voices, when they are charmed by indelicacies, ostentations and pleasures, or when they become licentious with comedies, tragedies, and various ditties. Harpies,capital. Spanish (Segovia Province),about 1160

the Partridgeis a cunning, PERDIX disgustingbird. It is such a perverted creature that the female will steal the eggs of another female. But when the young are hatched and hear the call of their real mother, they instinctively run awav from the one that is brooding them and return to the one that laid them. Partridges cover their setts with thornv shrubs, so that animals that might attack them are kept off by the twigs. The females mostly carry away their young to foil their husbands, because the latter often attack the young ones when they are fawning on them impatiently. Desire torments the females so much that even if a wind blows toward them from the males they may become pregnant by the smell. When partridges notice that they have been spied out, they turn over on their backs, lift clods of earth with their feet, and spread these so skillfully over themselves that they lie hidden from detection. among flowers,detailfrom the Partridges
Unicorn Tries to Escape, from the Unicorn tapestry series

40

CCIPITERthe Hawk is even

betterequippedin its spiritthan in its talons, for it showsvery greatcouragein a very small body.It is avid at seizingupon others, whenceit is called the ravisher, the thief. Peoplesay that the hawk is unnaturallyspartantowardhis offspring,for when he sees that the youngstersare fit to try flying, he offersthem no food in the nest but beats them with his wings and drivesthem from the nursery,so that they shall not turn into sluggish adults. He gives up feedingthem to make them audaciousin the art of robbery. ornamental brasses from Hawks, (probably a chandelier). South 15th Netherlandish, century

41

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

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hat old bird CORNIX the Crowis called by its Greekname among the Latins. Soothsayersdeclare that it deals with the troublesof men throughomens, that it disclosesthe paths of treachery,and that it predicts the future. It is very wrong to believethat God entrustshis secretsto crows. Amongthe many omens attributed to this bird, they speciallymention the foretellingof rain by its voice. Let men learnto lovetheirchildrenfrom the exampleand from the sense of duty of crows.They diligently followtheirsons as an escortwhen they fly, and fearingthat the babies might pine away,they lay food in and do not neglect the choreof feedingfor a long
time.

Crows anowl,capital. attacking Spanish lastquarter of the12th Province), (Segovia century

commonto all. All inhabitthe same dwelling, all are enclosedbehind the thresholdof one fatherland.Workis mutual to all, food is communal,labor
and the habit and enjoyment of flight are all held equally.

living, bees have children that are

EES (Apes)are born withoutfeet, for they only grow their feet and wings later on. They are skilledin the art of making honey.They live in definitehouses. They build theirhomes with indescribabledexterity, making them out of variousflowersand fillingcountless cells with spun wax. They havekings, armies-they go to war. Manypeople haveproventhat these creaturesare born from the corpsesof cows. The fleshof dead calves is beatenin orderto bring them forth, so that out of the rottingblood maggotsmay be createdthat finally turn into bees. One ought more accuratelysay that bees are born from oxen, hornetsfrom horses, dronesfrom mules, and wasps from donkeys. Aloneamong everyspeciesof the

Bees arrangefor theirown king. They createa popularstate, and, althoughthey are placed undera king, they are free. A king bee is formedwith clear naturalsigns, so that he can be distinguishedby the size of his body and by his appearance. Such bees as are disobedientto the laws of the king punishthemselves on being condemnedto penance, so that they die by the woundsof their own stings. Bees havestings and can produce

poison as well as honey,if provoked.In theirthirstfor revenge,they lay down theirown lives in the woundswhich they make. The moistureof honev-dewis pouredinto the mid-most recessesof the hives and little by little, it is refined into honey.Althoughit was originally liquid, it begins to take on the sweet, mellifluoussmell throughthe thickening of the wax and the scent of the flowers. Not only is honeydelightful,but it is healthy.It mollifiesthe throat,it heals wounds, it is administered as a medicine for internalulcers. Whiletheirking is safe, bees never alterdecisionsor changetheirminds. But if the king is lost, they abandonthe trust of preservinghis kingdomand tear themselvesawayfrom his honevstore, becausehe who held the officeof chief is destroyed. Bees flee from smoke and are irritated by noise.
Bee, detailof an intaglio-carved game piece. North German,about 1200-50

43

NGUIS the Snake is the origin of all serpents,becausesnakes can be folded and bent and are neverstraight.

