CHAPTER I

GOALS FOR FURTHER VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING: THE VIEW OF EMPLOYEES AND THE VIEW OF SUPERIORS
FRANK ACHTENHAGEN and HARTMUT-A. OLDENBI]RGER Georg-August-University, D-37073 G6ttingen, Germany

Abstract
Empirical studies have been conducted in four large enterprises: a communication industry, an automobile firm, a travel agency, and a regional bank. The main research focus was on the views of employees and superiors on the goals of corporate training, both personal goals and strategic managerial goals. In addition, principal components of goals and their dependencies on person attributes were investigated. Copyright O 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Introduction As a result of a report on European research on corporate training, Lowyck and Elcn (1994) stated, "Decision-making on training at the organisation level is hardly studied. If this is the case, a strategic rather than a professional perspective is taken. It is investigated who contributes to make decisions in training and which responsibles or bodies influence decision-making, rather than to analyse the criteria, the underlying theories or models they hold and how [possible systematic] decision-making procedures may be" (p. 5). This statement is directly related to the primary question of this chapter: what should be adequate goals for decision-making on vocational education and training? Employees must be qualified and adapted to the needs of the workplace. Changes in the worksite and private life caused by "megatrends" such as increasing internationalization of economy, new communication and information technology, demographic development, and changed value patterns have consequences Ior organizational structures (Achtenhagen, 1994a; Achtenhagen, Nijhof, & Raffe, 1995). Supporting this economically driven, strategic perspective, it is necessary to foster a pedagogical one; namely to develop the personality of the individual employee with regard not only to the cognitive, but also to the emotional, motivational and moral domain (Bundesministerium fi.ir Bildung und Wissenschaft, 1990). This pedagogical aspect of vocational education and training is accepted by future-oriented enterprises where the assumption that the personal development
387

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E ACHTENHAGEN and H.-A. OLDENBI~,RGER

improves an individual's qualifications with regard to the changing needs of the workplace is a prerequisite. In this perspective, we have a "coincidence of economic and pedagogical reason" (see Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, 1990, p. vii). But - - and this restriction is i m p o r t a n t the coincidence argument should not be used to foster the instrumentalization of vocational education tor strategic purposes. There is an increasing discussion about proper goals and necessary changes in vocational education and training in all highly industrialized states. (For Europe, see the summarizing feasibility study by Achtenhagen eta!., 1995; for the U.S.A., see Berryman & Bailey, 1992; Grubb, 1995a, b; Wirth, 1992; Kincheloe, 1995; Resnick & Wirt 1996.) With regard to this discussion two main points must be emphasized. First, vocational educational policy is very often run under the headings of value-laden slogans. "Key qualitications", "core skills", and "generic skills" are the objectives urged not only by the governments, but also by employers' and trade unions (see, for the U.K., Burke, 1995; Levy, 1992; for the German speaking countries, Reetz, 1990; D6rig, 1994), But there is little research on how to effectively reach such goals. Second, there is a narrow focus on institutional and organizational measures (e.g., the introduction of new "hybrid" school types), no consideration as to how to realize these measures qualitatively. (See also the corresponding critique by Berryman & Bailey, 1992.) Both problems require the same solution: the development of new and effective teaching-learning processes within vocational education and training. There is a lack of newer thcoretically driven approaches although some concepts developed within cognitive psychology show - - at Icast by their headings - - relations to problems of vocational education and training (e.g., "cognitive apprenticeship", "situated learning"). There are few research studies, however, on how to amalgate such proposals systematically with the goals and methods of vocational education and training. This means that traditional approaches still dominate the actual practice in schools and enterprises. (For a list of these practices see Achtenhagen, 1994b, pp. 31-32.) This brings us back to a central point of Lowyck and Elen (1994); relatively little is known about ways in which employees learn. A "learning en passant'" might be effective for some craftsmanship and technical staff, but with regard to ambitious tasks to be fulfilled in the workplace, it seems insuMcient to mediate knowledge, abilities, and attitudes by bringing people into natural settings in the workplace. Systematic vocational education must teach the theoretical basis /'or very complex practical knowledge and tasks where the underlying structure is hidden. For example, an apprentice in a bank has no chance to visualize the accountancy procedures with regard to the customers' accounts. He or she can observe customers taking money using a credit card, or getting their account by printing it. While these activities are concrete, the underlying accounting system is hidden in a doubly abstract way. There is the accounting system which models the activities, a first level of abstraction, and there is the computer program by which the accounting procedures are run, the second level. This is only one example of the general problems of initial vocational education and training. It"adequate teaching-learning processes are not provided, further vocational education and training is needed. As the megatrends and the corresponding entrepreneurial measures continuously change the working conditions, the problem is one of adequately preparing workers tor the changed worksite. Workers and clerks must assimilate themselves to the changed conditions, but the chance of accommodation must exist through their participation in the management of their working conditions. More generally, the concept of "reflective practitioner" should lead the development of human resources (Schi~n, 1987). The main problem in this context is the identilication of the needs and the goals for further vocational education and training. Reports on the effectiveness of teaching-learning processes

