INSTRUMENTATION QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

INTRODUCTION: It is the branch of engineering which deals with the measurement, monitoring, display etc. of the several of energy exchanges which take place during process operations. "In short Instrumentation is the study of Instrument." INSTRUMENT: Instrument is a device, which is used to measure, monitor, display etc. of a process variable. 1. What is the process Variab e! The process Variable is: low. !ressure. Temperature. "evel. #uality i.e. $ %&, '%&, p( etc. ". De#i$e a the process Variab e a$% state their &$it o# 'eas&re'e$t. ! ( o): )efined as volume per unit of time at specified temperature and pressure 'onditions, is generally measured by positive*displacement or rate meters. U$its: kg + hr, litter + min, gallon + min, m, + hr, -m, + hr. .gases/ *ress&re: orce acting per unit 0rea. ! 1 +0 U$its : bar, !ascal, kg + cm&, lb + in&. +e,e : )ifferent between two heights. U$its: 2eters, mm, cm, percentage. Te'perat&re: It is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. U$its : )egree 'entigrade, )egree ahrenheit, )egree 3elvin, )egree 4ankine. Q&a it-: It deals with analysis. .!(, $ '%&, $ 5&, 'onductivity, Viscosity/ .. What are the pri'ar- e e'e$ts &se% #or # o) 'eas&re'e$t! The primary elements used for flow measurement are: %rifice !late. Venturi tube. !itot tube. 0nnubars. low -o66le. 7eir 8 lumes. /. What are the %i##ere$t t-pes o# ori#ice p ates a$% state their &ses! The different types of orifice plates are: 'oncentric. 9egmental. :ccentric. #uadrant :dge. Co$ce$tric: The concentric orifice plate is used for ideal li;uid as well as gases and steam service. This orifice plate beta ratio falls between of 5.<= to 5.>= for li;uids and 5.&5 to 5.>5 for gases and steam. ?est results
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occur between value of 5.A and 5.B, beta ratio means ratio of the orifice bore to the internal pipe diameters.
@

.A=@ beveled edges are often used to minimi6e riction resistance to flowing fluid/

flow d

@ .fig </ Ecce$tric: The eccentric orifice plate has a hole eccentric. Cse full for measuring containing solids, oil containing water and wet steam. :ccentric plates can use either flange or vena contracta taps, but the tap must be at <D5@ or E5@ to the eccentric opening.
@

:ccentric orifices have the bore offset from center to 2inimi6e problems in services of solids*containing materials.

.fig &/ Se1'e$ta : The segmental orifice place has the hole in the form segment of a circle. This is used for colloidal and slurry flow measurement. or best accuracy, the tap location should be <D5@ from the center of tangency.
@

9egmental orifices provide another version of plates useful for solids containing materials.

.fig ,/ Q&a%ra$t E%1e: It common use in :urope and are particularly useful for pipe si6es less than & inches.
@

#uadrant edge orifices produce a relatively constant 'oefficient of discharge for services with low 4eynolds numbers in the range from <55,555 down to =,555. . ig A/ 0. 2o) %o -o& i%e$ti#- a$ ori#ice i$ the pipe i$e! 0n orifice tab is welded on the orifice plate, which extends out of the line giving an indication of the orifice plate. 3. Wh- is the ori#ice tab pro,i%e%! The orifice tab is provided due to the following reasons.
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 Indication of an orifice plate in a line. The orifice diameter is marked on it. The material of the orifice plate. The tag no. of the orifice plate. The mark the inlet of an orifice. 4. What is 5er$o& i6s theore' a$% )here it is app icab e! ! ?ernoulliFs theorem states the "total energy of a li;uid flowing from one point to another remains constant." It is applicable for non*compressible li;uids. 7. 2o) %o -o& i%e$ti#- the 2. *. si%e or i$ et o# a$ ori#ice p ate i$ i$e! The marking is always done (. !. side of the orifice tab, which gives an indication of the (. !. side. 8. 2o) %o -o& ca ibrate a D. *. tra$s'itter! The following steps are to be taken which calibrating: <. 0dGust 6ero of the Hmtrs. &. 9tatic pressure test: Iive e;ual pressure on both sides of the transmitter. Jero should not shift. If it is shifting carry out static alignment. ,. Vacuum test: 0pply e;ual vacuum to both the sides. The 6ero should not shift. A. 'alibration !rocedure: Iive &5*psi air supply to the transmitter. Vent the ".!. side to atmosphere. 'onnect output of the Instrument to a standard test gauge. 0dGust 6ero. =. 0pply re;uired pressure to high*pressure side of the transmitter and adGust the span. B. 0dGust 6ero again if necessary. 19. What is the sea i:&i% &se% #or #i i$1 i'p& se i$es o$ cr&%e a$% ,isco&s i:&i%! Ilycol. 11. 2o) %o -o& carr- o&t pipi$1 #or a Di##ere$t press&re # o) tra$s'itter o$ i:&i%s; <as a$% stea' ser,ices! Wh-! +i:&i% i$es: %n li;uid lines the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate because li;uids have a property of self*draining. Ori#ice p ate ( o) %irectio$

*ri'ar- iso atio$ ,a ,e =+IQUID SERVICE> . )a- 'a$i#o % ,a ,e

( o) tra$s'itter K *

<as Ser,ice: O$ gas service the transmitter is mounted above the orifice plate because Iases have a property of self*venting and secondly condensate formation. K * ( o) tra$s'itter

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. )a- 'a$i#o % ,a ,e =<AS SERVICES>

*ri'ar- iso atio$ ,a ,e

( o) %irectio$ Ori#ice p ate Stea' Ser,ice: O$ steam service the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate with condensate pots. The pots should be at the same level. Ori#ice p ate ( o) %irectio$ *ri'ar- iso atio$ ,a ,e

Co$%e$sate pot

. )a- 'a$i#o % ,a ,e ? @ ( o) tra$s'itter

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1". Dra) a$% eAp ai$ a$- # o) co$tro oop! Ori#ice p ate cB, *ositio$er

*ri'ar- iso atio$ ,a ,e AIR SU**+C . )a- 'a$i#o % ,a ,e ( o) tra$s'itter AIR SU**+C (RC

1.. A$ operator te s -o& that # o) i$%icatio$ is 'ore! 2o) )o& % -o& start checDi$1! irst flushing the transmitter. lush both the impulse lines. 0dGust the 6ero by e;uali6ing if necessary. If still the indication is more then. 'heck ".!. side for choke. If that is clean then. 'heck the leaks on ".!. side. If not. 'alibrate the transmitter. 1/. 2o) %o -o& %o a Eero checDs o$ a D.*. tra$s'itter! 'lose one of the valve either (.!. or ".!. open the e;uali6ing valve. The %+! should read 6ero. 10. 2o) )o& % -o& %o < -co #i i$1 or #i sea i:&i%s i$ sea pots 4 Dra) a$% eAp ai$. The procedure for glycol filling is : 'lose the primary isolation valves. %pen the vent on the seal pots. )rain the use glycol if present. 'onnect a hand pump on ".!. side while filling the (.!. side with glycol. 3eep the e;uali6er valve open. 3eep the ".!. side valve closed. 9tart pumping and fill glycol. 9ame repeat for ".!. side by connecting pump to (.!. side, keeping e;uali6er open and (.!. side isolation valve closed. 'lose the seal pot vent valves. 'lose e;uali6er valve. %pen both the primary isolation valves. 13. 2o) %o -o& ca c& ate $e) #actor #ro' $e) ra$1e &si$1 o % #actor a$% o % ra$1e! #< F #& L M!& L M!< #< 1 %ld flow .factor/ #& 1 -ew flow .factor/ L M!< 1 %ld range L M!& F Ne) range #< N L M!&

#& N M!< 1

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#< G M!& #& F L M!< %ld factor N new range -ew factor 1 L %ld range

14. 2o) )i -o& ,e$t air i$ the D.*. ce ! What i# sea pots are &se%! 0ir is vented by opening the vent plugs on a li;uid service transmitter. %n services where seal pots are used isolate the primary isolation valves and open the vent valves. ill the line from the transmitter drain plug with a pump. 17. Wh- # o) is 'eas&re% i$ s:&are root! low varies directly as the s;uare root of different pressure 1 3 s;uare root of 0!. 9ince this flow varies as the s;uare root of differential pressure the pen does not directly indicate flow. The flow can be determined by taking the s;uare root of the pen. 9ay the pen reads =5$ of chart. 18. What is abso &te press&re! 0bsolute pressure is the total pressure present in the system 0bs. pressure 1 Iauge pressure K 0tm. pressure. "9. What is abso &te Eero press&re! 0bsolute 6ero 1 >B5 mm (g Vacuum. "1. What is the 'aAi'&' Vac&&'! The maximum Vacuum 1 >B5 mm (g. "". What is Vac&&'! 0ny pressure below atmospheric pressure is vacuum. At' F 439 '' Hero Vac&&' Hero <a&1e

Hero abso &te

MaA.,acc&' F 439''21

".. What are the pri'ar- e e'e$ts #or 'eas&ri$1 press&re! The primary elements used for measuring pressure are: ?ourdon tube. )iaphragm. 'apsule. ?ellows. !ressure 9prings. The above are known as elastic deformation pressure elements. Type of ?ourdon tubes. F ' F type. 9piral. (elix. Diaphra1': The diaphragm is best suited for low*pressure measurement. Caps& es : Two circular diaphragms are welded together to form a pressure capsule.
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2aterial Csed: phosphor bron6e, -i*spanc stainless steel. : ?ellows is a one * piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit with deep folds formed from very tin walled tubing. 2aterial used: ?rass, phosphor bron6e, and stainless steel. Csed for high pressure. *re.spri$1: !ressure springs of helical or spiral shape used for measuring high pressures. 5e o)s "/. 2o) )i -o& ca ibrate a$ abso &te press&re tra$s'itter@&si$1 ,ac&&' 'a$o'eter Ra$1e 9@ /99'' abs! The procedure for calibration is as follows: 'onnect air supply to the transmitter. 'onnect a test gauge of 5*<.A 3g+cm& to the output. 'onnect Vacuum pump with tee off to the manometer. 0pply >B5 mm Vacuum .or nearest/ and adGust 6ero. 0pply ,B5 mm Vacuum adGust span. .>B5 * ,B5 1 A55 mm abs./ "0. Co& are 1i,e$ a 'erc&r- 'a$o'eter ra$1e 9 @439 ''! A ,ac&&' 1a&1e rea%s 39 '' ,ac&&'. The test 'a$o'eter rea%s 09 ,ac&&'s! Which o# the t)o i$ correct! The transmitter is correct because >B5 * =5 1 ><5 mm abs. "3. Wh- is a$ i$c i$e% 'a$o'eter &se%! It is used to extend the scale of the instrument. ?ecause the manometer is at an angle to the vertical. "4. What is the pri$cip e o# a press&re 1a&1e! !ressure works on (ooks law. !rinciple: "2easuring the stress in an elastic medium" "7. Dra) a$% eAp ai$ a press&re 1a&1e! What is the &se% o# a 2airspri$1! The parts of a pressure gauge are: <. F'F type ?ourdon tube. &. 'onnecting link. ,. 9ector gear. A. !inion gear. =. (air 9pring. B. !ointer. >. )ial. Uses o# 2air Spri$1: (airspring serves two purposes namely To eliminate any play into linkages. It serves as a controlling tor;ue.

