Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy Peter Hays Gries The University of Colorado, Boulder

Forthcoming in China Rising: Power and Motivation in Chinese Foreign Policy, Yong Deng and Fei-Ling Wang, eds. (Ro !an " Littlefield#.

What !otivates Chinese foreign $oli%y& Rationalist international relations ('R# theorists have des$aired of ever dire%tly understanding Chinese intentions, so have sought to infer the! indire%tly fro! China(s $osition in the international )alan%e of $o er and China(s e%ono!i% and !ilitary %a$a)ilities. But )oth data sour%es are su)*e%t to inter$retation. +ro-China analysts $oint to the China(s lo $er %a$ita ,-+ and the +eo$le(s Li)eration .r!y(s (+L.# undenia)le inferiority to the U./. !ilitary to argue that China is no threat to the glo)al )alan%e of $o er. 0enry 1issinger, for instan%e, argues in The Los .ngeles Ti!es that 2China is no !ilitary %olossus,3 and has 2the )est of intentions.34 Those sus$i%ious of Chinese intentions, in %ontrast, $oint to re%ent Chinese ar!s a%5uisitions fro! Russia and else here to argue that China is aggressively see6ing to u$set the 7ast .sian )alan%e of $o er. For e8a!$le, the .!eri%an 7nter$rise 'nstitute(s .rthur Waldron argues that 2China see6s to %o!)ine targeted !ilitary %a$a)ilities ith di$lo!ati% and e%ono!i% !easures in order to ea6en .!eri%an $resen%e and resolve in .sia.3 9 'n the end, su%h rationalist analyses are fre5uently redu%tionist, redu%ing the issue of Chinese intentions to an argu!ent over !aterial %a$a)ilities. These argu!ents, further!ore, usually tell us !ore a)out the o$ti!is! or $essi!is! of the analyst than they do a)out China.: This %ha$ter argues that hu!an !otivation is invisi)le, %o!$le8, and !ulti$le, and that nationalis! is a 6ey ; if not the 6ey ; !otivator of Chinese foreign $oli%y. .fter a )rief un$a%6ing of the %on%e$t of !otivation, ' !a6e t o argu!ents a)out the i!$a%t of nationalis! on Chinese foreign $oli%y !a6ing. First, a so%ial $sy%hologi%al a$$roa%h to nationalis! %an reveal ho %o!$le8 and !ulti$le !otives drive Chinese nationalists. -ationalis! is not an irrational e!otionalis! to )e *u8ta$osed against the %ool $ursuit of China(s national interest. -ationalist )ehaviors are often si!ultaneously e!otional and instru!ental. ' then turn to the i!$a%t that the re%ent e!ergen%e of
4 9

/ee 2The Folly of Bullying Bei*ing,3 Los Angeles Times, < =uly 4>>?. /ee 2Why China Could )e Dangerous,3 The American Enterprise >.@ (=ulyA.ug 4>>B#. : 'ndeed, one arti%le that sides ith the o$ti!ists a)out Chinese nationalis! even %on%ludes )y %iting 1ant(s 2s$irit of ho$eful deter!ination to !a6e the )est of history.3 /ee Tho!as .. CetDger and Ra!on 0. Cyers, 2Chinese nationalis! and .!eri%an $oli%y,3 Orbis @9.4 (4>>B#, $. :?.

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$o$ular nationalis! is having on the !a6ing of Chinese foreign $oli%y. .gainst the %o!!on vie of China as a unitary a%tor that %an %oolly %al%ulate its national interest, ' %ontend that foreign $oli%y !a6ing in China is in%reasingly a 2t o level ga!e,3 ith Chinese di$lo!ats 6ee$ing one eye on do!esti% nationalists even as they negotiate ith their foreign %ounter$arts. The %ha$ter %on%ludes ith a fe thoughts on the $oliti%al i!$li%ations that this analysis of nationalis! and Chinese foreign $oli%y !ight have for the !a6ing of U/ China $oli%y. 'ntentions are not directly o)serva)leE they %an only )e inferred indirectly )y triangulating fro! the things that $eo$le say and do. But ords and deeds are not trans$arent either, and !ust )e inter$reted very %arefully. First, e hu!ans are strategi% ani!als and fre5uently disguise our true intentions through the use of de%e$tion. .s Bo) =ervis and other 'R theorists have sho n, states %an and fre5uently do use de%e$tive signaling ()oth di$lo!ati% state!ents and !ilitary $osturing# to disguise their true intentions fro! other states and a%hieve advantage. @ /e%ond, e are also so%ial ani!als, and fre5uently disguise our true !otives fro! others ; and even fro! ourselves. .s 'talian so%iologist Filfredo +areto noted al!ost a %entury ago, although e fre5uently a%t irrationally, e are !asters at the art of post facto rationaliDations of our )ehaviors.G For instan%e, although aggressive dis$lays of for%e are generally !otivated )y e!otions li6e $ride or anger, foreign $oli%y !a6ers usually rationaliDe the! in the instru!ental language of deterren%e. 0u!an !otivation is not *ust invisi)leE it is also %o!$le8. For instan%e, anger is an e!otion that fre5uently drives our )ehaviors. But not all anger is the sa!e. Follo ing the Cay 4>>> .!eri%an )o!)ing of the Chinese e!)assy in Belgrade, Chinese $rotestors fre5uently rote and s$o6e a)out strong feelings of 2fennu3 or qifen,3 )ut rarely of feeling 2shengqi 3 .ll %an )e translated as 2angry,3 )ut they are a%tually very different e!otions. The for!er is a higher for! of anger or 2righteous indignation3 that ste!s fro! feelings of in*usti%e and ethi%al desires to right a rongE the latter, lo er or vis%eral for! of anger or even 2)lind fury3 is little !ore than a $ersonal $sy%hologi%al satisfa%tion.< ,iven their understanding of the Belgrade )o!)ing as an intentional assault on Chinese sovereignty, another in a long line of Western aggressions against China, it is little onder that !any Chinese ere indignant.? Finally, hu!an !otivation is fre5uently !ulti$le. 'n the West, e ty$i%ally *u8ta$ose reason against e!otion as if they e8ist in a Dero-su! relationshi$H any in%rease in e!otionality entailing a de%rease in rationality, and vi%e-versa. Iur )ehaviors, ho ever, are often !otivated )y both reason and e!otion. For instan%e, a%tions designed to 2save fa%e3 or restore honor fre5uently have )oth instru!ental and e!otional di!ensions. When Chinese di$lo!ats raise the 2 ar %ard3 in negotiations
@

In signaling in foreign $oli%y, see Ro)ert =ervis, The Logic of !mages in !nternational "elations (-=H +rin%eton University +ress, 4>?J#. G /ee Filfredo +areto, Treatise in #eneral $ociology, +art ' (FirenDeH ,. Bar)era, 4>4<#. < .s so%iologist Charles Cooley $ut it over a %entury ago, 2. !an in a rage does not ant to get out of itK .n enduring hatred !ay also )e a sour%e of satisfa%tion to so!e !inds.3 /ee Cooley, %uman Nature and the $ocial Order (-YH /%ri)ners,4>99 L4>J9M#, $. 9B@. ? In Chinese rea%tions to the Belgrade )o!)ing, see +eter 0ays ,ries, 2Tears of RageH Chinese -ationalis! and the Belgrade 7!)assy Bo!)ing,3 The China &ournal, -o. @< (=uly 9JJ4#H 9G-@:.