Training in Organizations

389

in adult education and vocational education from multiple European countries form a jigsaw. While there seem to be many needs for further education and training in the enterprises, the effectiveness of programs and courses is not sufficiently under control. Enterprises officially do not report on the effects of their efforts in the field of corporate training, even though in Germany in 1992 an estimated sum of 40 billion DM was spent on it. According to a survey by the German Bundesinstitut fiir Berufsbildung in 1994, 10 billion DM were paid by the participants of courses in further vocational education and training. Either the instruments used in cost accounting do not work in the right direction or the enterprises do not use them adequately with regard to the structure of costs, the goals to be reached, and the mid-term and long-term effects of the programs. In many cases, this is due to the profit center system by which departments of a corporation are handled as separate cost centers. Therefore, "overhead" costs for apprenticeship or further education which are imposed by the central department of personnel (or the board of managers) emerge tor the profit center as a cost factor which diminishes its profits (see Wittke, 1995). The paradox is that no real instrument of business theory exists to judge the benefits, the "assets" of the education, and the training campaigns. Strategies to define the programs of further vocational education and training, therefore arc mainly concerned with financial aspects rather than their effectiveness tor human resource development. Initial cuts within further vocational education and training have been observed. But more importantly, there is a real danger that the enterprises try to cut all expenses for corporate training, including the money for initial vocational education and training, using an apprenticeship model or comparable measures. This is true for many industrialized countries which are considering changing their concepts of beginning vocational education (Achtenhagen et al., 1995), but it is also true for those countries which already have introduced an apprenticeship system. In doing so the enterprises make a very serious mistake, for a further education which merits its name depends on a well-organized initial vocational education. Vocational education should not mainly be a repair system. Employees perceive the changes and understand that they must learn new knowledge, skills. and attitudes in order to avoid possible unemployment. They normally have a feeling for their needs for further vocational education and training. The superiors and managers who are responsible for running the enterprise see the necessity of qualifying the personnel for the new task structure. However, as shown by nearly all relevant investigations, there is a relatively unorganized structure of the corresponding goal system. That is, employees and superiors know there must be further vocational education and training, but they have severe problems in identifying an optimal goal structure. This dilemma was the starting point for our studies: How do persons who are involved into the system of further vocational education and training perceive and judge its goals and effects'?

Research Context and Results of Four Studies

Study I: An Enterprise for Communication Equipment

The research reported in this section started casually. One of our students, Stephanic Pudenz was working as probationer in a large industrial enterprise in the field of communication. It has about 8,000 employees and is expanding. One strategic managerial goal was to handle further

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F. A C H T E N H A G E N and H - A . O L D E N B U R G E R