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+EVE+ "8. 5rie# - eAp ai$ the %i##ere$t 'etho%s o# e,e 'eas&re'e$t! There are two ways of measuring level: <. )irect &. Indirect. T0!: 2:09C4: <. )irect level measurement: .a/ ?ob and tape: TANI (ighest point reached by 0 bob weight and measuring li;uid tape provide the most simple and direct method of measuring li;uid level. )istance to be measured +IQUID after tape is taken out of Tank. ?ob .weight/ .b/ 9ight glass: This consists of a graduated glass tube mounted on the side of the vessel. 0s the level of the li;uid in the vessel change, so does the level of the li;uid in the glass tube. Indirect level measurement: .a/ !ressure gauge: This is the simplest method, for pressure gauge is located at the 6ero level of the li;uid in the vessel. 0ny rise in level causes an increase of pressure, which can be measured by a gauge. .b/ !urge system: In this method a pipe is installed vertically with the open and at 6ero level. The other end of the pipe is connected to a regulated air r supply and to a pressure gauge. To make a level measurement the air supply is adGusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the pressure due to height of the li;uid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure until bubbles cab be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe. *ress&re 1a&1e As e,e 1a&1e Air re1& ator Air s&pp N " p&r1e rota'eter

The air pressure to the bubbler pipe is minutely in excess of the li;uid pressure in the vessel, so that air pressure indicated is a measure of the level in the tank.

The methods above are suitable for open tank applications. 7hen a li;uid is in a pressure vessel, the li;uid column pressure canFt be used unless the vessel pressure is balanced out. This is done through the use of different pressure meters. .c/ )ifferential pressure meter:
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'onnections are made at the vessel top and bottom, and to the two columns of the ).!. meter. The top connection is made to the ".!. column of the transmitter and the bottom to (.!. column of the transmitter. The difference in pressure in the vessel is balanced out, since it is fed to both the column of the meter. The difference in pressure deducted by the meter will be due only to the changing, level of the li;uid. .d/ )isplacer type level measurement: The leveltrol is one of the most common instruments used measuring level in closed tanks. This instrument works of 0rchimedes principle. The displacer in immersed in the li;uid due to which there is loss of weight depending on the specified gravity of the li;uid. This displacer hangs freely on a knife transmitted to the pneumatic or electronic counterpart at the other end. .9. EAp ai$ ho) -o& )i 'eas&re e,e )ith a %i##ere$t press&re tra$s'itter. The bottom connection of the vessel is connected to high*pressure side of the transmitter. )ifferent !ressure 1 ( H )

2 % 2* +* K * D B * TRANSMITTER This difference pressure is applied to (.!. side of the transmitted and calibrated. .1. 2o) is D.*. tra$s'itter app ie% to a c ose ta$D! In close tank the bottom of the tank is connected to the high*pressure side of the transmitter and top of the tank in connected to ".!. side of the transmitter. In this way the vessel pressure is balanced. .". 2o) is D.*. tra$s'itter app ie% to a$ ope$ ta$D! %n an open tank level measurement the ".!. side is vented to atmosphere. 7hatever pressure acts is on the (.!. side, which is a measure of level. 9!0- 1 .H/ .9p.Irav/ J:4% 9C!!4:99I%- 1 .O/ .9p.Irav/

J C 2* +* ? @

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... 2o) is D.* tra$s'itter app ie% to a c ose ta$D & ope$ ta$D )ith Dr- e1! 9pan 1 .H/ .I"/ (7 at minimum level 1 .J/ .I9/ K .O/ .I"/ (7 at maximum level 1 . J / . I9 / K . H K O / . I" / 7here: I" 1 9pecific gravity of tank li;uid. I9 1 9pecific gravity of seal li;uid. (7 1 :;uivalent head of water. H, O 8 J are shown in fig .<.</ Ope$ ta$D C ose ta$D )ith %r- e1 20H.":V:"
20H ":V:"

J 2I-.":V:" C

J
C 2I":V:"

:xample: %pen tank with H 1 ,55 inches O 1 =5 inches J 1 <5 inches I" 1 5.D I9 1 5.E 9pan 1 .,55/ .5.D/ 1 &A5 inches (7 at minimum level 1 .<5/ .5.E/ K .=5/ .5.D/ 1 AE inches (7 at maximum level 1 .<5/ .5.E/ K .=5 K ,55/ .5.D/ 1 &DE inches 'alibrated range 1 AE to &DE inches head of water C ose ta$D )ith )et e1: 9pan 1 .H/ .I"/ (7 at minimum level 1 .O/ .I"/ P .d/.I9/ (7 at maximum level 1 .H K O/ .I"/ P .d/ .I9/ 7here: I" 1 9pecific gravity of tank li;uid I9 1 9pecific gravity of tank li;uid (7 1 :;uivalent head of water H, O and J are shown in fig.

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20H ":V:"

%
2I":V:" C

:xample: H 1 ,55 inches O 1 =5 inches d 1 =55 inches I" 1 5.D I9 1 5.E 9pan 1 .,55/ .5.D/ 1 &A5 inches (7 minimum level 1 .=5/ .5.D/ * .=55/ .5.E/ 1 * A<5 inches (7 maximum level 1 .,55 K =5/ .5.D/ P .=55/ .5.E/ 1 * <>5 inches 'alibrated range 1 * A<5 to P<>5 inches head of water. .2inus sings indicate that the higher pressure is applied to the low pressure side of the transmitter/ ./. What is p&r1e e,e s-ste'! This method is also known as bubbler method of level measurement. 0 pipe is installed vertically with its open end at the 6ero level. The other end of the pipe is connected to a regulated air supply and to a pressure gauge or to Q! transmitter. To make a level measurement the air supply is adGusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the pressure due to the height of the li;uid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure until bubbles can be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe. The gage then measures the air pressure needed to over come the pressure of the li;uid. +R ! 1 ( H ) USE: %n for corrosive li;uids where the transmitter cannot be directly connected to process eg... 0cids, 9ome organic li;uids. .0. EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# a e,e tro . The leveltrol is used for measuring level of li;uids in a closed vessel. <. !4I-'I!":. : It works on 0rchimedes principle "The loss in weight of a body immersed in a li;uid is e;ual to amount of li;uid displaced by the body". The leveltrol basically consists of the following: &. )I9!"0':4: It is consists of a cylindrical shape pipe sealed and filled inside with sand or some weight. The purpose of this is to convert change in level to primary motion. The variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in li;uid level varies the net weight of the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the tor;ue arm. This change is directly proportional to change in level and specific gravity of the li;uid. ,. 4:"0O: 0mplifies pressure variations at the no66les. A. 4:V:49I-I 04': It is used for the following purposes. 2otion takes of from Tor;ue tube. 2eans of reverse control action. 0dGustment for specific gravity. =. !4%!:4TI%-0" C-IT. : 'onverts primary motion to a proportional output air pressure.
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B. '%-T4%" 9:TTI-I C-IT: !rovides a motion of varying the set point. .3. EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 a$ e ectro$ic e,e tro . 4:I K 4V)T %9' K * S J:4%
%! 0 * 2!

)' 2%) K

)' 02!"I I:4 9!0-

The variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in li;uid level varies the net weight of the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the tor;ue arm. This change is directly proportional to the change in level and specific gravity of the li;uid. The resulting tor;ue tube movement varies the angular motion of the rotor in the 4V)T .4otary Variable )ifferential. Transformer/ providing a voltage change proportional to the rotor displacement, which is converted and amplified to a ).'. current. .4. 2o) )i -o& re,erse a$ actio$ o# the e,e tro ! The reversing are serves as motion take off arm from the tor;ue tube. It is provided with a slot on each side of the center so that link can be connected either for reverse or direct action. .7. What is i$ter#ace e,e ! 2o) %o -o& ca c& ate it! 7hen a vessel is filled with two li;uids of two different specific gravities the level measurement refers to as interface level. )! 1 ( . ) * d /

):-9ITO d

):-9ITO )
(! "!

%n a level set the difference of two specific gravities.

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.8. 2o) )i -o& ca ibrate a e,e tro i$ the #ie %!