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ith the =a$anese, they see6 to gain instru!ental advantage. But raising the issue of arti!e vi%ti!iDation also i!$li%ates %herished self-identifi%ations ; %hallenging the very !eaning of )eing 2Chinese3 or 2=a$anese.3 This hel$s e8$lain hy World War '' %ontinues to )e an e8tre!ely sensitive issue in /ino-=a$anese relations. 'nterestingly, )oth .!eri%ans and Chinese tend to deny the !ulti$li%ity of their !otives ; )ut ea%h tend to $rivilege dia!etri%ally o$$osite !otives. .!eri%ans, li6e !ost $ost-7nlighten!ent Westerners, tend to de$i%t their )ehaviors as driven solely )y reason and enlightened self-interest ; and ill $assionately deny )eing driven )y 2irrational3 e!otions. Chinese, in %ontrast, tend to de$i%t their )ehaviors as driven )y e!otions su%h as %o!$assion and )enevolen%e ; and ill $assionately deny )eing !otivated )y a 2selfish3 ('isi# interests. Thus although )oth .!eri%ans and Chinese are driven )y %onsiderations of )oth sense and sensi)ility, .!eri%ans tend to $rivilege the for!er hile Chinese $rivilege the latter in their post facto rationaliDations of their o n )ehaviors. .ttri)utions of ea%h others( !otives are also influen%ed )y this nor!ative differen%e. For instan%e, .!eri%an China)ashers and Chinese .!eri%a-)ashers often hurl insults at ea%h other that fail to hit their !ar6H the .!eri%ans a%%using the Chinese of )eing overly e!otional, and the Chinese )elittling .!eri%an foreign $oli%ies as 2selfish.3B ' dou)t !any nationalists on either side of the +a%ifi% lose !u%h slee$ over su%h a%%usations. 0u!an !otivation, in su!, is invisi)le, %o!$le8, and !ulti$le. Rather than $ro*e%t onto China $re-e8isting 2gut feelings,3 analysts !ust %arefully infer Chinese intentions fro! the things that Chinese a%tually say and do. We !ust, further!ore, )oth interrogate the nuan%es of various !otives and e8$lore their relative eight in driving )ehavior. C.'-T.'-'-, (!AN)! '- C0'-7/7 FIR7',- +IL'CY -ationalis!, hi%h ' define here as any )ehavior designed to restore, !aintain, or advan%e $u)li% i!ages of the nation,> !ay ell )e the !ost i!$ortant deter!inant of Chinese foreign $oli%y. The Chinese Co!!unist +arty (CC+# %a!e to $o er on the )asis of anti-=a$anese $easant nationalis!, and has sta6ed its legiti!a%y on its nationalist %redentials ever sin%e. 4J Under Cao Nedong, Chinese nationalis! as e8$ressed in a 2vi%tor narrative3 of heroi% Chinese vi%tories over Western and =a$anese i!$erialis!. Under =iang Ne!in and no 0u =intao, ho ever, Chinese
B

For instan%e, nationalist Li Fang %astigates the West as a 2selfish %iviliDation3 to $raise Chinese %iviliDation as 2har!onious.3 /ee Li Fang, 2Chong*ian Nhongguo you8i guiDe3 (2Re riting China(s rules of the ga!e3#, )hongguo ruhe shuobu (%o* China $hould $ay No# s$e%ial 4>>< issue of )uo+ia tiandi (,riter-s ,orld#, $. 9>. > This definition is largely so%ial $sy%hologi%al. Follo ing 0enri Ta*fel(s des%ri$tion of 2so%ial identity3 as 2that $art of an individual(s self-%on%e$t hi%h derives fro! his 6no ledge of his !e!)ershi$ in a so%ial grou$K together ith the value and e!otional signifi%an%e atta%hed to that !e!)ershi$,3 ' define national identity as that as$e%t of an individual(s self-%on%e$t that derives fro! his or her $er%eived !e!)ershi$ in a national grou$. -ationalis! is here understood as the %o!!it!ent to $rote%t, restore, and enhan%e national identity. /ee 0enri Ta*fel, %uman #roups and $ocial Categories. $tudies in $ocial Psychology (Ca!)ridge, U. 1.H Ca!)ridge University +ress, 4>B4#, $. 9GG. 4J For the %lassi% state!ent of the 2$easant nationalis!3 thesis, see Chal!ers =ohnson, Peasant Nationalism and Communist Po*er. The Emergence of "e/olutionary China (/tanford, Calif.H /tanford University +ress, 4><9#.

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nationalists are in%reasingly %onstru%ting a 2vi%ti!iDation narrative3 of Chinese suffering at the hands of Western and =a$anese i!$erialists during the 2Century of 0u!iliation3 ( bainian guochi#.44 This has %reated strong and ides$read desires to 2erase3 ( 0i0ue# the national hu!iliation )y restoring China to the $osition of do!inan%e in 7ast .sia that !ost Chinese i!agine China to have en*oyed $rior to defeat to the British in the First I$iu! War of 4B:>-4B@9. This nationalist goal of strengthening China is shared )y virtually all Chinese. 49 'n this sense, nationalis! is the !eta-!otive driving Chinese $oliti%al )ehavior. 't is only on the means to the %o!!on ends of a strong China that Chinese disagree. For instan%e, here Chinese during the Caoist era sa %o!!unis! as the 6ey to strengthening China, Chinese today have turned to %a$italis! as the $ro$er !eans to ards e%ono!i% develo$!ent. Both ere li6ely rightH here the underdevelo$ed Chinese e%ono!y of the 4>GJs and O<Js re5uired a $lanned e%ono!y to allo%ate s%ar%e resour%es for industrialiDation, China(s e%ono!y today is !ore develo$ed and %o!$le8, and is !ore suita)le to !ar6et driven develo$!ent. The relative ease of the Chinese $eo$le(s a%%e$tan%e of the e%ono!i% transition fro! $lan to !ar6et suggests that they ere never seen as ends in the!selves, )ut rather seen as !eans to the nationalist ends of strengthening China. 'n China, nationalist desires to $rote%t and advan%e China(s 2international i!age3 ( guo+i 0ing0iang# are often e8$ressed in the language of mian'i or face, the self revealed )efore others.4: Due to its Irientalist origins, the 7nglish figurative 2face3 has $e*orative overtones, as in 2t o-fa%ed.3 Follo ing so%iologist 7rving ,off!an, father of the Western study of face1 ' see face as neither uni5uely Chinese nor inherently )ad. 't is a %ultural universal, although it is e8$ressed in idely different !anners a%ross ti!e and $la%e. For the 94 st %entury .!eri%an reader, it !ight )e hel$ful to thin6 of face in the value-neutral language of 2honor3 and 2dishonor.3 4@ -ationalist desires to !aintain China(s international mian'i fre5uently have )oth instru!ental and e!otional di!ensions.4G During the ten days of 2a$ology di$lo!a%y3 that follo ed the 4 .$ril
44

For an e8tended dis%ussion of the vi%tor and vi%ti! narratives of the 2Century of 0u!iliation,3 see +eter 0ays ,ries, China-s Ne* Nationalism. Pride1 Politics1 and 2iplomacy (Ber6leyH University of California +ress, 9JJ@#, Cha$ters :-G. 49 .s +aul 0eer $uts it, 2In foreign $oli%y, the %o!!on deno!inator is a genuine %o!!it!ent to Chinese nationalis!.3 /ee 2. 0ouse UnitedH Bei*ing(s Fie of Washington,3 Foreign Affairs Vol. 79 Issue 4 (July/Aug.
2000), p. 20.
4:

Chinese vie s of face should )e understood at the t o levels of lian and mian'i. /o%iologist 0u 0sien-%hin defines the for!er as 2de%en%y3 or 2good !oral re$utation3 and the latter as an 2e8tra re$utation3 a%hieved through so%ial a%%o!$lish!ents. .ndre 1i$nis si!ilarly argues that lian is of 2first order visi)ility3 hile mian is of 2se%ond order visi)ility3H the for!er is 2dire%tly 6no a)le3 hile the latter de$ends u$on a 2third $arty audien%e.3 Cy dis%ussions of face in the Chinese %onte8t refer to the !ore so%ial mian'i. /ee 0u 0sien%hin, 2The Chinese %on%e$ts of Ofa%e(,3 American Anthropologist @< (4>@@#E and .ndre B. 1i$nis, 2OFa%e(H an ada$ta)le dis%ourse of so%ial surfa%es,3 Positions :.4 (4>>G#H 49<. 4@ For !ore on face and honor, see ,ries, China-s Ne* Nationalism, $$. 94-9>. 4G Cy a$$roa%h thus differs fro! the !ainstrea! 2$arty $ro$aganda3 vie of Chinese nationalis!, hi%h ignores the e!otional in favor of the instru!ental. For instan%e, Nhao /uisheng, ho has ritten e8tensively on Chinese nationalis!, has argued that t o of the 6ey features of today(s 2$rag!ati% nationalis!3 are that it is 2state-led3 (readH $arty# and 2instru!ental3 (readH $ro$aganda#. .lthough he re%ogniDes e!otions of 2dee$ )itterness at China(s hu!iliation,3 Nhao nevertheless insists that nationalis! in China is 2national-interest driven,3 )ased u$on a 2%al%ulation of )enefits and %osts.3 Li6e !ost analysts, Nhao highlights Chinese nationalist(s instru!ental !otivations. /ee Nhao /uisheng, 2Chinese -ationalis! and its 'nternational

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9JJ4 $lane %ollision in%ident, for instan%e, Chinese di$lo!ats ere driven )oth )y an instru!ental %on%ern to !aintain China(s $osition in the 7ast .sian hierar%hy of $o er, and )y e5ually $o erful e!otions that sought to restore Chinese self-res$e%t. Considerations of )oth $o er and $assion thus infor!ed Chinese (and .!eri%an# a$ology di$lo!a%y. .$ologies are a)out $o er relations. Iffenses to the so%ial order threaten esta)lished hierar%hies. Ine ay that the aggrieved %an regain so%ial $osition is vengean%e. .s so%iologist =. C. Bar)alet rites, 2Fengefulness is an e!otion of $o er relations. 't fun%tions to %orre%t i!)alan%ed or dis*ointed $o er relationshi$s. Fengefulness is %on%erned ith restoring so%ial a%tors to their rightful $la%e in relationshi$s.34< .$ologies are another !eans of restoring threatened so%ial hierar%hies. The for! an a$ology ta6es de$ends %riti%ally u$on the relative status of the $arties involved. The 6ind of a$ology ne%essary to re%tify an offense an inferior %o!!its against a su$erior is greater than that re5uired of an offense %o!!itted )et een e5uals. For instan%e, a son ho insults his father $u)li%ly !ust give an e8tended and $u)li% a$ology. +rivately insulting his )rother, ho ever, re5uires a lesser 6ind of a$ology. .n a$ology !ay not )e $ossi)le, therefore, if there is disagree!ent over the relative status of the $arties involved. 'f )oth $arties %lai! to )e the su$erior in a hierar%hi%al relationshi$ ith ea%h other, there %an )e no agree!ent on the e8tent of the a$ology ne%essary to re%tify the offense. The $oliti%s of a$ology is not *ust a)out relative status and !aterial $o er, ho ever, it is also a)out e5ually $o erful $assions. . $u)li% offense %auses the aggrieved to lose face and is, therefore, far !ore offensive than one !ade in $rivate.4? Fengean%e and a$ologies %an not only reesta)lish $o er relations, they %an also restore self-estee!. .s so%iologist Barrington Coore ritesH 2Fengean%e !eans retaliation. 't also !eans a reassertion of hu!an dignity or orth, after in*ury or da!age. Both are )asi% senti!ents )ehind !oral anger and the sense of in*usti%e.3 4B /o%ial $sy%hologists have %onvin%ingly de!onstrated that derogating the offender %an restore the %olle%tive self-estee! of the offended. 'n one arresting e8$eri!ent, o!en ho ere sho n a %li$ fro! an altered "oc3y !4, in hi%h the .!eri%an )o8er ($layed )y /ylvester /tallone# loses to the Russian, lost national self-estee!. /elf-estee! as restored, ho ever, hen the su)*e%ts ere su)se5uently allo ed to denigrate Russians.4> By righting a rong, a$ologies %an si!ilarly restore the self-estee!
Irientations,3 Political $cience 5uarterly 44G, 4 (9JJJ#H4-::. 4< =.C. Bar)alet, Emotion1 $ocial Theory1 and $ocial $tructure. A (acrosociological Approach (-e Yor6H Ca!)ridge University +ress, 4>>B#, $. 4:<. 4? 'n his Confessions, for instan%e, =ean-=a%5ues Rousseau ad!its his fear of dis%overy after falsely a%%using a !aidservant of theftH 2When she a$$eared !y heart as agoniDed, )ut the $resen%e of so !any $eo$le as !ore $o erful than !y %o!$un%tion. ' did not fear $unish!ent, )ut ' dreaded sha!eH ' dreaded it !ore than deathK ' felt no dread )ut that of )eing dete%ted, of )eing $u)li%ly and to !y face de%lared a thief, liar.3 (Puoted in Cooley, %uman Nature and the $ocial Order, $. 9>4# The e!otional intensity of the !o!ent is $al$a)le, and %learly %onte8t de$endent. /hould his se%ret )e e8$osed publicly, Rousseau(s so%ial %redit a!ong his $eers ould )e de$leted. The instru!ental sta6es of a !ore $rivate %onfrontation, ho ever, ould not )e so great and ould not li6ely eli%it su%h strong e!otions. 4B Barrington Coore, !n+ustice. the $ocial 6ases of Obedience and "e/olt (BostonH Bea%on +ress, 4>?B#, $. 4?. 4> -yla R. Brans%o!)e and Daniel L. Wann, 2Colle%tive self-estee! %onse5uen%es of outgrou$ derogation hen a valued so%ial identity is on trial,3 European &ournal of $ocial Psychology 9@.< (-ov-De%. 4>>@#H <@4<G?.