COLUBER (another name for

snake) is called this becauseit glides with serpentinecoils (colubrosus) into slipperycourses. It is knownas "the slipperyone" becauseit slips away crawling,and like a fish, the tighterit is held, the more it crawls. SERPENS gets its name becauseit creeps (serpit)by secretapproaches and not by open steps. It movesalong

RACO the Dragonis the largest of all serpents,in fact of all living things on earth. The Greeks call it dracontaand hence it has been turnedinto Latin underthe name draco. When the dragonhas come out of its cave, it is often carried into the sky, and the air near it becomes ardent. It has a crest, a small mouth and a narrow gullet throughwhich it draws breathor puts out its tongue. Its strengthis not in its teeth but in its tail, and it inflicts injuryby blows rather than by stinging. So it is harmlessas regardspoison. But they point out that poisons are not necessaryto it for killing, since if it winds roundanyoneit kills him straightaway. Even the eleis not from it by the phant protected size of its body; for the dragon, lying in wait near the paths along which elephants usually saunter,lassoestheir legs in a knot with its tail and destroys them by suffocation. Dragonsare bred in Ethiopia and India, in placeswherethereis perpetual heat. The Devil is like this dragon. He is often borne into the air from his den, and the air roundhim blazes, for the Devil in raisinghimselffrom the lower regionstranslateshimselfinto an angel of light and misleadsthe foolishwith false hopes of glory and worldlybliss. Above: by a boy,canbeingspeared Dragon late12thcentury. dlestick. Mosan, Opposite: or wyvvern, Feathered two-footed dragon late12thto early German, aquamanile. 13thcentury

by very small pressuresof its scales. The ones that havefour legs like lizardsand newts are not called serpents but reptiles.Serpentsare reptiles that crawlon theirbelly and breast. Of these creatures,how many poisons thereare, how many species, how many calamities,how many griefs, and what a lot of differentcolorsthey have got! Crozier witha serpent volute andSaint Michael thedragon. late French, slaying 12thto early13thcentury

/9

44

a:-l ?-: ii ?a_i

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a P

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he BASILISK is the king of sermuch so, that people pents-so who see it run for their lives, because it can kill them merelyby its smell. It destroysa man even if it looks at him. At the mere sight of a basilisk, any bird that is flying past cannot get acrossunhurt, rather-although it mouth may be far from the creature's -it gets frizzledup and is devoured.

Nevertheless,basilisksare conqueredby weasels. Men put these into the lairs in which they lie hid, and thus, on seeing the weasel, the basiliskruns away.The weasel followsand kills itGod nevermakes anythingwithouta remedy. The basilisk, like the scorpion, also frequentsdesertplaces, and before people can get to the riversit gives

them hydrophobiaand drivesthem mad. It can kill with its noise and burn people up, as it were, beforeit bites them. Finally,a basiliskis striped lengthwisewith white marks six inches in width.
Basilisk,voussoirof an arch. French (Languedoc),12th century

46

he ASPgets its name becauseit injectsand spreadspoisonwith its bite. Indeed, it alwaysruns about with its mouth wide open and steaming,the effect of which is to injureother speciesof animals. Now it is said that when an asp realizesit is being enchantedby a musical snake-charmer, who summons it with his own particularincantations to get it out of its hole, the asp, unwilling to come out, pressesone ear to the groundand closesthe otherear by stickingits tail in it. Thus, not hearing the magical noises, it does not go forth to the chanting. Such indeed are the men of this world, who pressdown one ear to worldlydesires,and truly by stuffing up the other one they do not hear the voice of the Lord. relief. by a lion,carved Aspbeingtrampled about1250 Spanish,