"evel transmitter. )isplacer chamber Transparent !.V.' tube

<. irst close both the primary isolation valves and drain the li;uid inside the chamber. &. 0dGust the 6ero to get 5$ output. ,. 'onnect a transparent !V' tube to the drain point as shown in hook up. A. ill it to the center of the top flange. =. 0dGust the specific gravity or span adGustment .:lectronic "evel/. B. ill it up to =5 $, check linearity. /9. 2o) )i -o& ca ibrate o$ i$ter#ace e,e co$tro . ! %n an interface leveltrol there are two li;uids of two different specific gravities. <. The level will be 6ero when it is full of lighter li;uid. Jero $ level 1 ( H d. ( 1 )isplacer length d 1 9pecific gravity of lighter li;uid. & The level will be <55 $ when it is full of heavier li;uid. <55 $ level 1 ( H ). ) 1 9pecific gravity of heavier li;uid. 'alibration with water: <. ill ( H d level with water adGust 6ero. &. ill ( H ) level with water adGust 9p. gravity or span. ,. 'heck linearity. /1. 2o) )i -o& app - )t. est ca ibratio$ to a e,e tro . 7t. test calibration method: <. 4emove the displacer from the tor;ue arm. &. 0pply e;uivalent weight on the tor;ue arm that is e;ual to the wt. of the displacer. 0dGust 6ero $ output. ,. or 9pan: V 1 r&h "oss in weight 1 7t. of float * wt. of the float immersed in li;uid "oss in weight 1 T wt. of float * Vol. x d U 9pan wt. 1 .wt. of float * "oss in wt./ r 1 radius of the displacer. h 1 ht. of displacer. A. 0pply e;uivalent wt. e;ual to the .7t. of float * "oss in weight/. 0dGust 9pan to get <55 $ out put. =. To check linearity apply average of the two weights. /". What )i happe$ i# the %isp acer has #a e$ %o)$ )hi e i$ i$e! The output will be maximum. /.. What )i happe$ i# the %isp acer has a ho e i$ it )hi e i$ i$e! The output will be minimum.
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//. What is the &se% o# S&ppressio$ a$% e e,atio$! 9uppression and elevation are used on "evel applications where .</ transmitters are not mounted on some level .&/ 7et leg. i.e. condensable vapors are present. /0. What are the i'itatio$s o# e,e tro ! The limitations of a level control that it cannot be used for lengths more than >& inches. /3. 2o) )i -o& co''issio$ D.*. tra$s'itter i$ #ie % i$ press&riEe% ,esse . <. 'lose both the isolation valves, Vent the (.!. side. &. ill it with the sealing li;uid. ,. %pen the ".!. side vent valve. A. 0dGust 6ero with suppression spring. =. 'lose the ".!. side vent valve. B. %pen both the isolation valves.

/4. 2o) )i -o& checD Eero o# a e,e D.*. tra$s'itter )hi e is i$e! <. 'lose both the isolation valves. &. %pen the vent valve on ".!. leg and (.!. leg drain. ,. 'heck and adGust 6ero if necessary. /7.EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# a$ E$ra# e,e 1a&1e! The :nraf precise level gauges are based on servo powered null*balance techni;ue. 0 displacer serves as a continuous level*sensing element. !rinciple: 0 displacer with a relative density higher than that of the product to be measured is suspended from a stainless steel wire ?, which is attached to a measuring drum. 0 two phase servo meter controlled by a capacitive balance system winds or unwinds the measuring wire until the tension in the weighing springs is in balance with the weight of the displacer partly immersed in the li;uid. The sensing system in principle measures the two capacitance formed by the moving center sensing rod : provided with two capacitor plates and the side plates. In balance position the capacitances are of e;ual value. "evel variations will a difference in buoyancy of the displacer. The center sensing rod will move in the direction of one of the side capacitor plates. This causes a difference in value of these capacitances. ?y an electronic circuit this change is detected and integrated. )uring the rotation of the servomotor the cam driven transmitter continuously change the voltage pattern to a remote indicator of which the receiver motor drives a counter indicating level variation. TEM*RETURE /8. What are the %i##ere$t 'etho%s o# te'perat&re 'eas&re'e$t! EAp ai$. The different methods of temperature measurement are: <. 2echanical &. :lectrical. Mecha$ica 'etho%s: 1. Merc&r- i$ 1 ass ther'o'eters: This consists of a glass tube of very fine bore Goined to a reservoir at the bottom and sealed at the top. 0 measured ;uantity of mercury is the enclosed. 7hen the thermometer is heated the mercury expands much more than the glass and is therefore forced to rise up in the tubing 0 scale is fixed at the side. ". 5i'eta ic Ther'o'eter: Two metals whose coefficient of linear expansion is different are welded and rolled together to the desire thickness. The actual movement of a bimetal is its flexivity with one end fixed, a straight bimetal strip %e# ects i$ proportion to its temperature, to the s;uare of its length and inversely with its thickens. ..*ress&re Spri$1 Ther'o'eters: There are four classes of pressure spring thermometers. <. "i;uid filled 1 class < &. Vapor pressure 1 class & ,. Ias filled 1 class , A. 2ercury filled 1 class A +i:&i% #i e% & Merc&r- #i e%:
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?oth typeV operate on the principle of thermal expansion. 7here the bulb is immersed in a heated substance. The li;uid expands causing the pressure spring to unwind. The indicating, recording or controlling mechanisms are attached to pressure spring. 'ompensated Thermometer 9ystem: 'ompensations are provided in order to nullify the effect of changes in ambient temperature. The compensation in li;uid filled expansions thermal system consists of the second tubing and helical element, both li;uid filled. The two elements are so constructed that the measuring helical floats on a movable base the position of which is governed by the compensating helical. The two tubing and helical are matched in volume so that variation in temperature at the instrument case and along the capillary tubing produce e;ual motion from both helical. 9uch motion nullity each other so that only motion produced by varying the bulb temperature actuates the recorder pen. <as #i e% Ther'o'eters: This type depends upon the increase in pressure of a confirm gas .constant volume/ due to temperature increase. The relation between temperature and pressure in this kind of system follow 'harles law and may be expressed. !< T< !& T& The system is filled under high pressure. The increase pressure for each degree of temperature rise is therefore greater than if the filling pressure were low. -itrogen the gas most after used for such systems, because it chemically insert and possesses a favorable coefficient thermal expansion. Vapor @ *ress&re Ther'o'eters: Vapor pressure thermometers depend upon vapor pressure of li;uid, which only partially fills the system. 0t low temperatures the vapor pressure increase for each unit temperature charge is small, at higher temperature the vapor pressure change is much greater. E ectrica 'etho% o# te'perat&re 'eas&re'e$t: <. Thermocouples: It is a simple device consisting of a dissimilar metal wires Goined at their ends. 7hen an of each wire is connected to a measuring instrument thermocouples becomes an accurate and sensitive temperature measuring device. cold or reference Gunction (ot or measuring Gunction

Thermocouples Types and 4ange: Type T+' .W/ .3/ .:/ .T/ .4/ .9/ !ositive wire 8 color Iron 8 7hite 'hromel 8 Oellow 'hromel 8 !urple 'opper 8 ?lue !latinum and <5$4hodium 8 ?lack !latinum and <,$4hodium 8 ?lack -egative wire 8 color 'onstantan 8 4ed 0lumel 8 4ed 'onstantan 8 4ed 'onstantan 8 4ed !latinum 8 4ed !latinum 8 4ed 4ange *,55 to<A55 *,55 to&,55 *,55 to<B55 *,55 to B=5 ,& to &>55 ,& to &>55

4esistance P Temperature )etectors .4T)/: 4T)Fs are generally used for precise temperature measurement. It consists of a five wire wrapped around an insulator and enclosed in a metal. The most sheath of a resistance thermometer resembles that of bimetallic thermometer bulb. !4I-'I!": : "4esistance increases as temperature increase" Rt. F Ro =1 ? K t > 4t. 1 4esistance of Temperature to measured. 4o. 1 4esistance of 6ero temperature.
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X 1 'o. off of thermal .expansion/. t 1 Temperature to be measured. These metals have a positive temperature co*efficient of expansion. Therefore resistance increases as the temperature increases. Types of material used: .</ !latinum .&/ -ickel These metals have a positive temperature co*efficient of expansion. Therefore resistance increases as the temperature increases. 'alculation of 4esistance or !t<55. 4o. 1 <55 x for platinum 1 5.55,D= +c. To calculate 4esistance at <55Fc. 4<55 1 <55 T <K . ,D.= x <5 A x <55 / U 1 <55 K .<55 x 5.,D=/ 4<55 1 <,D.= Resista$ce at 1996c F 1.7.0 09. What is *t 199 'ea$! !t<55 means <55 %(29 at 5F' for a platinum resistance bulb. 01. What is t)o )ires a$% three )ires R.T.D. s-ste'! Two wire 4 .T .). system: Two wire 4T) system use for short distance like a compressor field local panel. Three wire 9ystem: Three wire system use for long distance coke a field to control 4un. The third wire is used for compensation of lead wire resistance. T)o@)ire R.T.D Three@)ire R.T.D

? @ ? @ R1 R" R1 R"

I al

R.

I al

R.

R.T.D R.T.D 0". Dra) a pote$tio'eter te'perat&re 'eas&ri$1 circ&its a$% eAp ai$ its! Ther'oco&p e T)o %i##ere$t si1$a U$ D$o) si1$a Ser,o ba a$ci$1 'otor Meas.
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AM*

Co$sta$t ,o ta1e

I$o)$

circ&it

si1$a

si1$a

O*ERATION: The input to the instrument is a measurement of some in the processes using a sensing element .such as thermocouple/ or a device to produce direct voltage, which is the voltage .signal/. This voltage is subtracted from a voltage developed by a known constant voltage in a potentiometer measuring circuit. The subtraction occurs by connecting two voltages in series with the opposing polarity, difference between these two voltages produces signal, the voltage going to the amplifier. The errors will positive or negative depending on which of the two voltages greater. 7hen amplified, the error signal will drive servo balancing motor in appropriate direction to adGust circuit .actually drive the slide wire/ until the difference between the feedback voltage and the input voltage is balance out. 0n error signal e;ual to 6ero results .null point/ the balancing .servo motor is be longer driven/ 0.. What is the co$sta$t ,o ta1e &$it! 4 &1&E.A 42 4c 'r < &k '< >BAY 4, 4esistance lead of 'r, * '4 T 1 ,A,.,, The constant voltage circuit consists of a rectifier, '4, a filter capacitor '<, followed by two stages of 6ener regulation. 0bridge configuration is provided to <amp line voltage regulation 6ener '4,, 4< and 4& combine provide relatively constant current to 6ener '4A, Thus variations. 4esisters 4& and 4, form a bridge that any re moment line voltage effects. 0/. EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# a ba a$ci$1 'otor. 9ignal in control winding appears as capacitor of amp. board. 4:) 'ontrol signal winding from amplifier 4< 'rA K

due tank circuit formed by winding and

I4::-

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Kve signal : It lags E5F from due to line phase capacitor amp. board. *ve signal : "eads E5F from line due to line phase capacitor of amp. board. The servo .balancing/ motor is an induction motor that functions by creating a rotating magnetic field in the stator. The rotor .armature/ turns by following this field. The field is developed by the use of two windings in the stator. It has got two windings, one of which is continuously energi6ed by the line voltage. The other winding is energi6ed by the power amplifier, with a current whose phase with respect to line current determines the direction of rotation of motor.