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of the aggrieved. 'f an offense is felt to )e too hurtful, ho ever, it !ay )e i!$ossi)le to even %onsider an a$ology. In 4 .$ril 9JJ4, a Chinese F-B *et fighter and an .!eri%an 7+-: surveillan%e $lane %ollided over the /outh China /ea. The 7+-: !ade it safely to China(s 0ainan 'slandE the F-B tore a$art and %rashed, and Chinese $ilot Wang Wei as 6illed. . fe days later, Chinese Foreign Cinister Tang =ia8uan and +resident =iang Ne!in de!anded an .!eri%an a$ology. .!eri%ans )al6edH vie ing the aggressiveness of the Chinese *et as the %ause of the %ollision, .!eri%ans did not feel res$onsi)le. .s /enator =ose$h Lie)er!an said on C--(s 2Larry 1ing Live,3 2When you $lay %hi%6en, so!eti!es you get hurt.39J The i!$asse as only )ro6en after 44 days of intensive negotiations. .!eri%an .!)assador =ose$h +rueher gave a letter to Foreign Cinister TangH 2+lease %onvey to the Chinese $eo$le and to the fa!ily of $ilot Wang Wei that e are very sorry for their lossK We are very sorry the entering of China(s airs$a%e and the landing did not have ver)al %learan%e.3 94 0aving e8tra%ted an 2a$ology3 fro! Washington, Bei*ing released the 9@ .!eri%an servi%e!en )eing held on 0ainan 'sland. +sy%hologi%al resear%h on %olle%tive self-estee! %an shed light u$on Chinese and .!eri%an rea%tions to the $lane %ollision in%ident. To the e8tent that e identify ith a grou$, our self-estee! is tied to the grou$(s fate. Both Chinese and .!eri%ans vie ed the events of early .$ril 9JJ4 as a threat to their self-estee!. 'n China, !any $er%eived .!eri%an %allousness to ards the fate of Wang Wei as a hu!iliating loss of face. .nd in the %onservative ,ee3ly $tandard, Ro)ert 1agan and Willia! 1ristol si!ilarly de%lared the Bush ad!inistration(s handling of the affair 2. -ational 0u!iliation3H Bush(s 2groveling3 as a degrading 2loss of face.399 Con%ern for face is %learly not uni5uely IrientalE it %learly drove )oth Chinese and .!eri%an rea%tions to the in%ident. /o!e Chinese and .!eri%ans res$onded to this identity threat )y going into denial. .lthough the in%ident as %learly a disaster for the )ilateral relationshi$, !any on )oth sides 5ui%6ly %lai!ed vi%tory ; a %lear sign of face-saving self-de%e$tion. ,loating that 2We onQ3 allo ed !any Chinese and .!eri%an nationalists to save face. 'n Bei*ing, !any )oasted of ho +resident =iang had $lanned .!eri%a(s hu!iliation fro! the start, and had 2taught Bush =r. a lesson.3 9: Pinghua University(s Yan Ruetong, for instan%e, de%lared that 2China stu%6 to $rin%i$le3 and 2did a )etter *o) of dealing ith the in%ident.39@ 'n Washington, !ean hile, Bush as idely $raised for having handled the situation !asterfully, inning the day. For instan%e, the 2-elson Re$ort3 %ir%ulated a $arody of the .!eri%an

9J 94

2Lie)er!anH China $layed Oaggressive ga!e of aerial %hi%6en,(3 C--, @ .$ril 9JJ4. The full te8t of the 2t o '(! sorrys3 letter is availa)le online S htt$HAA .%nn.%o!A9JJ4AWIRLDAasia$%fAeastAJ@A44A$rueher.letter.te8tA. .%%essed 4G .ugust 9JJ:. 99 Ro)ert 1agan and Willia! 1ristol, 2. -ational 0u!iliation,3 The ,ee3ly $tandard, .$ril 4<-9:, 9JJ4, $$. 44-4<. 9: Willy Wo-La$ La!, 2Behind the /%enes in Bei*ingTs Corridors of +o er,3 C--, 44 .$ril 9JJ4. 9@ 278$erts +raise ChinaTs 0andling of =et Collision 'n%ident,3 Liao*ang1 -o 4< (4< .$r 9JJ4#, $$ <-B. Translated in FB'/-C0'-9JJ4-J@9<.

,ries A Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy A ?

2 e(re sorry3 letterH 2We(re sorry the orld is no seeing your leaders as the 8eno$ho)i%, %lueless thugs that they really are. We(re sorry you are loosing so !u%h face over this.39G Ithers res$onded to the threat to their self-estee! not ith denial )ut )y venting a rage designed to restore national self-res$e%t ; to save face. For instan%e, )y $u)li%ly %alling Bush a 2%o ard3 (in a letter fro! Wang Wei(s ife#, Bei*ing sought to gain face for China at Washington(s e8$ense. .nd ith the release of the .!eri%an %re on .$ril 44, .!eri%an ha 6s 5ui%6ly )egan s%rea!ing for vengean%e. /e%retary of Defense Donald Ru!sfeld, ho had )een !uDDled during the sensitive negotiations, i!!ediately held a +entagon ne s %onferen%e to $resent additional in%ri!inating eviden%e against Chinese $ilot Wang Wei. The a$ology di$lo!a%y that follo ed the 9JJ4 $lane %ollision as no !ere e!otional !atter. China and the U./. ere *o%6eying for $osition in the $ost-Cold War hierar%hy of $o er in 7ast .sia. But )e%ause a$ologies also i!$li%ate %olle%tive self-estee! (in this %ase national identity#, )oth Chinese and .!eri%ans ere e8tre!ely sensitive over the issue, $ro!$ting )oth sides to engage in a )rief )ut dangerous ga!e of %hi%6en. 'roni%ally, it as the face-saving self-de%e$tion of ha 6s on )oth sides %lai!ing vi%tory that hel$ed to diffuse the %risis. +I+UL.R -.T'I-.L'/C .-D 7L'T7 FIR7',- +IL'CY C.1'-, De!o%ra%ies, a%%ording to a ell-esta)lished argu!ent, are %onstrained )y ele%tions and $u)li% o$inion and thus at a disadvantage in foreign $oli%y !a6ing. .uthoritarian govern!ents, %onversely, are seen as free of do!esti% %onstraints and thus at a di$lo!ati% advantage. .s 1ant $ut it, auto%rats !ay 2resolve on ar as on a $leasure $arty for the !ost trivial reasons.3 9< 'n the !id-4>th %entury, .le8is de To%5ueville as for%efulH 2' have no hesitation in saying that in the %ontrol of so%iety(s foreign affairs de!o%rati% govern!ents do a$$ear de%idedly inferior to others.3 9? During the Cold War, U./. /e%retary of /tate Dean .%heson %on%urredH 2'n the %ondu%t of their foreign relations, de!o%ra%ies a$$ear to !e de%idedly inferior to other govern!ents.3 9B .s Randall /%h eller $uts it, 2due to the strength of $u)li% o$inion, the $oli%ies of a de!o%rati% state, in %ontrast to those of an auto%ra%y, !ust ulti!ately %onfor! to the !oral values of that so%iety.3 9> +o$ular o$inion, in this vie , %an %o!$el )oth aggression and non-aggression ; against the ill of foreign $oli%y !a6ers in de!o%rati% states. The (aine and Cuni%h serve as useful shorthand for these t in argu!ents. The sin6ing of The 7$$ (aine in 0avana 0ar)or (!ista6enly attri)uted to
9G 9<

-elson Re$ort 9JJ4. ' than6 Ri%6 Bau! and China$ol for this referen%e. '!!anuel 1ant, %ited in =oanne ,o a, 2De!o%rati% /tates and 'nternational Dis$utes,3 !nternational Organi'ation @>, : (/u!!er 4>>G#H G4<. Cy than6s to Wang Fei-ling and Deng Yong for the ,o a %ite. 9? .le8is de To%5ueville, 2emocracy in America (Chi%agoH University of Chi%ago +ress, 9JJJ#, 99B. Cited in Dan Reiter and .llan C. /ta!, 2emocracies at ,ar (+rin%eton, -.=.H +rin%eton University +ress, 9JJ9#, 9-:. Cy than6s to /teve Chan for this referen%e. 9B Ci%hael +earl!an, ,arma3ing and American 2emocracy. The $truggle o/er (ilitary $trategy1 89:: to the Present, (odern ,ar $tudies (La ren%eH University +ress of 1ansas, 4>>>#, 4J. Cited in Reiter and /ta!, 2emocracies at ,ar. 9> Randall L. /%h eller, 2Do!esti% /tru%tures and $reventative arH .re de!o%ra%ies !ore $a%ifi%&3 World +oliti%s @@ (=anuary 4>>9#, $. 9@G

