Arsitektur dan Organisasi Komputer

Overview
Lecture 01 (20 Feb 2014)

Henry Novianus Palit

hnpalit@petra.ac.id

Comp. Architecture vs. Organization (1)

Computer Architecture:
Refers to attributes of a system visible to a programmer; those attributes have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program Architectural attributes: instruction set, data representn, I/O mechanisms, memory addressing techniques

Computer Organization:
Refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications Organizational attributes: hardware details (e.g., control signals), interfaces between computer & peripherals, memory technology used
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Comp. Architecture vs. Organization (2)

Many computer manufacturers offer computer models with the same architecture but different organization IBM System/370 architecture
Introduced in 1970 and included a number of models Customer could upgrade model (from cheaper, slower to more expensive, faster one) w/o abandoning software Later models retained the same architecture Survived to 1990s in IBMs mainframe product line

In microcomputers (PCs), theres less requirement for generation-to-generation compatibility

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Computers as Multilevel Machines

Lvl 5 Lvl 4 Lvl 3 Lvl 2
C, C++, Java, Perl, Python, PHP Problem-oriented language Translation (compiler) Assembly language Translation (assembler)

Machine language Operating system machine Partial interpretation (operating system)

Machine language Instruction set architecture Interpretation (microprogram) or direct execution Microarchitecture Hardware Digital logic Device
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Lvl 1
Lvl 0

Local memory, ALU, data path

Gates, bit memories, registers

Turing Machine (1)

Invented by Alan Turing in 1936 It is a hypothetical device, a kind of state machine, that can be adapted to simulate the logic of any computer algorithm (i.e., a logical/abstract computing machine) It comprises:
An infinite one-dimensional tape divided into cells; each cell contains one symbol A read-write head, which can move left and right along the tape to scan successive cells A state register, which value is one of a finite number of states A finite table (called action table or transition function) of 4-tuple instructions ( Scurrent , T , O , Snext )
If the machine is in state Scurrent and the cell being scanned contains symbol T then move into state Snext taking action O The action may write a symbol on the tape in the current cell, move the head one cell to the left (L) or right (R), or halt (H)
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Turing Machine (2)

Sample Problem: adding two numbers with Turing Machine

The numbers, N1 and N2, are represented by a sequence of 1s (i.e., number 2 = 11, number 5 = 11111, etc.) The numbers are separated by symbol b (blank) b11b1111b
The initial position of the head is at b on the left of N1 TM will calculate N1+N2 by replacing b separating the numbers with 1, and remove the leftmost 1
N1 N2

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Turing Machine (3)

Solution:
Instructions Comment S0 b R S0 S0 1 R S1 Move to the right till 1 is found The first number (N1) is found
S0 (1, R) S1 (b, 1) S2 (b, R) (1, R) (b, R)

S 1 1 R S1
S1 b 1 S2 S 2 1 L S2 S2 b R S3 S3 1 b S4 S4 b H S0

Move to the right till b is found

Replace b separating the numbers Move to the left till b is found Move to the right once Remove the leftmost 1 Result (N1+N2) is on the tape
(b, H)

(1, L)

S3 (1, b)
S4

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Homework
Create a Turing Machine capable of doing subtraction! Assumptions:
Accepted symbols: b and 1 Numbers are represented by a sequence of 1s and should be separated by one or more bs Input comprises two numbers (N1 and N2) where N1 > N2 Result (N1N2) must be a number

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Computer History Zeroth Gen. (1)

Mechanical computers (1642 1945) Blaise Pascal built a calculating machine (using gears and powered by a hand-operated crank) in 1642 only do addition and subtraction In 1672, Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz built another calculating machine that could do multiplication and division Charles Babbage built a difference engine (only add and subtract) where results were punched into a copper engravers plate with a steel die only run a single algorithm Later in 1834, Babbage built an analytical engine (add, subtract, multiply, divide) having four components: store (memory), mill (computation unit), input section (punchedcard reader), and output section (punched and printed output) more general purpose Babbage was the (grand)father of modern digital computer
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Babbages Analytical Engine

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Computer History Zeroth Gen. (2)

In 1936, Konrad Zuse built some automatic calculating machines using electromagnetic relays John Atanasoff and George Stibbitz separately also built automatic calculators; Atanasoffs machine used binary arithmetic and had capacitors for memory In 1944, Howard Aiken inspired by Babbages work built out of relays the general purpose computer
It was called Mark I It had 72 words, each of which had 23 decimal digits, and an instruction time of 6 seconds Input and output used punched paper tape

By the time Aiken completed Mark II, relay computers were obsolete

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Computer History First Gen. (1)