00. What is b&r$o&t #eat&re! EAp ai$. ?urnout provides the warning feature of driving indicator the end of scale if the input circuit should open. 0 burnout resistor is provided which develops a voltage drop between the measuring circuit and the amplifier. The polarity of the signal determines the direction of the servo drive upon an open circuit in the input. Cpscale burnout: 4 value <5 2 )ownscale burnout: 4 value &.& 2 03. EAp ai$ the b ocD %ia1ra' o# a$ a'p i#ier i$ a te'perat&re recor%er. 04. Wh- is a co$,erter &se% i$ a te'perat&re recor%er! The converter is designed to convert ). '. input voltage into an 0. '. input voltage proportional in amplitude to the input. 07. Wh- are Ther'o )e s &se%! In numerous applications it is neither desirable nor practical to expose a temperature sensor directly to a process material. 7ells are therefore used to protect against damage corrosion, erosion, abrasion and high pressure processes. 0 thermo well is also useful in protecting a sensor from physical damage during handling and normal operation. 9electing a thermo well: The significant properties considered in selecting a material for the well are as follows: <. 4esistance to corrosion and oxidation. &. 4esistance to mechanical and thermal shock. ,. "ow permeability .4esistance to gas leakage/. A. 2echanical strength. =. Thermal conductivity. 2aterial for 7ells: <. 9tainless steal. &. Inconel. ,. 2onel. A. 0lloy steal. =. (astelloy F'F. 08. 2o) )i -o& ca ibrate a te'perat&re recor%er &si$1 a pote$tio'eter! 'onnect the potentiometer output to the input of temperature recorder. <. 'onnect the .Kve/ to .Kve/ and .*ve/ to .*ve/. &. If ambient compensation is provided in potentiometer set it to the correct ambient temp. ,. If no ambient compensation is provided take a thermometer and measure the correct ambient temperature. ind out the corresponding mV s for that temperature for the given input type of thermocouple. A. 7hile feeding subtract the ambient temp. m v s from the corresponding temperature every time. =. 0dGust the necessary adGustments.

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2easuring Temperature 7ith a !otentiometer: <.'onnect the input of the potentiometer to the thermocouple. &.If no ambient compensation is provided find out the corresponding mill volts for that ambient temperature for the type of thermocouple used. ,.0dd the ambient temperature mill volts to the corr. input mill volts measured. ind out from the chart the corresponding temperature. 39. What t-pe o# se$si$1 e e'e$t )o& % -o& &se to 'eas&re ,er- o) te'perat&re! The sensing element used for measuring very low temperature is 4. T. ). .4esistance Temperature )etector/ 31. What are sDi$ te'perat&re ther'oco&p es! 9kin thermocouples are those, which are directly connected to the process without any thermo well. Csed for measuring the skin temperature of heaters furnaces, flue gas etc. 3". What is the specia t- o# ther'oco&p es ea% )ires! They should be of the same material as the thermocouple. 3.. What is the %i##ere$ce the )heat sto$e bri%1e a$% a pote$tio'eter! The difference between a potentiometer and a wheat stone bridge measuring instrument is that potentiometer is a voltage measuring instrument and wheat stone bridge is a current measuring instrument. 3/. EAp ai$ the co$ti$&es ba a$ce pote$tio'eter s-ste' &si$1 R. T. D.6s. 'onverter Voltage !ower amplifier amplifier

:nergi6ing coil 9lide wire ?alancing motor R.T.D

In a balance wheat stone bridge resistance thermometer a resistance bulb is connected into one branch of a d.c. bridge circuitV in another branch is a variable resistance in the form of a calibrated slide wire. Variations in temperature of the measured medium cause a change in resistance of the bulb and a conse;uent unbalance of the bridge circuit. 9elf*balancing wheat stone bridges recogni6es the condition of unbalance, determines its direction and magnitude and position the slide wire contractor to rebalance the bridge and indicate the temperature on the scale. The ). '. potential appearing at 00 is converted by the converting stage to an 0. '. voltage appearing at ?? and is multiplied by the voltage amplifier to a large value at cc. It is then used to control the power amplifier output )) which drives the balancing motor in the proper direction to balance the bridge. The polarity of the signal at 00 determines the phase of the alternating voltage at ??, which in turn determines the direction of rotation of the balancing motor. 30. 2o) is a&to'atic Re#ere$ce L&$ctio$ co'pe$satio$ carrie% o&t i$ te'perat&re recor%ers ! Rheostat
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* scale

Variab e Resistor Re#ere$ce L&$ctio$

<

* 2ot L&$ctio$

M* or automatic reference Gunction compensation a variable nickel resister is used. 0s the temperature changes, so does its resistance. This reference Gunction compensatory is located, so that it will be at the temperature of the reference Gunction. The reference Gunction is at the position where the dissimilar wire of the thermocouple is reGoined, which invariably is at the terminal strip of the instrument. CONTRO+ SCSTEMS 33. EAp ai$ the app icatio$ o# proportio$a i$te1ra a$% %eri,ati,e actio$! *roportio$a co$tro o$ -: !roportional control only attempts to return a measurement to the set point after a load upset has occurred. (ow ever it is impossible for a proportional controller to return the measurement exactly to the set point. Use: It is normally used for level controls. It reduces the effect of a load change but it cannot eliminate it. *roportio$a p &s reset co$tro : 4eset action is introduced to eliminate offset. It will integrate any difference between measurement and set point and cause the controllerFs output to change until the difference between the measurement and set point is 6ero. 4eset will act as long as the error exists. Use: !roportional K 4eset controllers are by far the common types used in industrial process control and where predominate dead times occur. *roportio$a p &s reset p &s %eri,ati,e: )erivative or rate action helps the controller overcome system inertia and result in faster, more precise control. )erivative action occurs whenever the measurement signal changes. Cnder study conditions the rate action does not act. )erivative allows the controller to inGect more corrective action. Use: %n temperature controls. 34. What is %i##ere$ce 1ap co$tro ! )ifferential gap control is similar to on off control except that a band or gap exists around the control point. Use: In industry differential gap control is often found in non*critical level control applications where it is desirable only to prevent a tank from flooding or drying. Whe$ a measured variable exceeds the upper gap the control valve will open fully or be closed fully. 9imilarly when it exceeds the lower gap it will open or close fully. 37. Where is o$ o## co$tro &se%! %n off control is used when <. !recise control is not needed. &. !rocesses that have sufficient capacity to allow the final operator to keep up with the measurement cycle. ,. It is mainly used in refrigeration and is conditioning systems. 38. What is reset@)i$% &p! 7hen reset action is applied in controllers where the measurement is away from the set point for long periods the rest may drive the output to its maximum resulting in rest wind up. 7hen the process starts again the output will no come off its maximum until the measurement crosses the so point causing large
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overshoots. This problem can be avoided by including anti*reset wind up circuit, which eliminates the problem of output saturation. 49. Wh- is reset ca e% i$te1ra a$% Rate %eri,ati,e! 4eset is called integral because of the mathematical relationship to the output. 4ate is called derivative because
t1i

%i 1 f e . dt / K %5
t1o

%i 1 r . de + dt / K %5 r 1 is the rate time

%i 1 %5 1 e 1 t 1 f 1

is the %utput at any given time is the out put at time 6ero or 6ero error. is the error signal is time. is the reset rate in respects per minute.

41. EAp ai$ t&$i$1 o# co$tro ers. Tuning basically involves adGustment of proportional. Integral and derivative parameters to achieve good control. The gain, time constants, and dead times around the loop will dictate the settings of various parameters of the controller. T&$i$1 'etho%s are broa% - c assi#ie% i$to t)o: <. 'losed "oop 2ethod: e.g. Cltimate Iain 2ethod. &. %pen "oop 2ethod: e.g. process 4eaction curve. U ti'ate 1ai$ 'etho%: The term ultimate gain was attached to this method because their uses re;uire the determination of the ultimate gain .sensitivity/ and ultimate period. The ultimate sensitivity 3u is the maximum allowable value of gain .for a controller with only !roportional mode/ for which the system is stable. The ultimate period is the period of the response with the gain set at its ultimate value. *rocess reactio$ c&r,e: To deter mine the process reaction curve, the following steps are recommended. : <. "et the system come to steady state at the normal load level. &. !lace the controller on manual. ,. 2anually set the output of the controller at the value at which it was operating in the automatic mode. A. 0llow the system to reach the steady state. =. 7ith controller on manual, impose a step changes in the output of controller, which is an signal to value. B. 4ecord the response of controlled variable. >. 4eturn the controller output to its previous value and return the controller to auto operation. 4". EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# a$ e ectro$ic *.I.D. co$tro er. Input from the measurement transmitter is compared with the set point voltage to produce a deviation signal. The deviation signal is combined with a characteri6ed feed back signal to provide the input for the function generator amplifier. This amplifiers output is delivered to the feed back network, and to the final output which is a <5*=5m.a. do signal for actuation of final operators. 9et 2anual 2easurement )eviation 0mplifier 2anual 0utomatic

Iain

To final operator

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*roportio$a actio$: It is a obtained by adGusting the magnitude of feed back signal. 0n increase in negative feedback means less effective gain and thus a broader proportional band. Reset actio$s: It is obtained by charging the reset capacitor at a rate determined by the value of reset resister. The reset resister is variable, and constitutes reset adGustment. Deri,ati,e actio$: The connection of a derivative capacitor across the feedback circuit delays feedback until the capacitor is charged to a value approaching amplifier output. This delay is controlled by value of derivative resister. This resister is variable and constitutes derivative adGustment. 4.. What is a$ a$a o1&e i$te1rator a$% a$ a$a o1&e %i##ere$tiator! A$a o1 i$te1rator: R C Vi$ ? AV @1 @ V9 F Vi$%t RC A$a o1 %i##ere$tiator: R C % V9 F @ RC %t Vi$ Vi$ @ ? AV Vo&t

Vo&t

4/. What is a$ti reset )i$% &p! If the limit acts in the feed back section of the control amplifiers integral circuit, the controller output will immediately begin to drive in the opposite direction as soon as the process signal crosses the set point. This approach is referred to as anti reset wind up. 40. What are De@sat&rators! 7hen, in some processes, e.g. batch process, long transient responses are expected during which a sustained deviation is present the controller integral action continuously drives the output to a minimum or maximum value. This phenomenon is called "integral saturation of the control unit". 7hen this condition.