,ries A Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy A B

/$anish su)terfuge# and $o$ular outrage over /$anish atro%ities against the Cu)ans for%ed +resident C%1inley to laun%h the /$anish-.!eri%an War of 4B>B, 2a ar hi%h he did not ant,3 a%%ording to 7rnest Cay, 2for a %ause in hi%h he did not )elieve.3 :J 2Cuni%h3 is short for the 4>:B a%5uies%en%e of Britain and Fran%e to the ,er!an anne8ation of CDe%hoslova6ia. . $a%ifist British and Fren%h $u)li% are fre5uently )la!ed for +ri!e Cinisters Cha!)erlain and Daladier(s de%isions to a$$ease 0itler. 'n de!o%ra%ies, in su!, $o$ular o$inion %an %o!$el govern!ents to ards )oth ar and $ea%e. The 2de!o%rati% disadvantage3 A 2authoritarian advantage3 logi% %ontinues to drive .!eri%an visions of Chinese foreign $oli%y in the $ost-Cold War orld. Fie ing China as a 2%o!!unist tyranny,3 !any .!eri%ans today hold that the Chinese Co!!unist +arty (CC+#, unli6e the U./. govern!ent, %an %al!ly %onstru%t China(s foreign $oli%ies unfettered )y do!esti% %onstraints. For e8a!$le, in the /u!!er of 9JJ9 the )i$artisan U./.-China /e%urity Revie Co!!ission (U/CC# su)!itted its first annual Re$ort to the U./. Congress. The Re$ort e8$resses %on%ern that hile .!eri%a(s China $oli%y la%6s %onsisten%y, )eset )y rivalries )et een Congress and the Bush ad!inistration ithin and %onfli%ts a!ong various interest grou$s ithout, China(s .!eri%a $oli%y is driven )y a %oherent set of e8$ansionist goals. Free of do!esti% %onstraints, Chinese foreign $oli%y !a6ers are seen as )etter a)le to $ursue their goals, hi%h, a%%ording to Co!!issioner .rthur Waldron, involve 2e8%ludLingM the U./. fro! .sia3 and 2threatenLingM and %oer%LingM neigh)oring states.3:4 The e!erging role that $o$ular nationalis! is $laying in Chinese foreign $oli%y !a6ing %hallenges the 2de!o%rati% disadvantage3 vie . La%6ing the $ro%edural legiti!a%y a%%orded to de!o%rati%ally ele%ted govern!ents and fa%ing the %olla$se of %o!!unist ideology, the CC+ is in%reasingly de$endent u$on its nationalist %redentials to rule. :9 Tho!as Christensen e8$ressed this $oint su%%in%tly in an influential Foreign Affairs arti%leH 2/in%e the Chinese Co!!unist +arty is no longer %o!!unist, it !ust )e even !ore Chinese.3:: +o$ular nationalists !ay even, therefore, %o!e to $lay a greater role in foreign $oli%y de%ision !a6ing in China than in the United /tates.
:J

7rnest R. Cay, !mperial 2emocracy. The Emergence of America as a #reat Po*er (-e Yor6H 0ar%ourt, Bra%e, and World, 4><4#. Cited in /%h eller, 2Do!esti% /tru%tures and +reventative War,3 $. 9@G. :4 Waldron does not dis%lose his sour%es revealing nefarious Chinese intent. Co!!issioners 1enneth Le is and =une Teufel Dreyer nonetheless %on%urred ith Waldron(s o$inion. /ee U./.-China /e%urity Revie Co!!ission, 2Re$ort to Congress of the U./. - China /e%urity Revie Co!!issionH The -ational /e%urity '!$li%ations of the 7%ono!i% Relationshi$ )et een the United /tates and China,3 (Washington, DCH 9JJ9#. .vaila)le online S htt$HAA .us%%.govAanr$J9.ht!. .%%essed 4G .ugust 9JJ:. :9 =ohn FitDgerald has $resented the 2state nationalis!3 thesis the !ost elo5uentlyH 2'n the Chinese revolution, the state as not *ust !id ife at the )irth of the nation )ut in fa%t its sire. /o the founder of the -ationalist +arty, /un Yat-sen, is a$$ro$riately re!e!)ered as the Ofather of the %ountry( (guofu#.3 't is Nheng Yongnian, ho ever, ho has advan%ed the 2state nationalis!3 argu!ent the !ost re%ently. 'n 2isco/ering Chinese Nationalism in China1 Nheng !aintains that the e!ergen%e of nationalis! in China today is )est understood as a statist res$onse to the de%entraliDation of state $o er that o%%urred under Deng(s refor!s. /ee =ohn FitDgerald, 2The nationless stateH the sear%h for a nation in !odern Chinese nationalis!,3 in Chinese Nationalism, edited )y =onathan Unger (.r!on6, -.Y.H C.7. /har$e, 4>><#, $. GBE and Nheng Yongnian 1 2isco/ering Chinese Nationalism in China. (oderni'ation1 !dentity1 and !nternational "elations (Ca!)ridge and -e Yor6H Ca!)ridge University +ress, 4>>>#. :: /ee Tho!as Christensen, 2Chinese Real$oliti6,3 Foreign Affairs ?G, no. G (4>><#H :?.