Vacuum Tubes (1946 1957) During WW II, Germans communicated using encoded messages generated by a device called ENIGMA; to break the coded messages, British government built an electronic computer called COLLOSUS (1943) with help of Alan Turing Aware of Atanasoffs and Stibbitz work, John Mauchley and his student J. Presper Eckert built an electronic computer called ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) in 1946
It consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1,500 relays It weighed 30 tons and consumed 140 kW of power It had 20 registers, each capable of holding a 10-digit decimal number It was programmed by setting up 6,000 multiposition switches and connecting a multitude of sockets with a forest of jumper cables
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Vacuum Tube and ENIAC

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Computer History First Gen. (2)

Other electronic computers were EDSAC (1949), JOHNNIAC, ILLIAC, MANIAC, and WEIZAC John von Neumann, a genius that was involved in ENIAC project, and Herman Goldstine built the IAS machine in 1952
von Neumann machine had 5 basic parts Memory consisted of 4096 words, a word held 40 bits (0 or 1) Each word held either two 20-bit instructions or a 40-bit signed integer Each instruction had an 8-bit operation code and a 12-bit address

Whirlwind I (having a 16-bit word) was the machine built by researchers at MIT for real-time control Commercial computers: UNIVAC I & II (Eckert-Mauchlay Computer Corp.), IBM 700 stored-program computer series (701, 704, 709)
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Computer History Second Gen. (1)

Transistors (1958 1964) Transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1948 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley Formed by Kenneth Olson, Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC) built PDP-1 in 1957 (manufactured in 1961):
It had 4096 18-bit words of core memory It could execute 200,000 instructions/sec It marked the birth of minicomputer industry

IBM built transistorized version of 709 7090 and 7094

7094 had a cycle time of 2 s and a core memory of 32,768 words of 36 bits each They marked the end of ENIAC-type machines and became the major force in scientific computing
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IBM 7094 Components

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Computer History Second Gen. (2)

In 1964, an unknown company, Control Data Corp. (CDC) introduced the 6600, that was nearly an order of magnitude faster than IBM 7094 and other machines at that time
Inside its CPU was a highly parallel machine It required careful programming and was possible to execute 10 instructions at once The designer, Seymour Cray, was a legendary figure (in the same league as von Neumann) Follow-up supercomputers were 7600 and Cray-1

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Computer History Third Gen. (1)

Integrated Circuits (1965 1977) IC was invented independently by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1958 and allowed dozens of transistors on a single chip In 1964, IBM introduced System/360 (model 30, 40, 50, 65, 75) based on IC for both scientific and commercial computing
A program written for a small model would run on a large model without problem, but the reverse was not true Multiprogramming (i.e., having several programs in memory at once, so that when one was waiting for I/O to complete, another could compute) was introduced, resulting in a higher CPU utilization It was the first machine that could emulate other computers (e.g., 1401 and 7094), so that customers could continue to run their old unmodified binary programs It had 16 32-bit registers for binary arithmetic and huge address space of 224 (16,777,216) bytes
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Computer History Third Gen. (2)

In minicomputer world, DEC introduced the PDP-8 (12-bit processor) and PDP-11 (16-bit processor) series
Like System/360, PDP-11 had word-oriented registers and a byteoriented memory It was enormously successful, especially at universities, and continued DECs lead over other minicomputer manufacturers

Semiconductor memory replaced ferromagnetic one Intel developed the 4004 (4-bit processor) in 1971, the first chip to contain all of the components of a CPU
The microprocessor was born It marked the era of personal computer

Intel 8008 (8-bit processor) was introduced in 1972, followed shortly by Intel 8080 in 1974
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Computer History Fourth Gen. (1)

Very Large Scale Integration / VLSI (1978 now) Putting tens of thousands, then hundreds of thousands, and finally millions of transistors on a single chip Intel 8086 (16-bit) and 8088 (8-bit) were introduced in the late 1970s, followed by 80286 (1982), 386 (1985), 486 (1989), and Pentium (1993) Other early personal computers were Apple and Apple II, designed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak; they were enormously popular with home users and at schools First IBM PC was built using Intel 8088 and commercial components; it was released in 1981 and became the bestselling computer in history
Uncharacteristically IBM published the complete plans in a book sold for $49, and numerous other companies began making the PC clone It used MS-DOS supplied by the then-tiny Microsoft Corp.
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Intel Microprocessors

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Intel Microprocessors

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Computer History Fourth Gen. (2)

Apple Lisa was the first computer to come with a Graphical User Interface (GUI); it failed because its too expensive, but the lower-priced Macintosh was a huge success Operating systems:
IBM and Microsoft developed a successor to MS-DOS called OS/2 (featured a GUI), which did not catch on Microsoft developed its own operating system, Windows, running on top of MS-DOS, and became a huge success

The architecture of Intel processors was called x86; AMD manufactured the compatible chips

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Summary of Computer Generations

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