47

~~ Fi~~~Fi~ ~ :~~~:~~3~~?~` L~~q I ~~I~~'~~" ji~~& ~ Y 4~~-'d

T~~~

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his is called an AMPHIVENA becauseit has (Amphisbaena) two heads. One head is in the right place and the otheris in its tail. Withone head holdingthe other,it can bowl along in eitherdirectionlike a hoop. This is the only snake that stands the cold well, and it is the firstto come out of hibernation. T
Two-headedcreature,perhapsan amphisbaena, voussoirof an arch. French (Languedoc),12th century

he snake SCITALISgets that name because it is so splendid in the variegation of its skin that a man stops dead on seeing its beautiful markings. Owing to the fact that it is a sluggish crawler and has not the power to overtake people by chasing them, it captures them as they stand stupefied by its splendor. Moreover, it glows so much that even in winter time it displays the blazing skin of its body. creatures, Opposite:Scitalia,or scitalislike detailof a brocadedcloth. Italian (Sicily), 13th century

49

has its name because it prevails against fire. Indeed, it lives in the middle of the blaze without being hurt or burnt-and not only because the fire

heSALAMANDRA

does not consumeit, but becauseit actuallyputs out the fireitself. Of all poisonouscreaturesits strengthis the greatest,for,although others may kill things one at a time, the salamanderkills most at one blow. If it slowlytwines itself about a tree, all the

fruitsget infectedwith venom, and thus it kills the people who eat them. Even if it falls into a well the powerof its toxin slays those who drink the water.
doorknocker Salamander, wrought-iron (left rearleg is missing). WestEuropean, 15th or 16th century

he SCORPION is a land worm

which we classify with worms rather than with snakes. It is a stinging creature, and is called the Archer in the Greek language because it plunges in its tail and injects its poisons with a curving wound (aculeus: arcuatus). The oddest thing about a scorpion is that it will not bite you in the palm of your hand. of the calenScorpion,from a bas-de-page dar from the HoursofJeanned'Evreux

50

-. ......r ...? / ...... ..... 7..

. . . . rI l i . . l I I? , . . l. . l ? l . . . . . . . . . . l ?r i I , ' l . . ' lI l '' . . . . l . . . . . .

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ISH (Pisces) are known as reptiles becausethey have the same shape and naturaldispositionfor swimming about. Howeverdeeply they plunge into the abyss, in swimming they are slow movers.

AMPHIVIAare a kind of fish that

havethe habit of walking about on dry land or swimmingabout in the sea; i.e., they live in the wateror on the shore, like seals, crocodiles,and hippos. Among all the kinds of animalsliving in the sea, we have knowledgeof one hundredand forty-four. thezodiac Fishrepresenting signPisces, detail fromtheBelles Heures of Jean,Duke of Berry

here is an ocean monstercalled a

WHALE (Cetus) becauseof the

frightfulnessof its body and becauseit was this animalthat swallowedJonah;and its belly was so great that people took it to be Hell. This animal lifts its back out of the open sea and then anchorsin one place; and on its back, what with the shingle of the ocean drawnthereby gales, a level lawn is producedand 52

bushes begin to growthere. Sailing ships that happen to be going that way take it to be an island and land on it. Then they build themselvesa fire. But the whale, feelingthe hotnessof the fire, suddenlyplungesdownwardand pulls the anchoredship with it into the depths. Wheneverthis monsterfeels hunit gry opens its mouth and exudesa pleasant-smellingbreath;and when

the smallerfishesnotice the odor,they crowdtogetherin the mouth. Naturally, when the monsterfeels his mouth to be full, he shuts it at once. Thus he swallows them down. of a stained Fanciful whale,fromtheborder French (Ile-de-France), glasswindow. about1320

. ~ /II
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53

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the Red Mullet, is called that becauseit is soft (mollis) and very tender.They say that lust can be cooledby eating it, and they also dull the eyesight.People who frequentlyconsumemullet smell of fish. If a mullusis drownedin wine, those who drink the stuff afterwards get a loathingfor wine-drinking.