,ries A Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy A >

What role do $o$ular nationalists $lay in the negotiation of the CC+(s nationalist legiti!a%y& Chinese nationalist $oliti%s today e8hi)its the %lai!-res$onse dyna!i% %entral to the negotiation of legiti!a%y in all $oliti%al syste!s. :@ +o$ular nationalists )oth support and challenge the state(s %lai!s to legiti!a%y ; and issue their o n rival nationalist %lai!s. The +arty )oth suppresses and responds to su%h %hallenges to its nationalist %redentials. The su$$ression of legiti!ate nationalist %lai!s, ho ever, !a6es the +arty lose face and authority )efore the Chinese $eo$le. /u%h su$$ression signals a reversion to %oer%ive for!s of $o er, under!ining regi!e sta)ility. /u%%essful res$onses to $o$ular nationalist de!ands, )y %ontrast, allo the +arty to gain face )efore nationalist audien%es, solidifying regi!e legiti!a%y. The thirtyso!ething 2Fourth ,eneration3 $rodu%ers of $o$ular Chinese nationalist dis%ourse today !ay su$$ort or %hallenge the state(s foreign $oli%ies. :G For instan%e, in the 4>>? )estseller The Plot to 2emoni'e China, +enn /tate(s Liu 1ang argues that the U./. govern!ent, )ig )usiness, and the !edia %ons$ire to !a6e China lose fa%e )efore orld o$inion. :< The Plot %learly see6s to support the +arty. The 4>>< anti-.!eri%an sensation China Can $ay No also su$$orted the +arty(s .!eri%a $oli%y.:? Ither $rodu%ts of $o$ular nationalis!, ho ever, challenge the +arty(s legiti!a%y, %lai!ing it has failed to !aintain China(s national fa%e. 'n an o$en letter sent to the +arty leadershi$ in Fe)ruary 4>>B, for instan%e, Chinese dissident Lin Rinshu argued that Li +eng not )e given Piao /hi(s *o) as Chair!an of the -ational +eo$le(s Congress. 0is argu!ent, signifi%antly, as not *ust Li(s 2in%o!$eten%e,3 )ut also that Li ; tainted )y his role in the Tianan!en Cassa%re ; ould tarnish 2China(s i!age in the orld.3:B Li ould )e una)le, in other ords, to !aintain face for China. The +arty elite )oth su$$ress and res$ond to su%h assaults on its status. Follo ing the 9JJ4 s$y $lane %ollision, for e8a!$le, the People-s 2aily sought to censor e8tre!e nationalist $ostings on its /trong Country Foru! (qiangguo luntan# online %hatroo!. Cany Chinese %y)er-nationalists res$onded )y !oving to %hatroo!s at $rivate sites li6e /ina.%o!, here they fervently de%ried the state(s su$$ression of their nationalist vie s. But the story does not, as the Western !edia so fre5uently suggests, end ith %ensorshi$ and re$ression. The elite also responds to $o$ular nationalists )y see6ing to gain face for China. 't has )egun, for e8a!$le, an a%tive %a!$aign of $ro!oting Chinese %ulture a)road. 'n 4>>B the -e China
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In legiti!a%y dyna!i%s, see Reinhard Bendi8, Nation;6uilding and Citi'enship. $tudies of Our Changing $ocial Order, -e enl. ed. (Ber6eleyH University of California +ress, 4>??#E and Ca8 We)er, The Theory of $ocial and Economic Organi'ation (-e Yor6H The Free +ress, 4><@#. :G .s Ru Ben has re%ently noted, 2-ationalis! in China isK a *un%tion and node of %ontradi%tion, intera%tion, and integration )et een state and so%iety.3 /ee 2Chinese +o$ulist -ationalis!H 'ts 'ntelle%tual +oliti%s and Coral Dile!!a,3 "epresentations ?<, no. 4 (9JJ4#H 49J-@J. :< Li Riguang and Liu 1ang, <aomohua )hongguo de beiho (The plot to demoni'e China# (Bei*ingH Nhongguo shehui 6e8ue %hu)anshe, 4>><#. :? /ong Piang, Nhang NangDang, and Piao Bian, )hongguo 3eyi shuobu (China Can $ay No# (Bei*ingH Nhonghua gongshang lianhe %hu)anshe, 4>><#. For an 7nglish language revie , see +eter 0ays ,ries, Revie of )hongguo 3eyi shuobu (China Can $ay No#, )hongguo haishineng shuobu (China $till Can $ay No#, and Liu0ue (eiguo ($tudying in the 7$A#, China &ournal :? (4>>?#H4BJ-4BG. :B Wu Fang and Ray Nhang, 2Dissident Called the Chinese +re!ier O'n%o!$etent(,3 China Ne*s 2igest (4>>B#.

,ries A Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy A 4J

-e s .gen%y announ%ed an offi%ial e)site that $ro!otes China(s %ultural i!age, introdu%ing 2China(s G,JJJ-year-old %ulture on the 'nternet, $ro!oting %o!!er%ial $erfor!an%es and e8hi)itionsK Cultural a%tivities that !ight degrade the %ountry(s dignity, ho ever, ill )e )anned.3 :> /i!ilarly, res$onding to The Plot to 2emoni'e China and other $o$ular nationalists( %on%erns that the .!eri%an !edia !a6es China lose face )efore international o$inion, in /e$te!)er 9JJJ the Chinese govern!ent organiDed a nine-%ity tour of the United /tates to dire%tly introdu%e Chinese %ulture to ordinary .!eri%ans.@J ' suggest, ho ever, that their real audien%e as on the other side of the +a%ifi%H )y $ro!oting Chinese %ulture and u$holding China(s dignity, the +arty is !a6ing a %lai! to nationalist legiti!a%y. /u%h a%tions de!onstrate its )elief that %rude re$ression is not enoughH the +arty !ust gain face for China )efore international so%iety to earn the su$$ort of nationalist audien%es at ho!e. Regi!e legiti!a%y hinges on the %o!)ination of strategies that the Co!!unist +arty and $o$ular nationalists %hoose during their en%ounters ; and ho they evolve over ti!e. ' have argued else here that the +arty res$onded to the Diaoyu 'slands $rotests of 4>><, the China Can $ay No sensation of 4>><->?, and the Belgrade )o!)ing $rotests of Cay 4>>> ith a different %o!)ination of su$$ression and %o-o$tation, largely su$$ressing Diaoyu $rotestors, see6ing to %o-o$t and utiliDe the China Can $ay No fever, and striving *ust to res$ond to the angry de!ands of Belgrade )o!)ing de!onstrators.@4 This !ove!ent a ay fro! su$$ression and to ards %o-o$tation refle%ts the e!ergen%e of a $o$ular nationalis! that is in%reasingly %hallenging the +arty-state. /truggling *ust to 6ee$ u$ ith $o$ular nationalist de!ands, the +arty is slo ly losing its autono!y in foreign $oli%y !a6ing. For instan%e, /hen =iru(s 4>>B China $hould Not Play =(r Nosought to %ounter the $aro%hial nationalis! of the 2say no3 sensation ith a !ore !oderate nationalis! ; and to urge $o$ular nationalists to entrust the CC+ ith the !a6ing of China(s foreign $oli%y. /hen is a resear%her at the Chinese .%ade!y of /o%ial /%ien%es( (C.//# 'nstitute of World 7%ono!i%s and +oliti%s, and C.// Fi%e +resident Liu =i rote the Fore ord to his )oo6. China $hould Not Play =(r No- is argua)ly an offi%ial res$onse to the $o$ular China Can $ay No )oo6s.@9 /hen is %learly a nationalist ; 2.s a great nation, China should $arti%i$ate in %onstru%ting a ne $ostCold War order3 ; and he $raises the 2righteous anger3 (yifen# of Fourth ,eneration $o$ular nationalists. But he re*e%ts the e8tre!is! of !any naysayers in favor of a !ore !ature attitude to ards foreign $oli%yH 2China(s 94st %entury international strategy !ust not )e a $aro%hial nationalist, un%oo$erative strea! of Onos(K 94st %entury China and the orld re5uire understanding,
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2China ,ets Wired as Cultural BlitD +lanned,3 China Ne*s 2igest (4>>B#. This $ro*e%t also suggests that the 'nternet in China is not the real! of a %ivil so%iety set against the state. The 'nternet is instead another site for nationalist $oliti%s, ith a%tors )oth for and against the state vying for authority. @J David Bris%oe, 2China Trying to '!$rove '!age ith Irdinary .!eri%ans, /till Wary of ,overn!ent,3 The Associated Press, .ugust :J 9JJJ. @4 /ee ,ries, China-s Ne* Nationalism, Cha$ter ?. @9 For a %on%urring inter$retation of the offi%ial nature of China $hould Not Play =(r No-1 see =ose$h Fe s!ith, 20istori%al 7%hoes and Chinese +oliti%sH Can China Leave the T entieth Century Behind&,3 'n China 6riefing >:::. The Continuing Transformation, edited )y Tyrene White (.r!on6, -YH C.7. /har$e, 9JJJ#, $. 94.