vocational education and training as an important part of investment, but there was also great dissatisfaction with the results of the extensive corporate training. Pudenz was asked to give suggestions for improving the program. She had the idea of writing her diploma thesis on this topic and, therefore, received our assistance. As the whole field of further vocational education and training was too large to be investigated by a single diploma thesis, and as the place of business of this enterprise was too distant to run a larger project without additional money, a focus had to be decided upon. Because of our previous research on person perception theory and implicit teaching-learning strategies (Achtenhagen, Sembill, & Steinhoff, 1979; Achtenhagen, 1984; Oldenbiirger, 1986; Oldenbtirger, Fr6vel, Kurzawa, & Weymar, 1992) a decision was made to investigate the expectations and judgments that people brought to further vocational education problems. By examining the different perspectives, a first insight into the social field of corporate training was believed to be possible. The focus of the Pudenz (1991) study was on employees' goal preferences'and structures with respect to further education and their relationships with personal attributes. Opinions of superiors of the employees who have to decide whether a co-worker is allowed to attend, encouraged to attend, or hindered from attending such courses were also solicited. These opinions provided information on how strategic planning is mediated by the decisions of the superiors who are also controlled by their heads of the department and others. By asking the employees and their superiors for their perceptions, expectations, and judgments with regard to the needs and effects of further vocational education and training two main perspectives were pursued: * to make the goal structure more explicit. Work at this stage was planned as exploratory, whereby different patterns of goals for employees and superiors were expected because of their differences in perspectives; and, to provide information for the department of personnel which is responsible for corporate training programs and usually does not take into account the expectations of the employees. The hypothesis for Pudenz (1991) was that diverging patterns of judgments would be found, with superiors making interpretations in terms of managerial strategy goals and employees interpreting goals in relation to personal needs. To investigate this hypothesis, two questionnaires were developed, one for the superiors, the other for the employees. The items were developed by looking at the corresponding literature and official documents of the managerial goals of the firm, and by extensive interviews with selected superiors, employees, the trade union's board, and officers of the department of personnel. The questionnaires were formulated in a way that contained items relating to both personal and managerial goals. A first version of both questionnaires was tested with small groups selected randomly. Before the questionnaires were given to the samples, the heads of the departments and the members of the work council approved them. The final version consisted of 27 items for the employees and 25 items for the superiors (Study I).* There was space for additional remarks with regard to advantages and problems of the specific corporate training. Some biographical information was requested; specifically attributes on which goals could depend (age, gender, school education, job position, and frequency and evaluation of corporate training). The questionnaires were

*The questionnaires are available al our institule. For reasons of space we only report on specific items.

Training in Organizations Questionnaires Sent out

Sent back Return ratio

391

(%)

Employees

300

ll7

39

Superiors

30

18

60

Total

330

135

41

Figure I.I. Information on study I sample.

distributed r a n d o m l y (with the help o f the d e p a r t m e n t o f personnel) to a sample o f 10% o f all personnel. Each participant r e c e i v e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e and a stamped e n v e l o p e and returned the questionnaire a n o n y m o u s l y to the researcher. T h e branch o f the enterprise included in the study had about 3000 e m p l o y e e s and 300 superiors. Figure 1.1 s h o w s the distribution. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 report the m e a n s for the different items on a four-point-scale from "less important" (1) to " i m p o r t a n t " (4). Since this study was exploratory, the results are s i m p l y described. T w o tendencies were supportive o f the hypothesis. First, e m p l o y e e s and superiors a g r e e d in their p r e f e r e n c e s for goals w h i c h e m p h a s i z e d i m p r o v ing abilities, qualifications and functional c o m p e t e n c e . S e c o n d , there w e r e differences in other preferences. The e m p l o y e e s mainly focused on personal goals whereas the superiors additionally included strategic goals for corporate training. T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the results shown in Tables !.1 and 1.2 is highlighted by the fact that all c o n f i d e n c e intervals for the item m e a n s are very small. F o r e x a m p l e , the 9 5 % confidence interval for item I ( e m p l o y e e s ) is g i v e n by (3.65 > M =

Table I. i Study 1: Ranks of Goals of Corporate Training - - Employees (n = 117) Rank

1

1 attend corporate training in order to ... ... improve my abilities within the firm ... overtake more demanding tasks ... deepen the understanding of my own tasks ... adjust the individual qualification to the needs of the working place ... get better chances on the labor market ... win more social recognition outside the firm ... follow the taking-part request of the superior

Item 1 7 4 22 12 21 16

Mean 3.54 3.47 3.32 3.31 3.20 1.95 1.61

SD

SEM

2 3 4 5 26 27

.64 .73 .84 .72 .91 .97 .79

.059 .067 .078 .067 .084 .090 .073

(SD: = Standard Deviation; SEM: = Standard Error of Mean).