-ULLUS,

ELFINES the Dolphinshavethat

Fish, detailof a ceramicdish. Spanish (Manises,ValenciaProvince),about 1430-70

particularname eitheras a description,becausethey follow the human voice, or else becausethey will assembletogetherin schoolsfor a symphony concert. Nothing in the sea is fasterthan for they often outrunships, are, they out of the water.Whenthey are leaping sportingin the wavesand smashing into the masses of comberswith a headlongleap, they are thoughtto portend storms.

Thereis a speciesof dolphinin the RiverNile, with a saw-shapeddorsal fin, that destroyscrocodilesby slicing up the soft parts of the belly.
Dolphinsdancingatop waves,detailof a fresco.Spanish (BurgosProvince),early 13th century

ning stratagem,due to his greed. He is very fond of oysters and likes to get himselfa banquetof theirflesh. Althougheagerfor dinner, he understandsthe pursuitis as difficult as it is hazardous.It is difficult becausethe fleshof the oysteris contained within very strongshells. Nothing can open the closedoysterby force, and thus it is dangerousfor the crab to insert his claw.Betakinghimself to artfulness,therefore,the crab lays an ambushwith a plot of his own. Becauseall speciesdelightin

ANCERthe Crabadopts a cun-

relaxing, the crab investigates to find out whether at any time the oyster opens that double shell of his in places

remote from all wind and safe from the rays of the sun. Then the crab, secretly casting in a pebble, prevents the closing of the oyster, and thus, finding the lock forced, inserts his claws safely and feeds on the flesh. Some people relate that if ten crabs are compounded with a handful of basil, all scorpions in the neighborhood will be gathered to that place. There are two kinds of crab, river ones and sea ones. of the calendar Crab,from a bas-de-page from the HoursofJeanned'Evreux

55

Notes
Cover and p. 1: Bronze,H. 8/4 in. Robert Lehman Collection,1975 (1975.1.1410) Inside covers: Silk, wool, and metal thread.Gift of JohnD. Rockefeller, Jr.,1937 (37.80.2) Back cover: Copper,gilt and enamel, Diam. 23/ in. RogersFund, 1904 (04.3.326) P. 12: One of a pair from a churchportal,red marble, H. 26 in. The CloistersCollection,1953 (53.64.1) P. 13: Fromthe Sala Capitular(ChapterHouse) of the Monastery of San Pedrode Arlanza,near to canvas, H. 89 in. The Hortigiiela,transferred CloistersCollection,1931 (31.38.1) P. 14: Silk, wool, and metal thread.Gift of John D. Rockefeller, Jr.,1937 (37.80.2) P. 15: Fromthe apse of Churchof San Martinde in. On loan to Fuentidueiia,limestone,H. 19Y2 The Cloistersfrom the SpanishGovernment (L 58.86) P. 16: Copperluster,tin-enameled earthenware, in. The CloistersCollection,1956 Diam. 173/4 (56'.171.137) in. Gift of Irwin Untermyer, P. 17: Brass,H. 15Y4 1964 (64.101.1493) P. 18: Partof decorationfrom reliquarycasket in Churchof Saint Foy at Conques,copper-giltand champleveenamel, Diam. 35/8in. Gift of J. PierpontMorgan,1917 (17.190.692) P. 19: From Churchof San Baudelde Berlanga, transferred to canvas, 8034 x 53/4 in. (sight). The CloistersCollection,1957 (57.97.5). On loan to the Museodel Prado, Madrid P. 20 (left): Silk, wool, and metal thread.Gift of JohnD. Rockefeller, Jr.,1937 (37.80.2) in. Gift of Irwin P. 20 (right): Brass,Diam. 15Y2 1964 (64.101.1506) Untermyer, P. 21: Silver,partlygilt, and enamel, H. 77/8 in. The CloistersCollection,1952 (52.50) P. 22: By JeanPucelle.Fol. 22 recto, detail (greatlyenlarged),grisailleon vellum.The CloistersCollection,1954 (54.1.2) P. 23: From Churchof San Baudelde Berlanga, to canvas, 78V2x 44V4in. (sight). transferred The CloistersCollection,1957 (57.97.4). On loan to the Museodel Prado, Madrid P. 24 (top): One of sevenvoussoirsof an arch, probablyfrom formerChurchof Saint Cosmusat Narbonne,marble, L. 123/ in. JohnStewartKennedy Fund, 1922 (22.58.1) P. 24 (bottom): By JeanPucelle.Fol. 46 recto, detail (greatlyenlarged),grisailleon vellum.The CloistersCollection,1954 (54.1.2) P. 25: Gold lusterand dark blue, tin-enameled earthenware,Diam. 18 in. The FriedsamCollection, Bequestof MichaelFriedsam,1931 (32.100.387) P. 26 (top): Detailof the tomb of Don Alvaro de Cabrera,Countof Urgel, Viscountof Ager of SantaMariade (d. 1299), from Monastery near Lerida, limestone, Bellpuigde las Avellanas, Depth 25 in. The CloistersCollection,1948 (48.140.2) P. 26 (bottom): Copper-giltand champleve in. RogersFund, 1904 enamel, Diam. 1Y2 (04.3.429)