,ries A Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy A 44

re%on%iliation, and %oo$eration ; not antagonis!.3 /hen ields the s$e%ter of the for!er /oviet Union as an ad!onition against those ho advo%ate %onfrontationH 2The /oviets ere ni%6na!ed OCr. -o( for using their veto in the U- /e%urity Coun%il all the ti!e. We do not need to $lay a se%ond OCr. -o(.3 0e then as6s, 2's the only ay that Chinese %an $rove their inde$enden%e and strength )y daring to say Ono(&3 /hen ad!onishes $o$ular nationalists that 2e!otion %annot su)stitute for $oli%y.3@: 't is the elite, in other ords, ho !ust %oolly %onstru%t China(s foreign $oli%y. China(s $o$ular nationalists do not a$$ear to have heeded /hen(s advi%e. =ohn 1eefe, ho as s$e%ial assistant to U./. .!)assador to China =ose$h +rueher during the .$ril 9JJ4 s$y $lane in%ident, later related that, during the negotiations in Bei*ing, .!eri%an di$lo!ats 2sa a Chinese govern!ent a%utely sensitive to Chinese $u)li% o$inion.3 @@ During 9JJ4 ; 9JJ9, a $o$-u$ a$$eared on the !ain $age of the Cinistry of Foreign .ffairs( (CF.# Chinese language e)site. 't soli%ited the o$inions of ordinary Chinese, lin6ing the reader to a $age here he or she %ould e-!ail the CF. and read the trans%ri$ts of ele%troni% %hats no held regularly )et een senior CF. offi%ials and %on%erned Chinese netiDens. @G The CF., it see!s, does not *ust dire%t its attention at the international %o!!unityE it also has an eye on the de!ands of do!esti% nationalists. Botto!-u$ $o$ular $ressures are $laying an in%reasingly %entral role in nationalist legiti!ation today. .nd those $ressures tend to )e of the aggresive 7$$ (aine variety ; not the $a%ifist Cuni%h ty$e. Chinese nationalis!, therefore, %an no longer )e des%ri)ed as a $urely 2state3 or 2offi%ial3 to$-do n affair. . are that $o$ular nationalists no %o!!and a large follo ing, the CF. is a%tively see6ing to a$$ease the!. China(s foreign $oli%y !a6ers, it a$$ears, do not gain a 2nonde!o%rati% advantage3 over their %ounter$arts in de!o%rati% nationsE as they !a6e $oli%y, they too !ust )e res$onsive to do!esti% o$inion. Western $oli%y !a6ers ignore this ne influen%e on Chinese foreign $oli%y !a6ing at their o n $eril. 'C+L'C.T'I-/ FIR U./. C0'-. +IL'CY What lessons !ight Western analysts and $oli%y !a6ers dra fro! this )rief dis%ussion of nationalis! and Chinese foreign $oli%y& ' have argued that sin%e hu!an !otivation is not dire%tly o)serva)le, analysts !ust %arefully infer intentions for! the things that $eo$le say and do. Ine i!$li%ation of this argu!ent is that Western analysts !ust )e e8tre!ely %areful not to si!$ly $ro*e%t onto China their $re-e8isting 2gut feelings.3 0o !u%h do our various assess!ents of China as a 2%uddly $anda3 or a 2fier%e dragon3
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/hen =iru, )hongguo budang ?bu 0iansheng? ; dangdai )hongguo de guo+i 'hanlue *enti (China $hould Not Play ?(r No?. The problem of China?s Contemporary !nternational $trategy # (Bei*ingH =inri Nhongguo %hu)anshe, 4>>B# $$. G<, 9-:, G?. @@ =ohn 1eefe, 2.nato!y of the 7+-: 'n%ident, .$ril 9JJ4,3 Center for -aval .nalysis (.le8andria F., 9JJ4#, $. 4J. @G /ee the CF.(s Chinese language e)$age S htt$HAA .f!$r%.gov.%nA%hnA. The $o$-u$ leads to htt$HAA))s.f!$r%.gov.%nAinde8.*s$. The 7nglish language site is S htt$HAA .f!$r%.gov.%nAengA. .ll a%%essed on 4> .ugust 9JJ9. The $o$-u$ no longer a$$eared on 4G .ugust 9JJ:, )ut the intera%tive $age re!ains.

,ries A Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy A 49

refle%t Chinese realities& .nd ho !u%h do they refle%t dee$-rooted feelings a)out China, Co!!unis!, or the nature of the orld syste! (a 1antian heaven or a 0o))esian hell#& . se%ond i!$li%ation of this argu!ent that intentions are invisi)le is that analysts need to devote !ore attention to the %areful interrogation of Chinese ords and deeds. We %annot )e %ontent to si!$ly infer Chinese intentions fro! Chinese %a$a)ilities or China(s $osition in the )alan%e of $o er. .gainst stru%tural realists li6e Ro)ert Ross, ' %ontend that there is still a need for the analysis of $er%e$tions and i!ages in U./.-China relationsE the or6 of Bo) =ervis re!ains relevant. @< When the +L. a%5uires a ne ea$ons syste!, is it eviden%e of an aggressive Chinese nationalis! that see6s to u$set the regional )alan%e of $o er, or of a status 5uo China see6ing to $rote%t its $osition in the region& Rationalist analyses alone %annot ans er su%h 5uestions. To understand Chinese intentions, therefore, e still need to %riti%ally e8a!ine Chinese ords and deeds. ' have also argued that hu!an !otivation is %o!$le8. -ot all anger, for e8a!$le, is the sa!e. Ine i!$li%ation of this argu!ent is that Western analysts and $oli%y !a6ers !ust )e %areful not to si!$ly $ro*e%t their o n understandings of hu!an !otivation onto Chinese. For instan%e, during the 9JJ4 a$ology di$lo!a%y dis%ussed a)ove, .!eri%ans tended to assu!e that Chinese understood the situation the very sa!e ay that e did ; that sin%e the fault lied ith Wang Wei and his F-B, the U./. had nothing to a$ologiDe for. We thus tended to attri)ute e8tre!e !otives to Chinese de!ands for a$ologies. Chinese ere either overly e!otional, defor!ed )y %ruel Chinese traditions, or highly instru!ental, see6ing to utiliDe the in%ident to e8tra%t %on%essions fro! the U./. @? . greater a areness of the %o!$le8ity of hu!an !otivation !ay have hel$ed Westerners re%ogniDe that for !any Chinese %ul$a)ility as not the issue. Cross-%ultural $sy%hologists have de!onstrated that Chinese tend to have a !ore %onse5uentialist vie of res$onsi)ility than .!eri%ans. @B 'n this %ase, a Chinese %itiDen as dead, and an a$ology as therefore ne%essary to restore the )ilateral relationshi$. When .!eri%ans initially refused to a$ologiDe, this %reated a higher or ethi%al anger that sought to %orre%t this in*usti%e. The .!eri%an failure to re%ogniDe the nuan%es of this Chinese vie aggravated an already diffi%ult situation.@>
@<