392

F. A C H T E N H A G E N and H - A . O L D E N B U R G E R Table 1.2 Study 1: Ranks of Goals of Corporate Training - - Superiors (n = 18)

Rank

The corporate training of the staff members should ... ... permanently adapt their qualification to the changes of the labor tasks ... enable the staff members to cope with future labor tasks ... secure the necessary n u m b e r of qualified staff members and superiors ... increase the capability of the staff members ... allow recruitment of superiors out of the staff members ... promote a realistic self-evaluation with regard to the qualification for the actual working place .+ diminish the rate of absence of the staff members

Item

Mean

SD

SEM

1 2 2 2 5 24 25

25 23 I 10 12 24 4

3.72 3.67 3.67 3.67 3.56 2.33 1.61

.46 .49 .59 .59 .62 .59 .78

.I 15 .121 .148 .148 .154 .149 .194

3.54 > 3.43), for item 7 (3.60 > M = 3.47 > 3.34), and for item 4 by (3.47 > M = 3.32 > 3.17). Therefore, the differences between the item means are substantial. The results and their interpretations as presented in a larger report, were accepted. As a result employees became involved in the planning of the next programs of further vocational education and training in this branch.

Stud), !!: An Automobile Firm

Study II took place in a large branch of an automobile firm with about 60,000 employees. For practical reasons, the whole field of corporate training was reduced to that part of the program which focused on communicative behavior (Schulz, 1993).

Questionnaires

Sefl[ OUt

Sent back

Return ratio

(%)

Employees

300

176

.59

Superiors

85

36

42

Total

385

212

55

Figure 1.2. Information on study II sample.

Training in O r g a n i z a t i o n s

39

Because this study was conducted in the context of a larger research program, the same questionnaires were used as far as possible with adaptations made to the special needs of the firm in question. A pilot study was also conducted. From 648 participants of seminars on communication and 80 superiors of these employees, we selected by random sampling 80 employees and 30 superiors for open questioning on the main goals of further education. Using the answcr,~ of 25 employees and 10 superiors, a content analysis led to a classification of goals with regard to corporate training in this lield. The structure of these answers led to retaining 12 items tor the employees and 10 items for the superiors from the questionnaires used in Study I. Additional items were written, producing a total of 28 items lor the employees and 27 items for the superiors. The response format was changed to a five-point scale on the dimension "importance". Samples of the population of former attendants of the communication courses and their superiors were selected with the number of employees equal to 300 (comparable to sample II. The number of superiors depended on their relation to the employees who were drawn for the sample (Figure 1.2). Tables 1.3 and 1.4 show the means for selected items. The items are displayed in descending order based on the mean scores. A pattern of results similar to those in Study I was found. The employees emphasized the personal goal perspective; the superiors again emphasized the strategic goal dimension. As m Study I, the small conlidence intervals for the means demonstrate that the rank order of the item is reliable. The common goal preferences pertained to communicative competence, the content of the training.

Stud~' I11: A Travel Agency

Study III (Schenk, 1993) was an investigation of the corporate training of the travel agency of a large storehouse chain. The chain employs 42,000 staff members; the travel agency about 400. The salary system consists of a normal wage rate, additional payment of the firm, a bonus for

Table 1.3 Study It: R a n k s o f Goals o f C o r p o r a t e T r a i n i n g - - E m p l o y e e s (n = 176~ Rank I attend the c o m m u n i c a t i o n courses as part of the c o r p o r a t e t r a i n i n g in order to ... ... improve the c o m m u n i c a t i o n at the workplace ... improve my o w n c o m m u n i c a t i v e behavior ... improve the efficiency o f talking ... improve the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f w o r k i n g results ... improve my p e r f o r m a n c e in large discussion groups ... secure m y actual s a l a r y ... relieve the daily m o n o t o n y Item Mean

SD

SEM

1 2 2 4 5 27 28

9 16 5 8 18 23 22

4.56 4.53 4.53 4.51 449 2.50 244

.69 ,73 .75 .72 .73 1.29 1.36

.052 055 .056 .054 055 .0t~7 .102

394

F. ACHTENHAGEN and H.-A. OLDENBIJRGER Table 1.4 Study !1: Ranks of Goals of Corporate Training - - Superiors (n = 36)

Rank
I

The communication courses as part of the corporate training should ... ... improve the team work of the staff members ... provide strategies of effective conversation for the staff members ... enable the staff members to solve conflicts without the help of superiors ... improve the presentation of working results ... improve teamwork and cooperative behavior of the staff members ... relieve the daily monotony ... entertain my staff members for some days