and P. 27 (top): Country Life: Shepherd wool. Gift of GeorgeBlumenthal, Shepherdess, 1941 (41.100.196) P. 27 (bottom): By Pol, Jean, and Hermande Limbourg.Fol. 4 recto, detail (enlarged),ink, tempera,and gold leaf on parchment.The CloistersCollection,1954 (54.1.1) P. 28 (left): From Abbeyof Saint-Guilhem-leDesert, stone, 153/ x 12 in. The CloistersCollection, 1925 (25.120.128) P. 28 (right): Detailof dish with armsof the Babaufamily.Blue and copperluster,tin-enameled earthenware. The CloistersCollection,1956 (56.171.125) P. 29: FromChurchof San Baudelde Berlanga, transferred to canvas, H. 96 in. The Cloisters Collection,1961 (61.219) P. 30: Bronze,H. 115/8 in. Gift of Mrs.Leo S. Bing, 1952 (52.24.2) P. 31: FromChurchof San Baudelde Berlanga, transferred to canvas, H. 713/ in. The Cloisters Collection,1957 (57.97.1). On loan to the Museo del Prado, Madrid P. 32 (top): By JeanPucelle.Fol. 51 recto, detail (greatlyenlarged),grisailleon vellum. The CloistersCollection,1954 (54.1.2) P. 32 (bottom): Silk, wool, and metal thread. Gift of JohnD. Rockefeller, Jr.,1937 (37.80.2) P. 33: Bronze,H. 12V4 in. RogersFund, 1910 (10.37.2) P. 34: Lecternin formof eagle (symbolof Saint Johnthe Evangelist),marble (head restored), H. 28 in. RogersFund, 1918 (18.70.28) P. 35: Blue and copperluster,tin-enameled earthenware,Diam. 188s in. The CloistersCollection, 1956 (56.171.118) P. 36 (top): Fromapse of Churchof San Martin de Fuentidueiia,limestone,H. 20 in. On loan to The Cloistersfrom the SpanishGovernment (L 58.86) P. 36 (bottom): Blue and copperluster,tinin. The enameledearthenware,Diam. 15V2 CloistersCollection,1956 (56.171.120) P. 37: Silk and metal thread.FletcherFund, 1946 (46.156.30) P. 38: Targewith armsof Tanzelvon Tratzberg quarteredwith those of Rindscheit.Wood, pigskin, burlap,gesso, and paint, H. 26/2 in. BashfordDean MemorialCollection,Bashford Dean MemorialFund, 1969 (69.196) P. 39 (bottom): Silk and linen thread.Rogers Fund, 1912 (12.55.1) P. 39 (top): Brass,Diam. 20 in. Gift of Irwin 1964 (64.101.1498) Untermyer, P. 40 (top): Fromapse of Churchof San Martin de Fuentidueiia,limestone,H. 22 in. On loan to The Cloistersfrom the SpanishGovernment (L 58.86) P. 40 (bottom): Silk, wool, and metalthread. Gift of JohnD. Rockefeller, Jr.,1937 (37.80.3) P. 41: Brass,H. 6/2 in. Gift of IrwinUntermyer, 1964 (64.101.1528, 29) P. 42: Copper-giltand champleveenamel, H. 7 in. The CloistersCollection,1947 (47.101.34) P. 43 (top): Fromapse of Churchof San Martin in. On loan de Fuentiduenia, limestone,H. 18V2 to The Cloistersfrom the SpanishGovernment (L 58.86)