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43.What is the e##ect o# )eep ho e o$ ca c& atio$ o# ori#ice bore! % F %' N 1 ? 9.00 =%'>" O %h )here: %' F Meas&re% %ia'eter o# ori#ice. %h F Drai$ ho e %ia'eter. % F Correcte% %ia'eter ori#ice siEe.

44. EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# Rota'eter! OUT +ET The flow rate varies directly as the float rises and falls in the tapered tube.

Tapered glass tube 9cale

IN +ET Variable area meters are special form of head meters. 7here in the area of flow restrictor is varied. 9o as to hold the differential pressure constant. The rotameters consists of a vertical tapered tube through which the metered fluid flows in upward direction. 0 "float" either spherical or cone shaped, actually more dense than the fluid being measured, creates an annular passage between its maximum circumference and the weight of the tapered tube. 0s the flow varies the "float" rises or falls to vary the area of the passage so that the differential across it Gust balances the gravitational force on the "float" i.e. the differential pressure is maintained constant. The position of the "float" is the measured of the rate of flow. 47. EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# a 'a1$etic 'eter. 0n electric potential is developed when a conductor is moved across the magnetic field. In most electrical machinery the conductor is a "wire"V the principle is e;ually applicable to a moving, electrically conductive li;uid. The primary device of commercial magnetic meters consists of a straight cylindrical electrically insulated tube with a pair of electrodes nearly flush with the tube wall and located at opposite ends of a tube diameter. 0 uniform a.c. magnetic field is provided at right angles to electrode diameter and to the axis of the tube. The a.c. voltage developed at the electrodes is proportional to the volume flow rate of fluid, and to a magnetic field strength. This device is limited to electrically conducting li;uids. The magnetic meter is particularly suited to measurement of slurries and dirty fluids, since there is no location for solids to collect except the walls of the tube itself. 48. EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# a t&rbi$e 'eter. Turbine meters consist of a straight flow tube within which a turbine or fan is free to rotate, about its axis which is fixed along the centerline of the tube. 9traightening vanes upstream of the turbine minimi6es possible rotational components of fluid flow. In most units a magnetic pick*up system senses the rotation of the rotor through the tube wall. The turbine meter is a flow rate device, since the rotor speed is directly proportional to flow rate. The output is usually in the form of electrical pulses from the magnetic pick*up with a fre;uency proportional to flow rate. Turbine meter are primarily applied to measurement of clean and non*corrosive hydrocarbons. 79. EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# a *itot t&be. The pitot tube measures the velocity at point in the conduct. If ;uantity rate measurement is desired, it must be calculated from the ratio of average velocity to the velocity at the point of measurement. *ri$cip e: If a tube is placed with its open and facing into a stream of fluid, then the fluid impinging on the open end will be brought to rest, and the kinetic energy converted to pressure energy. The pressure built up in the tube will be greater than that in the free stream by the impact pressure or pressure produced by loss of kinetic energy. The increase in pressure will depend upon the s;uare of the velocity of the stream. The difference is measured between the pressure in the tube and static pressure of the stream. The static pressure is measured by a tapping in the wall of the main or by a tapping

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incorporated in the pitot static tube itself. The difference between the pressure in the tube and static pressure will be a measure of the impact pressure and therefore of the velocity of the stream oil. 71. Where is the i$te1ra ori#ice &se%! Integral orifice is used to measure small flow rates. It is mounted directly on the secondary device. The integral orifice diameter varies between 5.5&5 inch and 5.&=5 inch diameter. The integral orifice finds considerable use in laboratory and pitot plants. 'alculation of flow rate : Q$ B (c F Is A C)i A (a A (' A <p B <e ; h) 7". EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# a tar1et 'eter. The target meter combines in a single unit both a primary element and a force balance flow rate transmitter. 0 circular disc .or target/ supported concentrically in the pipe carrying the flowing fluid results in an annular orifice configuration. !ressure difference developed by the fluid flow through this annular orifice produces a force on target proportional to the s;uare of the flow rate. This force is carried out of the pipe through a rod passing through a diaphragm seal, and is measured by a pneumatic or electronic force balance system identical with the mechanism of the force balance ).!. cell. The advantage of the target meter lies primarily in its single unit construction the primary device and responsive mechanism in a single structure. This eliminates the diff. pressure fluid connections in most heads meters. This is particularly used for sticky and dirty material, which may plug up differential connections and for li;uids, which re;uire elevated temperatures to avoid solidificationV this elimination of li;uid connection is useful. 7m & 1 'st a m c rf 7.. Where is a :&a%ra$t ori#ice &se%! If the fluid is viscous and the operating 4eynolds number is low ;uadrant orifice is preferred 7/. What are t-pes o# taps &se% #or ori#ices! 1. ( a$1e taps: These are most commonly used on pipe si6es of & inches or larger. They are located in the orifice flange & inch from upstream and < inch downstream from the faces 5 orifice plate. ". Cor$er taps: %n pipe si6es less than & inches corner taps located directly at the face of the orifice plate. .. Ve$a co$tracta a$% ra%i&s taps: Vena contracta taps located at < pipe diameter upstream and at point of minimum pressure downstream. There are mostly widely used for measurement of steam. 4adius taps are located < pipe diameter upstream and Z pipe diameter downstream for the inlet face of the orifice is a close approximation to vena contracta taps up to 5.>& d + ). /. (& # o) taps: ace flow taps are located at &Z*pipe diameter upstream and ? pipe diameter downstream. ull flow taps at &Z and ? pipe diameter have the same advantage as vena contracta or radius taps. 70. What is Re-$o %s $&'ber! )ynamic similarity implies a correspondence of fluid forces in two systems. In general situation there are many classes of forces that influence the behavior of fluids. 9ome of these are inertial viscous, gravitational, compressibility, pressure and elastic forces. 'ertain dimensionless ratio are developed based on fluid properties. Velocities and dimension, which are essentially force ratio. The more important of these are 4eynolds number

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,DP RF Q

V F ,e ocitD F i$si%e %ia'eter o# pipe P F # &i% %e$sitQ F ,iscosit-

or most applications in practical flow measurement the 4eynolds number is taken to be sufficient criterion of dynamic similarly. The magnitude of 4eynolds number not only indicates whether the flow is laminar or turbulent but also furnishes the probable shape of velocity profile. )ue to the strong role it plays as an indicator of varying flow characteristicsV many of the deviation from the theoretical e;uations are called 4eynaldo number effects. 73. 2o) )o& % -o& choose %i##ere$tia ra$1e! The most common diff. range for li;uid measurement is 5*<55" ( &%. This range is high enough to minimi6e the errors caused by une;ual heads in the seal chambers, differences in temps. of load lines etc. The <55" range permits an increase in capacity up to A55" and a decrease down up to &5" by merely changing range tubes or range adGustments. 74. What is a positi,e Disp ace'e$t 'eter! *ri$cip e: The principle of measurement is that as the li;uid flows through the meter it moves a measuring element, which seals off the measuring chamber into a series of measuring compartments each holding a definite volume. 0s the measuring element 'o,es; these compartments are successively filled and emptied. Thus for each complete of the measuring element a fixed ;uantity of li;uid is permitted to pass from the inlet to the outlet of the meter. The seal between measuring element and the measuring chamber is provided by a film of measured li;uid. The number of cycle of the measuring element is indicated by means of a pointer moving over the dial, a digital totali6er or some other form of register, driven from the measuring element through an adGustable gearing. The 'ost co''o$ #or's o# positi,e %isp ace'e$t 'eters are: <. 4eciprocating !iston type. &. 4otating or %scillating !iston type. ,. -utating )isc type. A. luted 9piral 4otor type. =. 9liding vane type. B. 4otating vane type. >. %val Iear type. 77. Wh- are t)o p &1s pro,i%e% o$ a D.* tra$s'itter! <.The top plug is a vent plug for venting the air entrapped inside the cell. &.The bottom plug is a drain plug for draining the li;uid accumulated inside the cell. CONTRO+ VA+VES 78. What is a co$tro ,a ,es! 0 control valve is the final control element, which directly changes the valve of the manipulated variable by changing the rate of flow of control agent. 0 control valve consists of an operator and valve body. The operator provides the power to vary the position of the valve plug inside the body. The plug is connected to the operator by a stem, which slides through a stuffing box. The air signal from the controller is applied above the diaphragm. The increasing air signal from the controller is applied above the diaphragm. 0n increasing air signal will push the operator stem downwards against the force exerted by the spring on the diaphragm plate. The valve is adGusted in such a way that the plug starts moving when , psi is applied to the diaphragm and touches the seat when <= psi is applied to the diaphragm. Thus an increase in air pressure will close the valve. (ence the home "0ir to 'lose". 0nother type is "0ir to open", such that , psi on the diaphragm the value is closed and <= psi air signal it in fully open. 89. What are the %i##ere$t t-pes o# co$tro ,a ,es! The commonly used control valves can be divided as follows. <. )epending on 0ction. &. )epending on the ?ody.
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1. Depe$%i$1 o$ actio$: )epending on action there are two types of control valves, .</ 0ir to close, .&/ 0ir to open. ". Depe$%i$1 o$ bo%-: <. Ilobe valves single or double seated. &. 0ngle valves. ,. ?utterfly valves. A. Three way valves. 81. What is the &se o# si$1 e seate% ,a ,e! The single seated valve is used on smaller si6es, and in valve of larger si6es, where an absolute shut off is re;uired. The use of single seated valve is limited by pressure drop across the valve in the closed or almost closed position. 8". What is the &se o# %o&b e@seate% ,a ,e! In double seated valves the upward and downward forces on the plug due to reduction of fluid pressure are nearly e;uali6ed. It is generally used on bigger si6e valves and high*pressure systems. 0ctuator forces re;uired are less i.e. a small si6e actuator. 8.. What is C, o# a ,a ,e! 'v is the capacity of a valve and is defined as: "-o of gallons per minute of water which passes through a fully open valve at a pressure drop of < psi. ' V 1 ; . [! + I / 7here: 'v 1 Valve co*efficient ; 1 Volumetric flow rate . gallons + minute / [! 1 !ressure drop across the valve in psi. I 1 9pecific gravity of flowing fluid. The valve coefficient 'v is proportional to the area F0F between the plug and valve seat measured perpendicularly to the direction of flow. 8/. What are the %i##ere$t t-pes o# act&ators! The different types of actuators are: <. )iaphragm %perated. &. !iston %perated.