Item 10 25 4 5 20 27 16

Mean 4.64 4.47 4.44 4.42 4.39 1.61 1.25

SD

SEM

.54 .77 .91 .84 .60 1.08 .77

.091 .097 .151 .140 .100 .179 .128

2 3 4 5 26 27

each holiday sold, and an incentive s y s t e m for a w h o l e local group. This c o r r e s p o n d s to the published managerial goals: the w o r k has to be client-centered; the staff is the "heart o f succ e s s " ; and p e r m a n e n t s e l f - e n h a n c e m e n t o f the staff is needed. As in S t u d y II, a pilot study with an o p e n question on the main goals o f further e d u c a t i o n was c o n d u c t e d (34 e m p l o y e e s , seven superiors). As a result o f the content analysis, 12 items o f the sample I questionnaire for the e m p l o y e e s and eight items for the superiors were retained. T h e revised questionnaires contained 24 items for e m p l o y e e s and 23 for superiors, using a five-point scale. The questionnaires were given to all e m p l o y e e s w h o attended corporate training and to all c o r r e s p o n d i n g superiors. All staff m e m b e r s returned c o m p l e t e d questionnaires. The results are s u m m a r i z e d in Tables 1.5 and 1.6. T h e items s h o w a different picture f r o m that o f the first t w o studies. F o r e m p l o y e e s as w e l l as superiors, personal and entrepreneurial g o a l s together are m o s t important for corporate training. O n e interpretation o f this finding is that the c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d activities in a travel a g e n c y f a v o r this v i e w of further vocational education. In addition, the m a n a g e r i a l staff explicitly used c o r p o r a t e identity as a strategic goal. The data support this interpretation.

Table 1.5 Study I11: Ranks of Goals of Corporate Training - - Employees (n = 97) Rank
1

I attend corporate training in order to ... ... improve my professional knowledge ... improve my personal knowledge ... gua]antee the standards of advice to clients ... improve my knowledge of travel targets ... get informed about changes in the working tasks ... relieve the daily monotony ... follow the taking-part request of the superior

Item I0 3 5 8 22 9 17

Mean 4.84 4.84 4.81 4.80 4,72 3.24 2.85

SD

SEM

1 3 4 5 23 24

.37 .40 .46 .55 .55 1.32 1.33

.038 .040 .047 .056 .056 .134 .135

Training in Organizations Table 1.6 Study II1: Ranks of Goals of Corporate Training - - Superiors (n = 1 I) Rank I I 3 4 5 22 22 22 1 recommended my staff members to attend the courses of corporate training for ... improving their professional knowledge ... improving their knowledge of travel targets .. increasing the turnover with the work of qualified staff members .. improving the competence of communicating with clients ... motivating . improving teamwork and cooperative behavior improving internal communication ... improving the loyalty of the staff members with regard to the enterprise
...
.

395

Item 5 9 6 14 13 7 15 20

Mean 5.00 5.00 4.91 4.91 4.82 3'91 3'91 3t~l

SD
0 0 .30 .30 .40 83 83 70

SEM
c)
0

.091 091 122 251 251 2tl

Study IV." A Regional Bank

S t u d y IV was an i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i t h i n a large r e g i o n a l b a n k with 109 b r a n c h e s , a b o u t 1,550 s t a f f m e m b e r s ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 150 a p p r e n t i c e s ; 3 0 % s u p e r i o r s ) ( M e s e n b r i n k , 1994). B a s e d on a pilot s t u d y 15 new i t e m s were a d d e d to the e m p l o y e e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( w i t h nine o r i g i n a l i t e m s r e t a i n e d ) . F o r the s u p e r i o r q u e s t i o n n a i r e , the results o f the p r e - s t u d y s h o w e d the s a m e relation. T h e r e s p o n s e formal was a l i v e - p o i n t scale. A r a n d o m s a m p l e o f 10% o f the e m p l o y e e s a n d the s u p e r i o r s w h o a t t e n d e d c o r p o r a t e t r a i n i n g w a s selected. F i g u r e 1.3 s h o w s the d i s t r i b u t i o n . T a b l e s 1.7 and 1.8 d e m o n s t r a t e the e x t r e m e r a n k s o f g o a l s o f c o r p o r a t e training. T h e r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n for the b a n k is s i m i l a r to that o f the travel a g e n c y ; n a m e l y t h e r e is a m i x t u r e o f p e r s o n a l a n d m a n a g e r i a l goals. O n e p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is that the c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d tasks w h i c h are