Citing =ervis, Ross rites that 2%o!!on argu!ents a)out !is$er%e$tions in $oli%y!a6ingK do not a$$ly to the U./.-China %onfli%t.3 /ee Ro)ert /. Ross, 2'ntrodu%tion,3 in "e;E0amining the Cold ,ar. 7 $ ;China 2iplomacy1 8@AB;8@9C1 Ro)ert /. Ross and =iang Chang)in, eds. (Ca!)ridge, CassH 0arvard University +ress, 9JJ4#, $. :>G (note ?#. @? Writing in the Ne* <or3 Times, Fo8 Butterfield lo%ated the %ultural roots of China(s de!and for an .!eri%an a$ology in 2Chinese %hild-rearing $ra%ti%es3 and the 2old Confu%ian tradition of %onfor!ity.3 . %ruel Confu%ian %ulture, Butterfield argues, lies at the heart of Co!!unist Tyranny. The Financial Times- =a!es 1ynge ent to the o$$osite e8tre!e, riting that =iang Ne!in 2seiDed on the in%ident to de!and a halt to U./. air surveillan%e !issions near the Chinese %oastline.3 Chinese, 1ynge argues, are not %raDyE they are si!$ly %old nd %al%ulating. /ee Fo8 Butterfield, 2China(s De!and for .$ology is Rooted in Tradition,3 The Ne* <or3 Times, ? .$ril 9JJ4E and =a!es 1ynge, 2China Calls for .$ology Iver Collision,3 Financial Times, .$ril @, 9JJ4, $. 49. @B For a $air of fine re%ent overvie s of this resear%h, see +eng 1ai$ing, Daniel .!es, and 7ri% 1no les, 2Culture and 0u!an 'nferen%eH +ers$e%tives fro! Three Traditions,3 in %andboo3 of Cross;cultural Psychology (I8ford University +ress, 9JJ4#E and Ri%hard 7. -is)ett, The #eography of Thought. ,hy ,e Thin3 the ,ay ,e 2o (-e Yor6H Free +ress, 9JJ:#. @> If %ourse, Chinese also failed to re%ogniDe that .!eri%ans have a !ore %ul$a)ility-oriented vie of res$onsi)ility. In the $sy%hologi%al di!ension of s$y $lane in%ident, see +eter 0ays ,ries and +eng 1ai$ing,

,ries A Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy A 4:

' have also argued that hu!an !otivation is fre5uently !ulti$le. Ine i!$li%ation of this argu!ent, es$e%ially i!$ortant for .!eri%ans ho tend to valoriDe the idea of enlightened selfinterest, is that e should )e ary of redu%ing Chinese intentions to the instru!ental $ursuit of China(s national interest. Des$ite out rugged individualist lore, e .!eri%ans %are greatly a)out our various so%ial identities ; in%luding our national identity. The $assionate .!eri%an rea%tion to 2>.443 %learly revealed that .!eri%ans %are greatly a)out )eing 2.!eri%an.3 The invasions of .fghanistan and 'ra5 revealed that e .!eri%ans are illing to )ear signifi%ant instru!ental %osts to $rote%t our %herished self-identifi%ations. Chinese are no different. While Chinese nationalists are fre5uently !otivated )y instru!ental goals li6e gro ing China(s e%ono!y or in%reasing the strength of the +L., they are often si!ultaneously !oved out of desires to restore, !aintain and i!$rove China(s 2international i!age.3 China(s de%ision to invade Fietna! in the late 4>?Js, for instan%e, as !otivated in $art, as Deng Riao$ing $ut it, )y a desire to 2tea%h little )rother a lesson.3 .fter all of China(s aid to the Fietna!ese %o!!unists during the Fietna! War, Chinese li6e Deng ere outraged that Little Brother Fietna! ould re$ay this Chinese 6indness )y )etraying China ith an allian%e ith China(s ene!y the /oviet Union. Righteous indignation as a )ig reason that China(s leaders de%ided to invade Fietna!. China(s =a$an $oli%y today, si!ilarly, is often driven )y e!otion. Chinese ant =a$anese aid, to )e sure, )ut the sy!)oli% $oliti%s of hat it !eans to )e 2Chinese3 or 2=a$anese3 often ta6es $re%eden%e. GJ Finally, ' have argued that Chinese foreign $oli%y, li6e .!eri%an foreign $oli%y, is a t olevel ga!eH China is not a totalitarian regi!e in hi%h di$lo!ats %an %al!ly %onstru%t their foreign $oli%ies free fro! do!esti% %onstraints. Ine i!$li%ation of this argu!ent is that .!eri%an di$lo!ats !ust re%ogniDe that their Chinese %ounter$arts do not have the autono!y $reviously assu!edE $o$ular nationalis! has )e%o!e a !a*or %onstraint on Chinese di$lo!ats. +o$ular $ressures on Chinese foreign $oli%y !a6ers ere a$$arent during the Fall of 9JJ:. Follo ing the Pi5ihar !ustard gas in%ident, in hi%h one Chinese died and doDens ere in*ured u$on dis%overing a)andoned =a$anese %he!i%al ea$ons fro! World War '', %y)er-nationalists gathered over one !illion signatures on an anti-=a$anese $etition %ir%ulated on the 'nternet. The Foreign Cinistry as stu%6 )et een a ro%6 and hard $la%e, see6ing )oth to %ha!$ion the Chinese $osition and $la%ate $o$ular nationalists on the one hand, and to !aintain China(s lu%rative trade relations ith =a$an on the other hand. .nd they a)ly al6ed the tightro$e, allo ing $etition organiDers to $resent their $etition to the =a$anese e!)assy in Bei*ing on /e$te!)er 4Bth, the ?9nd anniversary of the Cu6den 'n%ident of 4>:4 hi%h led to the =a$anese o%%u$ation of Can%huria, )ut re*e%ting the nationalists( a$$li%ation for a $rotest !ar%h in Bei*ing. 2/o it see!s to !e,3 Bei*ing analyst Liu =unning later told the BBC, 2the $etition is so!ething of signifi%an%e )et een the Chinese govern!ent and its $eo$le rather than )et een China

2Culture Clash& .$ologies 7ast and West,3 The &ournal of Contemporary China 44.:J (9JJ9#H4?:-4?B. GJ .llen Whiting is right that negative i!ages of =a$an have th arted China(s interest in %loser relations ith its .sian neigh)or. /ee China Eyes &apan (Ber6eleyH University of California +ress, 4>B>#.

,ries A Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy A 4@

and =a$an3G4 Chinese %itiDens are de!anding a larger say in Chinese foreign $oli%y, and the CF. has its hands full a%%o!!odating their de!ands. +o$ular nationalis! is in%reasingly )inding the hands of China(s foreign $oli%y !a6ers. . se%ond i!$li%ation of this argu!ent that Chinese foreign $oli%y is no a t o-level ga!e is that .!eri%an China $oli%y !a6ers should devote greater attention not *ust to su)stan%e, )ut also to $resentation. There are real %onfli%ts of !aterial interests in the )ilateral relationshi$. The su)stantive %ontent of .!eri%an $oli%ies, therefore, is e8tre!ely sensitive. But ho the Chinese $u)li% percei/es .!eri%an ords and $oli%ies also has a !a*or i!$a%t on the dire%tion of )oth Chinese nationalis! and Chinese foreign $oli%y in the 94st Century. China-)ashing !ay )e e!otionally gratifying for *ournalists li6e the ,ashington Times- Bill ,ertD, $undits li6e .7'(s .rthur Waldron, and states!en li6e /e%retary of Defense Donald Ru!sfeld ; )ut it e8tre!ely $erni%ious. .!eri%an China-)ashing )egets Chinese .!eri%a-)ashing, and vi%e-versa. 'n a )ilateral relationshi$ already dangerously short on !utual trust, su%h trans-+a%ifi% diatri)es %ould )e%o!e a self-fulfilling $ro$hesy, leading us to yet another U./.-China %onfli%t.

G4

Ti! Luard, 2.nti-=a$an $rotests orry China,3 66C Ne*s Online, 4B /e$te!)er 9JJ:. .vaila)le S htt$HAAne s.))%.%o.u6A9AhiAasia-$a%ifi%A:44BBGJ.st!, a%%essed 99 /e$te!)er 9JJ:.