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80. What t-pes o# bo$$ets )o& % -o& &se o# hi1h te'p. a$% ,er- o) te'p. ! 2i1h te'perat&re: ?onnets are provided with radiation fins to prevent glad packing from getting damaged. O$ ,er- o) te'perat&re: :xtended bonnets are used to prevent gland packing from getting free6e. 83. 2o) )i -o& )orD o$ a co$tro ,a ,e )hi e it is i$e! 7hile the control valve is in line or in service, it has to be by passed and secondly the line to be depressuri6ed and drained. 84. What is the &se o# a ,a ,e positio$er! The valve positioner is used for following reasons: <. #uick 0ction control valve. &. Valve hysteresis. ,. Valves used on viscous li;uids. A. 9plit 4ange. =. "ine pressure changes on valve. B. Valve ?ench set not standard. >. 4eversing valve operation. 87. Whe$ ca$ a b- pass be $ot &se% o$ a positio$er!
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0 by pass on a positioner cannot be used when: <. 9plit 4ange operation. &. 4everse 0cting !ositioner. ,. Valve bench set not standard. 88. What is the &se o# b&tter# - ,a ,es!

?utterfly valves are used only in systems where a small pressure drop across the valve is allowed. The butterfly is fully open when the disc rotates by E5. 0 %ra)bacD o# this valve is that even a very small angular displacement produces a big change in flow. 199. What is the &se o# three )a- ,a ,es! Three way control valves are only used on special systems, where a dividing or mixture of flows according to a controlled ratio is re;uired. 191. What are the %i##ere$t t-pes o# p &1s! The different types of plugs are generally used are: . < / V. port plug . & / 'ontoured plug V@port p &1: !orted plug are generally used on double*seated valves. This is because ported plugs, have a more constant off balance area. Co$to&re% p &1: 'ontoured plugs are generally used on single seated valve with small trim si6es. 19". What is a ca1e ,a ,e! 0 cage valve uses a piston with piston ring seal attached to the single seated valve "plug". (ere the hydrostatic forces acting on the top or the piston or below the valve plug tend to cancel out. The seat ring is clamped in by a cage. 'age valves are generally used for noise reduction. 19.. What are the a%,a$ta1es o# Ca'# eA ,a ,es! 'amflex valves are intermediates between globe valve and butterfly valve. The plug rotates B5F for full opening. A%,a$ta1es: <. 0ctuator forces re;uired are very less. &.:xtended bonnet and hence can be used on any service i.e. on high temperature and very low temperature. ,. Variations in flow. A. "ight weight.
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19/. What is the &se o# i$D co$$ecte% to the ,a ,e positio$er! The link serves as the feed back to the value. 0nt valve movement is sensed by this link. 9ometimes due to line pressure changes on (.!. service the valve position may be changed, the link in turn senses this change and the positioner will produce an output which will operate the valve to the original position. 190. What is the &se o# booster re a-s! ?ooster relays are essentially air load, self*contained pressure regulators. They are classified into three broad groups: 1. Vo &'e 5oosters: These are used to multiply the available volume of air signal. ". Ratio Re a-s: Cse to multiply or divide the pressure of an input signal. .. Re,ersi$1 Re a-s: This produces a decreasing output signal for an increasing input signal. 193. What is the &se o# A$1 e ,a ,es! 0ngle valves are used where very high*pressure drops are re;uired and under very severe conditions. 7here the conventional type of valve would be damaged by erosion. 194. What are the %i##ere$t ,a ,e characteristics! The different types of valve characteristic are: <. "inear &. :;ual !ercentage

,. #uick %pening.

1.+i$ear: The valve opening to flow rate is a linear curve ".E:&a perce$ta1e: or e;ual increments of valve opening it will give e;ual increment in flow rate range. 0t small opening the flow will also be small. ..Q&icD ope$i$1: 0t small opening the increments in flow rate is more. 0t higher opening the flow rate becomes steady.

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197. What is a so e$oi% ,a ,e! Where it is &se%!

0 solenoid is electrically operated valve. It consist of a solenoid .coil/ in which a magnetic plunger moves which is connected to the plug and tends to open or close the value. There are two types of solenoid valves: <. -ormally open &. -ormally closed USE: It is used for safety purpose. 198. 2o) )i -o& cha$1e the ,a ,e characteristics )ith positio$er! The positioner contains different types of came in it. 9election of the proper cams in it. ?y selection of the proper cam the valve opening characteristics can be changed. 119.2o) )i -o& cha$1e the actio$ o# a co$tro ,a ,e! <. If the control valve is without bottom cap. The actual needs to be changed. &. If bottom cap is provided. a/ )isconnect the stem from the actuator stem. b/ 9eparate the body from the bonnet. c/ 4emove the bottom cap and the plug from body. d/ )etach the plug from the stem by removing the pin. e/ ix the stem at the other end of the plug and fix the pin back. f/ Turn the body upside down. 'onnect it to the bonnet after inserting the plug and stem. g/ 'onnect back the stem to the actuator stem. h/ ix back the bottom cap. i/ 'alibrate the valve. 111. 2o) )i -o& se ect the co$tro ,a ,e characteristics! The graphic display of flow various lift shows then the )esired or inherent characteristic is changed by variations pressure drop. This occurs as the process changes from condition where most of pressure drop takes place at the control valve is a condition where most of the pressure drop is generally distributed through rest of the system. R ( o): This variation in where most of the total drop take place is one of the most important aspects is choosing the proper valve characteristics for give process. ( o) co$tro : -ormally :;ual percentage valve is used. *ress&re Co$tro : -ormally linear valve is used to maintain a constant pressure drop. Te'p. Co$tro : -ormally e;ual percentage valve is used. +i:&i% +e,e Co$tro : -ormally linear valve is used. ?asically in selecting a valve characteristic two important points have to be taken into account. a/ There should be a linear relationship between the position of the plug and the flow through the valve in a wide range of change in the pressure drop across the valve. b/ The pressure drop across a valve should be as low as possible.

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Co$tro ,a ,e siEi$1 11". What is the e##ect o# pipe re%&cers o$ ,a ,e capacit-! 7hen control valves are mounted between pipe reducers, there is a decrease in the actual valve capacity. The reducers create an additional pressure drop in the system by acting as contractions of enlargements in series with the valve. 2etric formula: for inlet and outlet reduces. " %" R F 1 S 1.0 1@ D" 9.9/%" C,"

or outlet reducer only or inlet reducer with entrance angle less than A5 inches. " %" R
"

C," 9.9/%"

1 S 1.0

1@ D"

% F ,a ,e siEe ''. D F i$e siEe ''. C, F re:&ire% ,a ,e co@e##icie$t. To compensate for reducer losses at sub*critical flow, divide 'v calculated by 4. 11.. A$ operator te s -o& that a co$tro ,a ,e i$ a st&cD! 2o) )i -o& start checDi$1! <. irst of all get the control valve is passed from operation. &. 'heck the lingual to the diaphragm of the control valve. ,. )isconnect it possible the actuator stem from the control valve stem. A. 9troke the actuator and see whether the actuator operates or not. It not then the diaphragm may be punctured. =. If the actuator operates connect it back to the plug stem stroke the control valve. If it does not operate loosen the gland nuts a bit and see if it operates. If it does not then the control valve has to be removed from the line to w+shop. 11/. Where is a$ Air to c ose a$% Air to ope$ co$tro ,a ,es &se%! Air to c ose: <. 4eflux lines. &. 'ooling water lines. ,. 9afety 4elief services. Air to ope$: <. eed lines. &. 9team 9ervice. 110. Wh- %oes co$tro ,a ,e operate at I0 psi! %n higher pressure the actuator si6es becomes bigger in area. The actual force produced by the actuator. orce 1 !ressure x 0rea. 1 <= psi x 0rea, If 0rea 1 <=" orce produced 1 <= psi x &= in& 1 ,>= pounds. 0ctual force acting on a control valve 1 ,>= pounds.

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<ENERA+ QUESTIONS 113. EAp ai$ Casca%e Co$tro s-ste' )ith a %ia1ra'. What )o& % happier i# a si$1 e co$tro er )ere &se% !