Questionnaires
Sent out Sent back
Return ratio

(%)

Employees

97

36

37

Superiors

30

25

83

Total

127

66

52

Figure 1.3. Information on study IV sample

396

F. ACHTENHAGEN and H.-A. OLDENBORGER Table 1.7 Study IV: Ranks of Goals of Corporate Training - - Employees (n = 36)

Rank
1

I attend corporate training in order to ... ... improve my professional knowledge ... improve my professional and personal competence ... develop my personality ... use the results for my workplace ... bring my knowledge up to date ... run successful brokerage ... improve social contact

Item I 13 9 12 10 22 21

Mean 4.83 4.61 4.58 4.58 4.56 2.94 2.89

SD .51 .69 .73 .55 .56 1.31 1.09

SEM .121 .167 .178 .134 .135 .317 .264

2 3 4 5 23 24

Table 1.8 Study IV: Ranks of Goals of Corporate Training - - Superiors (n = 25) Rank 1 2 3 4 5 23 24 The corporate training of the staff members should ... ... improve the independence of staff members ... cause positive effects for the turnover of the department/branch ... improve interactions with clients ... improve the professional competence of the staff members ... improve the qualification of the staff members ... improve the taking over of responsibility ... provide actual information Item 3 6 5 8 14 18 19 Mean 4.80 4.70 4.60 4.60 4.57 3.63 3.33 SD .41 .54 .67 .60 .63 1.03 1.15 SEM .081 .107 .135 .121 .125 207 .230

typical for the travel a g e n c y and the bank f a v o r the inclusion o f personal d e v e l o p m e n t as a prerequisite to fulfilling the managerial goals. Again, the i m p r o v e m e n t of professional c o m p e t e n c e is the m o s t c o m m o n goal in both groups.

Comparisons Across Studies T h e c o m p a r i s o n o f e m p l o y e e s ' goal preferences across studies yielded very strong results. A l m o s t all goals established as new items by the respective pilot studies were preferred to the c o m m o n goals f r o m Study I. T h e r e f o r e , pilot studies are indispensable for identifying content valid goals (e.g., items), o f further vocational education. The overall structure o f the e m p l o y e e s ' goals was investigated using factor analytic techniqucs, networking, and c o p h e n e t i c correlation procedures. For space reasons, only the results o f the factor analyses are reported and for stability reasons only for e m p l o y e e s in the first three studies. Table 1.9 s u m m a r i z e s the results o f the factor analysis for Study I. The results o f the factor analysis suggest the basic semantic d i m e n s i o n s of the specific goals (items) on the basis o f individual differences. T h r e e primary factors emerge: advanccment, d e v e l o p m e n t o f personality, and security.

Training in Organizations Table 1.9 Study 1: Factor Analysis of Employee Items

Factor 1: Advant'ement

3q7

l,x~ading

3 II 2 7 10
Factor 2:

... ... ... ... ...

to to to to to

improve my possibilities of advancement have more possibilities for decision making take on larger responsibilities take on more ambitious tasks improve my salary

.792 779 772 .765 641

Development of personality

27 18 25 20 26
Factor 3

... ... ... ... ...

to to to to to

improve social contact improve my communication behavior improve cooperation with others improve the possibilities of personal development relieve the daily monotony

.744 .674 .669 616 .555

Securtt~'

23 9 15 24

... .. .. ...

to to to to

secure my salary secure my working place secure my actual job position diminish the risks of the introduction of new technologies

.847 .795 .760 .619

Note: The factor analysis of 27 items included a principal component analysis with a vanmax rotation The threefactor solution accounted for 45% of the variance.