P. 43 (bottom): Undersideof game piece, statuetteof enthronedking, viscouspaste, H. 17/sin. RogersFund, 1978 (1978.494) P. 44 (left): Gilt-bronze,moldedand chased, H. 75/? in. Gift of GeorgeBlumenthal,1941 (41.100.131) P. 44 (right): Copper-giltand champleveenamel, in. The FriedsamCollection,Bequestof H. 127/8 MichaelFriedsam,1931 (32.100.289) P. 45: Bronze,H. 83/4in. The CloistersCollection, 1947 (47.101.51) P. 46: Probablyfrom formerChurchof Saint in. John Cosmusat Narbonne,marble, L. 14Y2 StewartKennedyFund, 1922 (22.58.1) P. 47: The Lion of the Tribeof Judah,relieffrom Churchof Saint Leonardat Zamora.H. 86 in. Purchase,JosephPulitzerBequest,1916 (16.142) P. 48: Silk and metal thread.FletcherFund, 1946 (46.156.26) P. 49: Probablyfrom formerChurchof Saint Cosmusat Narbonne,marble, L. 163/4 in. John StewartKennedyFund, 1922 (22.58.1) P. 50 (top): L. 9Y2in. The CloistersCollection, 1952 (52.121.12) P. 50 (bottom): By JeanPucelle.Fol. 11 recto, detail (greatlyenlarged),grisailleon vellum.The CloistersCollection,1954 (54.1.2) CollecP. 51: Bronze,Diam. 43/8 in. The Cloisters tion, 1947 (47.101.47) P. 52: By Pol, Jean, and Hermande Limbourg. Fol. 3 recto, detail (enlarged),ink, tempera,and gold leaf on parchment.The CloistersCollection, 1954 (54.1.1) P. 53: Detailof borderof grisailleglass window panel. Pot metal, silverstain. The CloistersCollection, 1982 (1982.433.4) P. 54: Blue and copperluster,tin-enameled earthenware.The CloistersCollection,1956 (56.171.153) P. 55 (top): From Sala Capitular(Chapter of San Pedrode House) of the Monastery to canvas. Arlanza,near Hortigiiela,transferred The CloistersCollection,1931 (31.33.1b) P. 55 (bottom): By JeanPucelle.Fol. 7 recto, detail (greatlyenlarged),grisailleon vellum.The CloistersCollection,1954 (54.1.2)

credits Photograph
BodleianLibrary,Oxford,p. 3; Bundesdenkfront malamt, Vienna, p. 8; LyntonGardiner, cover,pp. 1,13,16, 26 (top), 27 (bottom), 28 (left), 37, 45, 51, 53, 54, 55 (top); BobbyHansson, pp. 17, 25, 28 (right),30, 33, 34, 35, 38, Museumof ArtPho41, 44 (right); Metropolitan tographStudio, inside frontcover,pp. 8-12,14, 15, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26 (bottom), 27 (top), 29, 32, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44 (left), 46-50, 55 (bottom), inside back cover;Museodel Prado, pp. 19, 23, 31; CharlesPassela,p. 52; PierpontMorgan Library,p. 6; PrincetonUniversityLibrary,p. 7; Bern, pp. 4, 5 Burgerbibliothek,

Back cover:Dove holdinga scrollin its beak, badge, probablypart of a horse harness.Spanish, 14th century

56

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