TT

TIC Master co$tro er S a,e or seco$%arCo$tro er

Stea' *T (ee% )ater

(&e 1as *V 'ascade means two controllers are series. %ne of them is the 2aster or !rimary and the second is the secondary of slave controller. The output of the secondary controller operates the final control element, that is the valve. +oop eAp a$atio$: The output of the temperature transmitter goes as measurement signal to the TI', which is the master controller. 9imilarly the output of pressure transmitter goes as measurement signal to the !I', which is the secondary controller. The output of TI' comes at set point to !I' which is turn operates the valve. The re;uired temperature is set on the TI'. Use o# casca%e s-ste': 'ascade loops are invariably installed to prevent outside disturbances from entering the process. The conventional single controller as shown in the diagram cannot respond to a change in the fuel gas pressure until the process temperature sensor feels its effect. In other words an error in the detected temperature has to develop before corrective action can be taken. The cascade loop in contrast responds immediately correcting for the effect of pressure change, before it could influence the process temperature. The improvement in control ;uality due to cascading is a function of relative speeds and time lags. 0 slow primary .2aster/ variable and a secondary .9lave/ variable, which responds ;uickly to disturbances, represent a desirable combination for this type of control. If the slave can respond ;uickly to fast disturbances then these will not be allowed to enter the process and thereby will not upset the control of primary .master/ variable. It can be said that use of cascade control on heat transfer e;uipment contributes to fast recovery from load changes or other disturbances.

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114. EAp ai$ ratio co$tro s-ste'.

U$ co$tro e% # o) .0/ (T Ratio co$tro er (1 ? (" Seco$%ar- co$tro er .?/ Co$tro e% # o) (T (V

0 ratio control system is characteri6ed by the fact that variations in the secondary variable do not reflect back on the primary variable. In the above diagram 5 a ratio control system the secondary flow is hold in some proportion to a primary uncontrollable flow. If we assume that the output of primary transmitter is 0, and the output of the secondary transmitter is ?, 0nd that multiplication factor of the ratio relay is 3, then for e;uilibrium conditions which means set valve is e;ual to measured valve, we find the following relation : 30 * ? 1 5 or ?+0 1 3, where F3F is the ratio setting of the relay. 117. EAp ai$ #&e to air ratio co$tro o# #&r$aces. Air (RC (T seco$%ar(V (&e 1as 118. What is (&r$ace Dra#t co$tro ! ?alanced draft boilers are generally used negative furnace pressure. 7hen both forced draft and induced draft are used together, at some point in the system the pressure will be the same as that of atmosphere. Therefore the furnace pressure must be negative to prevent hot gas leakage. :xcessive vacuum in the furnace however produces heat losses through air infiltration. The most desirable condition is that the one have is a very slight .about 5.<" (&5/ negative pressure of the top of furnace. RR Ratio co$tro er (T (RC RS* pri'arMaster stea' (RC (C

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1"9. What is #ee% bacD co$tro ! What is #ee% #or)ar% co$tro ! Disc&ss its app icatio$! (ee% bacD co$tro : Co$tro er =(IC> Meas&ri$1 e e'e$t Set poi$t Tra$s'itter

*ROCESS

Co$tro ,a ,e Ori#ice p ate eed back control involves the detection of the controlled variable and counteracting of charges its it\s value relative to set point, by adGustment of a manipulated variable. This mode of control necessities that the disturbance variable must affect the controlled variable itself before correction can take place. (ence the term FfeedbackF can imply a correction FbackF in terms of time, a correction that should have taken place earlier when the disturbance occurred. (ee% #or)ar% co$tro : Ori#ice
*ROCESS

O&tp&t

(T Co$tro er A%%iti,e re1& ator

eed forward control system is a system in which corrective action is based on measurement of disturbances inputs into the process. This mode of control responds to a disturbance such that is instantly compensates for that error which the disturbance would have otherwise caused in the controlled variable letter in time. eed forward control relies on a prediction. 0s can be seen from the figure of feed forward control a necessary amount of input goes to the process. This measurement goes to the controller, which gives output to the control valve. The control valve regulates the flow.

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(ee% bacD co$tro :

In feed forward control no difference between the desired result and actual result need exist before corrective action is taken in feed back control a difference must exist. (ence, open loop or feed forward control is capable of perfect control, but feedback is not. )ue to economic impartibility of precision, predicting the amount of correction necessary to achieve satisfactory results with feed forward control, feed back control is most often used. In order to properly choose the type of feed back controller for a particular process application, two factors time and gain must be considered. 1"1. EAp ai$ three e e'e$t #ee% )ater co$tro s-ste'! (ee% )ater co$tro Dr&' e,e co$tro Stea' co$tro *" *1 S:&are root EAtractor *. */ S:&are root eAtractor

Co'p&ti$1 e:&atio$: *. F R =*" @ *1 @ I> ? */ ? I9 *. F O&tp&t. *1; *" & */ F I$p&t I1 F A%L&stab e s&ppressio$. I9 F A%L.5ias.

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1"". EAp ai$ A$ti@s&r1e co$tro ! Co'pressor

*DT *i$ et Ratio (T (C = ( o) co$,erter> (RC 5-@*ass ,a ,e This method of surge control uses the ratio of compressor pressure rise to inlet flow rate to set the flow in by*bass loop. 7hen the suction pressure drops and discharge shoots up, the compressor starts surging. The pdt senses this and gives the signal to the 4' which will open the by*pass valve. <ENERA+ QUESTION @ II Q&e. : Dra) a$ e ectro$ic t)o )ire s-ste' co$tro oop. A$s. : Q&e. : What are I$tri$sica - sa#e s-ste' ! A$s. : Intrinsic safety is a techni;ue for designing electrical e;uipment for safe use in locations made ha6ardous by the presence of flammable gas or vapors in air. ")efn. :" Intrinsically safe circuit is one in which any spark or thermal effect produce either normally or under specified fault conditions is incapable of causing ignition of a specified gas or vapor in air mixture at the most easily ignited concentration. 2AHARDOUS AREAS: The specification of products or systems sold, as intrinsically safe must state in what ha6ardous areas they are infect intrinsically safe. Cniversal cooling of ha6ardous areas has not, unfortunately, been adopted in all countries. (owever two sets of codes in common use are. Q&e. : What %oes a tra$s'itter o&tp&t start #ro' .@10 psi or =9." @ 1 I1BC'"> or / @ "9 'a. etc. ! A$s. : The transmitter output stance from what is known as "live 6ero". This system has specific advantages : <. The systems automatically alarms when the signal system becomes inoperative. &. The output areas is linear . 4atio of < : = /. DEAD HERO SI<NA+ : The advantage is that it does not have to be biased to true 6ero. 0 ""ive 6ero" gives the computer additional information, so that it can takes appropriate alarm action in case of a measurement failure, because it can discriminate between a transmitter operating, but transmitting a 6ero measurement and a failure, in the signal system. Q&e. : What is #orce ba a$ce a$% 'otio$s ba a$ce pri$cip e ! A$s. :
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*o&t et

(ORCE 5A+ANCE *RINCI*+E: "0 controller which generates and output signal by opposing tor;ue\s". The input force is applied on the input bellows which novas the beam. This crackles no66le backpressure. The no66le backpressure is sensed by the balancing bellows, which brings the beam to balance. The baffle movement is very less about 5.55&" for full*scale output. MOTION 5A+ANCE *RINCI*+E: "0 controller, which generates an output signal by motion of its parts". The increase in input signal will cause the baffle to move towards the no66le. The no66le backpressure will increase. This increase in back pressure acting on the balancing bellows, will expands the bellows, they\re by moving the no66le upward. The no66le will move until motion .almost/ e;uals the input .baffle/ motion. A%,a$ta1es o# #orce 5a a$ce: <. 2oving parts are fever. &. ?affle movement is negligible. ,. rictional losses are less. Q&e. : EAp ai$ the )orDi$1 o# a$ E$ra# e,e 1a&1e ! A$s. : The :nraf level precise level gauges are based on servo powered null balance techni;ue. 0 displacer serves as continuous level sensing element. *ri$cip e: 0 displacer 0 with a relative density higher than that of a product to be measured, is suspended from a stainless steal wire ? tat is attached to a measuring drum. 0 two phase servo motor controlled by a capacitive balance system winds unwinds the measuring wire until the tension on the weight springs is in balance with the wt. of the displace part immersed in the li;uid. The sensing system in principle measures the two capacitance formed by the moving central sensing rod : provided with two capacitor plates and the si plates. In balance position the capacitance are of e;uip value. 0 level variation will cause a difference in buoyancy of the displacer. The center sensing rod will move in to direction of one of the side capacitor plates. This causes difference in value of this capacitance. ?y an electrolyte rotation of the servomotors the can driven transmitter continuously changes the voltage pattern to remote indicate of which the receiver motor drives a counter indicating low variation. D E ( I N A T I O N. AUTOMATIC CONTRO++ER: It is a device, which measured the value of variable ;uantity or condition and operates to correct or lie it deviation of this measured value from a selected reference. AUTOMATIC CONTRO+ SCSTEM: It is any operable arrangement of one or more automatic controllers in closed loops with one or more processes. SE+( O*ERATED CONTRO++ER: It is one in which all the energy needed to operate the final control element is derived from the controlled medium through the primary element. RE+AC O*ERATED CONTRO++ER: It is one in which the energy transmitted through the primary element is either supplemented or amplified for operating the final control element by employing energy from another sources. *ROCESS: 0 process comprises the collective function performed in and by the e;uipment in which a variable is to be controlled. SE+(@RE<U+ATION:

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It is an inherent characteristic of the process, which aids in limiting the deviation of the controlled variable. CONTRO++ED VARIA5+E: The controlled variable is that ;uantity and condition which is measured and controlled. CONTRO++ED MIDIUM: It is that process energy or material in which a variable is controlled. The controlled variable is a condition or characteristic of the controlled medium. or e.g. where temperature of water in a tank is automatically controlled, the controlled variable is temperature and controlled medium is water. MANI*U+ATED VARIA5+E: It is that ;uantity or condition which is varied by the automatic controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable. CONTRO+ A<ENT: It is that process energy or material of which the manipulated variation is a condition or characteristic. The manipulated variable is a condition or characteristic of the control agent. or e.g. when a final control element changes the fuel gas flow to burner the manipulated variable is flow the control agent is fuel gas. ACTUATIN< SI<NA+: The actuating signal is the difference at anytime between the reference input and a signal related to the controlled variable. This basically known as error signal. DEVIATION :It is the difference between the actual value of the controlled variable and the value of the controlled variable corresponding with set point. O((SET: It is the steady state difference between the control point and the value of the controlled variable corresponding with set point. CORRECTIVE ACTION: It is the variation of the manipulated variable produced by the controlling means. The controlling means operates the final control element .control value/, which in turn varies the manipulated variable. RE(ERENCE IN*UT: It is the reference signal in an automatic controller. SET *OINT: It is the position to which the control point setting mechanism is set. CONTRO+ *OINT: It is the value of the controlled variable that under any fixed set of conditions the automatic controller operates to maintain. ACCURACC: 0 number or ;uantity, which defines the limit of error under reference conditions. ATTENUATION: 0 decrease in signal magnitude between two points, or between two fre;uencies. DEAD TIME: The interval of time between initiation of an impact change or stimulus and the start of the resulting response.