T a b l e 1.10 p r e s e n t s the results o f the s a m e a n a l y s i s for S t u d y lI. T h i s factor a n a l y s i s g e n e r a l l y c o n f i r m s that o f S t u d y I. As all p a r t i c i p a n t s o f this s t u d y a t t e n d e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n training, the a d d i t i o n a l factor r e p r e s e n t s the c o n t e n t s o f the training, w h i c h s e r v e d as the basis for s a m p l i n g . T a b l e 1.11 c o n t a i n s the results for S t u d y III. In these results, there is a m i x t u r e o f p e r s o n a l and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l a s p e c t s . T h e i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f the e m p l o y e e s ' v i e w s s e e m to d e p e n d very s t r o n g l y o n t h e i r c o n t a c t s to the c l i e n t s ' s y s t e m . O b t a i n i n g infl~rmation n e e d e d to meet c o n s u m e r s ' n e e d s a n d c o n c e r n s for r e m u n e r a t i o n s e e m to be d e c i s i v e e l e m e n t s defining " ' c o r p o r a t e i d e n t i t y " ( F a c t o r I). T h e d a t a f r o m S t u d y IV s h o w e d a s i m i l a r pattern. H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e the s a m p l e was too small, factor a n a l y s i s was not p e r f o r m e d . T h e m a t r i x o f c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w a s used to c o n s t r u c t a net s t r u c t u r e w h i c h led to s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s as those from S t u d y Ili. In s u m m a r y , the factors d e f i n i n g e m p l o y e e s ' g o a l s are g e n e r a l l y r e l a t e d to the w o r k p l a c e (security a d v a n c e m e n t ) a n d to p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . M o r e specifically, they arc related to the c o n t e n t s o f training a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the c o r p o r a t i o n . E v e n m o r e specific are s t r u c t u r e s o f c o m p a r a b l e i t e m s ( g o a l s ) a c r o s s s a m p l e s as e v a l u a t e d by the c a l c u l a t i o n o f c o p h e n e t i c c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s b e t w e e n item c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s ( w i t h r e g a r d to the variety o f c a l c u l a t i o n s : see H u b e r t & Baker, 1977). T h e c o e f f i c i e n t s w e r e v e r y low: r a n g i n g f r o m .17 to .32. T h e r e l b r e , the prefere n c e s o f e m p l o y e e s ' goals o f f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e i r s t r u c t u r e d e p e n d very s t r o n g l y on the respective enterprise. T h e item s t r u c t u r e (via factor s c o r e s ) w a s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h b i o g r a p h i c a l data s u c h as age, gender, typc o f s c h o o l a t t e n d e d , actual j o b p o s i t i o n , f r e q u e n c y o f c o r p o r a t e training, and a s s e s s m c n t of c o r p o r a t e training. N o strong c o r r e l a t i o n s w c r c found.

398

F. ACHTENHAGEN and H.-A. OLDENBURGER Table 1.10 Sample I1: Factor Analysis of Employee Items

F,~'tor 1:
20 12 15 9 16 10

So'ial c'ompetence in ~'ooperation

... ... ... ... ... ... to to to to to to improve cooperation with colleagues diminish conflicts with colleagues improve the ability of teamwork improve communication in the workplace improve my own communicative behavior improve my judgment of colleagues

IJ~ading
.793 .774 .693 .642 .577 .555

Fa,'tor 2."
21 22 25 19 24 23 14 28

Development qf personaliO"
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... to to to to to to to to improve the chance of self-realization relieve the daily monotony improve the satisfaction with my work motivate myself develop self-confidence secure my actual salary develop self-esteem get suggestions for the job .705 .696 .649 .574 .566 .555 .529 .510

I:~j~'tor 3."
3 7 4 II I 23

Advon~'ement
... ... ... ... ... ... to to to to to to take on more demanding tasks take on more responsibility have more possibilities for decision unaking improve my salary improve my possibilities of advancement secure my actual salary .771 .761 .735 .631 .530 .508

F,~'tor 4.
6 18 26 2 27

So(iul ~'ompelen~e in sellZpresenlation

... ... ... ... ... to to to to to improve improve improve improve improve the ability to negotiate my performance in large discussion groups gaining acceptance for my opinion the presentation of working results task performance by communication .688 .630 .581 .561 521

Note: The factor analysis of 28 items included a principal component analysis with a varimax rotation. The fourfactor solution accounted for 55% of the variance.