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DRI(T: 0s undesired change in output over a period of time, which change is unrelated to input, operating conditions, or load. ERROR: The difference between the indication and the true value of the measured signal. S*AN ERROR: It is the difference between the actual span and the specified span and is expressed as the percent of specified span. HERO ERROR: It is the error of device operating under the specified conditions of use when the input is at the lower range value. STATIC <AIN: It is the ratio of the output change to an input been change after the steady state has been reached. 2CSTERESIS: The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the measured signal during a full range traverse for the same input. INTER(ERENCE: Interference is any spurious voltage or current arising from external sources and appearing in the circuits of a device. COMMON MODE INTER(ERENCE: It is the form of interference, which appears between the measuring circuit terminals and ground. NORMA+ MODE INTER(ERENCE: It is the form of interference, which appears between measuring circuit terminals. +INEARITC: The closeness to which a curve approximate a straight line.

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RAN<E: The region between the limits within which a ;uantity is measured received or transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and upper range values. RE*EATA5I+ITC: The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output for the same value of the measured signal under the same operating conditions. RE*RODUCI5I+ITC : The closeness of agreement among repeated measurements of the output for the same value of the input made under the same operating conditions. RES*ONSE : It is the general behavior of the output of a device as a function of input both with respect to time. SI<NA+ TO NOISE RATIO: 4atio of signal amplitude to noise. TIME CONSTANT: The time re;uired for the output to complete B,.& $ of the total rise or decay. S*AN: The algebraic difference between upper and lower range values. HERO S2I(T: 0ny parallel shift of the input output curve. *RIMARC (EED5ACI: It is the signal, which is related to the reference input to obtain the actuating signal. 9imply stated primary feedback is the actual measurement of the controlled variable which when compared with the desired measurement of the controlled variable produces the actuating signal. *OSITIONIN< ACTION: It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the value of the controlled variable and the position of the final control element. *RO*ORTIONA+ ACTION: It is that in which there is a continuous linear relationship between the value of the actual measurement of the controlled variable and the value position. (+OATIN< ACTION: It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the deviation and speed of final control element. DERIVATIVE ACTION: It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between a time derivative of the controlled variable and position of final control element. REST ACTION: It is the value movement at a speed proportional to the magnitude of deviation.
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RATE ACTION: It is that in which there is a continuous linear relation between the rate of change of controlled variable and position of final control element. 4ate action produces value motion proportional to the rate of change of actual measurement. *RO*ORTIONA+ 5AND: It is the range of values of the controlled variable, which correspond to the full operating range of the final control element. RESET RATE: It is the number of times+minute that the effect of proportional position action upon the final control element is repeated by proportional speed floating action. There are two ways of expressing reset action: <. 4eset time and &. 4eset 4ate 1. Reset Rate: It is commonly expressed as a number of "repeats" per minute. It is determined by dividing. a/ Travel of final control element .Value stroke/ in one minute as a result of the effect of proportional speed floating action. b/ The travel as a result of the effect of proportional position action with the same deviation in both cases. ". Reset Ti'e: It is the time interval by which the rate is commonly expressed in minutes. It is determined by subtracting. a/ The time re;uired for a selected motion of the final control element resulting from combined effect of the proportional position plus rate action. b/ The time re;uired for the same motion as a result of the effect of proportional position action alone with the same rate of change of controlled variable in both cases or expressed in another way. It is the time lead in terms of air pressure on the control value produced by rate action compared with proportional position action for the same rate of change of actual measurement in both cases. * R E S S U R E. *RESSURE CONVERSIONS: 1psi F 1 I1Bc'" F 1 5ar F 1 Ipa F 1 I1Bc'" F 1 5ar F 1 I1Bc'" F 1 Torr F "4.4/ T 2"O 1/."". psi 1/.09/ psi 9.1/0 psi 19.999'' o# 2"9 1.9184 I1Bc'" 9.87 5ar 1 '' o# 21.

E+ECTRONICS Q&e. : What is a %io%e! A$s. : 0 diode consists of two electrodes .</ 0node .&/ 'athode. The current flow is only in one direction.
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0 diode is the most basic solid state .semi conductor/ device. The above figure shows a !.-. Gunction. The !. material has holes and the -. material has electrons. (ORWARD 5IAS: REVERSE 5IAS: . < / 7here the applied voltage overcomes the barrier potential .the p side is more positive than the n side/ the current produce is large because maGority carriers cross the Gunction in large numbers. This condition is called forward bias. . & / 7hen the applied voltage aids the barrier potential .n side K ve than p side/ the current in small. This state is known as 4everse ?ias. Q&e. : What is a ha # )a,e; #& )a,e a$% bri%1e recti#ier ! A$s. : 2A+( WAVE RECTI(IER:

(U++ WAVE RECTI(IER:

5RID<E RECTI(IER :

*EAI INVERSE VO+TA<E: 2aximum 4everse voltage across the diode during the cycle. Q&e. : What is a #i ter &se% #or! A$s. : The half wave and full wave signals are pulsating ) . ' . Voltages. The use of such voltages is limited to charging batteries, running ). '. motors, and a few other applications. 7hat we really have is a ).'. voltage that is constant in valve, similar to the voltage from a battery. To get a constant voltage from this, we can use a capacitor input filter. Q&e. : What is He$er Dio%e! What is a ,o ta1e Re1& ator! A$s. : The breakdown region of a p n diode can be made very sharp and almost vertical )iodes with almost vertical breakdown region are known as Jener )iodes. 0 Jener diodes operating in the breakdown region is e;uivalent to a battery. ?ecause of this current through Jener diode can change but the voltage remains constant. It is this constant voltage that has made the 6ener diode an important device in voltage regulation.

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VO+TA<E RE<U+ATOR: The output remains constant despite changes in input voltage due to Jener effect. Q&e. : What is tra$sistor ! What are the %i##ere$t t-pes! 0ns. : 0 transistor is a three lagged semi conductor device. ?asically a transistor means .transfer * resister/. 7hether the transistor is pnp or npn it resembles two diodes .back to back/. The one of the left is called emitter diodes, and the one on the right is the collector diode. 9ince two types of charges are involved transistor: are classified as bipolar devices. 5iasi$1 the tra$sistor: :mitter * ?ase * orward ?ias. 'ollector * ?ase * 4everse ?ias. Q&e. : What is C5; CE a$% CC co$#i1&ratio$ ! 0ns. : ?uffer : 0 device or a circuit used to isolate two ptFne circuits or stages. The emitter follows is a example of buffer. 0lpha 1 I' + I: ?eta 1 I' + I? Q&e. : 2o) )i -o& test a tra$sistor )ith a '& ti'eter! 0ns. : <. :mitter Kve of meter and ?ase *ve output 1 "ow resistance &. :mitter *ve of meter and base Kve output 1 (igh resistance. ,. 'ollector Kve and ?ase *ve output 1 "ow. A. 'ollector *ve and base Kve output 1 (igh. :mitter: 'ollector 1 (igh 4esistance. *N*: %pposite 4esults. Q&e.: What is a th-ristor! What are its &ses! 0ns.: 0 thyristor is a special kind of semi conductor device that uses internal feedback to produce latching action. Use : Csed for controlling large amounts of load power in motors, heaters, lighting systems etc. EAp a$atio$: ?ecause of the unusual connection we have a Kve feedback also called regeneration. 0 change in current at any point in the loop is amplified and returned to the starting point with the same phase. or instance if the 5& base current increases, the 5& collector current increases. This force base current through 5<. In turn this produces a large 5< collector current, which drives the 5& base harder. This build up in currents will continue until both transistors are driven in saturation. In this case the latch acts like a closed switch. %n the other hand, if something causes the 5& base current to decrease, the 5&*collector current will decrease. This reduces the 5< base current. In turn, there is less 5<*collector current, which reduces the 5< base current even more. This regeneration continues until both transistors are driven into cut off. 0t this time the latches like open switch. This latch will always stay in open or close position. Q&e. : What are o1ic 1ates ! EAp ai$ )ith tr&th tab e. 0ns. : I0T: : 0 gate is a logic circuit with one output and one or more inputs . 0n output signal occurs only for control combination of input signals.

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1. OR @ <ATE : SCM5O+ : TRUT2 0 TA5+E : 5 5 < < ? 5 < 5 < O 5 < < <

De#i$e : 0n %4 Iate has one output if any or all of its input are <Fs. ". AND <ATE : De#i$e : 0n 0-) Iate has output when all inputs are present. SCM5O+ : TRUT2 0 TA5+E : 5 5 < < ? 5 < 5 < O 5 5 5 <

.. NOT <ATE : 0 not gate is also known as an inverter. This circuit has one input and one out put. 0ll it does is invert the input signalV if the input is high, the output is low and vice versa. TRUT2 TA5+E Input %utput 5 < < 5 5&##er: This is a non inverting gate, used to drive low impedance loads. NOR <ATE : This is an %4 I0T: followed by an inverter. SCM5O+ : TRUT2 TA5+E : 0 5 5 < < ? 5 < 5 < O < 5 5 5

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EAc &si,e OR <ATE

0 5 5 < <

? 5 < 5 <

O 5 < < 5

NAND <ATE : This is an 0-) I0T: followed by an inverter. TRUT2 TA5+E : 0 5 5 < < ? 5 < 5 < O < < < 5

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