Conclusions T h i s s e r i e s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w a s e x p l o r a t o r y in n a t u r e . W i t h r e g a r d to t h e initial h y p o t h e s i s a n d t h e a d d i t i o n a l f i n d i n g s t h e r e s u l t s c a n be s u m m a r i z e d 1. employees problems as follows. T h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t v i e w s o n t h e n e e d s a n d g o a l s o f c o r p o r a t e t r a i n i n g o n t h e part o f t h e and the part of the superiors. If superiors" goals do not rellect the needs and of their employees appropriately, it m i g h t cause motivational problems and,

subsequently, a suboptimal use of the resources of corporate training. The goal structure of t h e s u p e r i o r s h a s to be i n v e s t i g a t e d in m o r e d e t a i l . O n e s p e c u l a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t t h e s u p e r i o r s w a n t to h o l d t h e e m p l o y e e s their own jobs. Strategies of lean management, m i g h t bc at a d i s t a n c e for r e a s o n s o f t h e s e c u r i t y o f a s a n a n s w e r to t h e v a r i o u s m e g a t r e n d s , c a n

Training in Organizations Table I.I I Study III: Factor Analysis of Employee Items

399

Factor I.
16 20 19 18 13 17 21 12 14

Corporate identity
... to to to to to to to to to make new social contacts receive internal information have more possibilities for decision making improve my knowledge satisfy my professional interest follow the taking-part request of the superior improve my salary have better chances on the labor market diminish the risks of the introduction of new technologies

l~mdmg
.738 .713 .701 .692 .646 .614 .595 .527 O0
.5

t"uctt~r 2:
8 II 6 10

Security by pr~[essional knowledge

... to to ... to . . to
. ,

improve my knowledge of travel targets improve my communication behavior with regard to the clients secure my actual job position improve my professional knowledge

.820 758 .614 .513

I-~actor 3
5 3 7 22 10

Improvement !f pnqessional and personal knowledge

. . to guarantee the standards of advice of the clients ... to improve my personal knowledge . . to work more independently to be informed about changes in working tasks . to improve my professional knowledge
. . .

.752 724 .564 534 515

b~wtor 4
I 2 4

Pers.nal and pr~qessional deveh,pment

. . to improve my possibilities of advancement . . to improve cooperation with colleagues ... to acquire knowledge which goes beyond the working tasks 758 663 .496

Note: The factor analysis of 27 items included a principal component analysis with a varimax rotation. The Ibur-factor solution accounted for 53% of the variance.

h a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s for the s u p e r i o r s ' p o s i t i o n s , either b e i n g p r o m o t e d up one hierarchical level or d e s c e n d i n g a level. 2. The goal s y s t e m also s e e m s to d e p e n d on w h e t h e r the p r o d u c t i o n and s e r v i c e s o f an e n t e r p r i s e are product o r i e n t e d (as in S t u d i e s I and II) or client o r i e n t e d (as in S t u d i e s III and IV). A client orientation s e e m s to f o s t e r a greater a w a r e n e s s o f h u m a n attitudes and interactive behavior. 3. T h e goal s y s t e m s also differ a c r o s s d i f f e r e n t e n t e r p r i s e s . T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s arc u n d e r s t a n d able within the p e r s p e c t i v e o f e m p l o y m e n t and vocational c a r e e r s .

D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the v i e w s o f s u p e r i o r s and e m p l o y e e s may p a r a l y z e the e f f o r t s o f c o r p o r a t e training and i n c r e a s e the cost structure. B e c a u s e o f the r c s u h s o f t h e s e studies, w h i c h w c r c d i s c u s s e d in detail with the m a n a g e r s and the w o r k c o u n c i l s , all four c n t c r p r i s c s tried to d e v e l o p n e w f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a b o u t the goals o f c o r p o r a t e training. This is a small but not u n i m p o r t a n t result o f this series o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

400

F. ACHTENHAGEN and H.-A. OLDENBIJRGER

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Biographies Frank Achtenhagen is Professor fl)r Economics and Business Education and Management Training at the Georg-August-University, G6ttingen, Germany. He is member of several rcsearch committees, especially for Research on Vocational Education in Germany. His research interests arc: teaching and [earning in the field of economics and business education and management training in schools and enterprises, long-term studies on teaching-learning processcs, curriculum development with the goal of developing economic competence, development of mcasurcs and procedures of performance assessment: development of virtual environments and multimedia equipment. Hartmut-A. OldenbiJrger is Senior Lecturer and Researcher. Institute for Economics and Business Education, University of G6ttingen, Germany. His research interests are educational psychology, empirical research methodology, e.g., investigation of cognitive structures by multirelational systems; construction and evaluation of resampling procedures {randomization-tests, bootstrapping) for complex statistical indices, structures and hypotheses: development and evaluation o f hypermedial learning environments.