Delin, K.A., Orlando, T.P.

Superconductivity
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
53
SuperconducfIvIfy
53.1 Intioduction
53.2 Geneial Electiomagnetic Piopeities
53.3 Supeiconducting Electionics
53.4 Types of Supeiconductois
53.1 Intruductiun
The fundamental idea behind all of a supeiconductoi`s unique piopeities is that superconductivity is a quantum
mechanical phenomenon on a macioscopic scale cieated when the motions of individual elections aie coiie-
lated. Accoiding to the theoiy developed by John Baideen, Leon Coopei, and Robeit Schiieffei (BCS theoiy),
this coiielation takes place when two elections couple to foim a Coopei paii. Foi oui puiposes, we may theiefoie
considei the electiical chaige caiiieis in a supeiconductoi to be Coopei paiis (oi moie colloquially, supeielec-
tions) with a mass m and chaige q twice those of noimal elections. The aveiage distance between the two
elections in a Coopei paii is known as the coheience length, (. Both the coheience length and the binding
eneigy of two elections in a Coopei paii, 2A, depend upon the paiticulai supeiconducting mateiial. Typically,
the coheience length is many times laigei than the inteiatomic spacing of a solid, and so we should not think
of Coopei paiis as tightly bound election molecules. Instead, theie aie many othei elections between those of
a specifc Coopei paii allowing foi the paiied elections to change paitneis on a time scale of |/(2A) wheie |
is Planck`s constant.
If we pievent the Coopei paiis fiom foiming by ensuiing that all the elections aie at an eneigy gieatei than
the binding eneigy, we can destioy the supeiconducting phenomenon. This can be accomplished, foi example,
with theimal eneigy. In fact, accoiding to the BCS theoiy, the ciitical tempeiatuie, T
t
, associated with this
eneigy is
(53.1)
wheie |
B
is Boltzmann`s constant. Foi low ciitical tempeiatuie (conventional) supeiconductois, 2A is typically
on the oidei of 1 meV, and we see that these mateiials must be kept below tempeiatuies of about 10 K to
exhibit theii unique behavioi. High ciitical tempeiatuie supeiconductois, in contiast, will supeiconduct up to
tempeiatuies of about 100 K, which is attiactive fiom a piactical view because the mateiials can be cooled
cheaply using liquid nitiogen. Othei types of depaiiing eneigy aie kinetic, iesulting in a ciitical cuiient density
J
t
, and magnetic, iesulting in a ciitical feld H
t
. To summaiize, a supeiconductoi must be maintained undei
the appiopiiate tempeiatuie, electiical cuiient density, and magnetic feld conditions to exhibit its special
piopeities. An example of this phase space is shown in Fig. 53.1.
2
3 5
A
| T
B t
- .
KevIn A. IeIIn
jer Prou|on Iobororory
Terry . rIando
Mooc|uerr Inrrure of
Tec|no|ogy
2000 by CRC Press LLC
53.2 Genera! E!ectrumagnetic Pruperties
The hallmaik electiomagnetic piopeities of a supeiconductoi aie its ability to caiiy a static cuiient without
any iesistance and its ability to exclude a static magnetic ux fiom its inteiioi. It is this second piopeity, known
as the Meissnei effect, that distinguishes a supeiconductoi fiom meiely being a peifect conductoi (which
conseives the magnetic ux in its inteiioi). Although supeiconductivity is a manifestly quantum mechanical
phenomenon, a useful classical model can be constiucted aiound these two piopeities. In this section, we will
outline the iationale foi this classical model, which is useful in engineeiing applications such as waveguides
and high-feld magnets.
The zeio dc iesistance ciiteiion implies that the supeielections move unimpeded. The electiomagnetic eneigy
density, w, stoied in a supeiconductoi is theiefoie
(53.2)
wheie the fist two teims aie the familiai electiic and magnetic eneigy densities, iespectively. (Oui electiomag-
netic notation is standaid: r is the peimittivity,
o
is the peimeability, E is the electiic feld, and the magnetic
ux density, B, is ielated to the magnetic feld, H, via the constitutive law B
o
H.) The last teim iepiesents
the kinetic eneigy associated with the undamped supeielections` motion (n and v
s
aie the supeielections`
density and velocity, iespectively). Because the supeicuiient density, J
s
, is ielated to the supeielection velocity
by J
s
nqv
s
, the kinetic eneigy teim can be iewiitten
(53.3)
wheie A is defned as
(53.4)
FIGURE 53.1 The phase space foi the supeiconducting alloy niobium-titanium. The mateiial is supeiconducting inside
the volume of phase space indicated.
w
n
m
o s
+ +
1
2
1
2 2
2 2
r
2

n m
s s

1
2
1
2
2 2
v

_
,

A
A
, ,
m
n q

2
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Assuming that all the chaige caiiieis aie supeielections, theie is no powei dissipation inside the supeicon-
ductoi, and so Poynting`s theoiem ovei a volume V may be wiitten
(53.5)
wheie the left side of the expiession is the powei owing into the iegion. By taking the time deiivative of the
eneigy density and appealing to Faiaday`s and Ampie`s laws to fnd the time deiivatives of the feld quantities,
we fnd that the only way foi Poynting`s theoiem to be satisfed is if
(53.6)
This ielation, known as the fist London equation (aftei the London biotheis, Heinz and Fiitz), is thus necessaiy
if the supeielections have no iesistance to theii motion.
Equation (53.6) ieveals that the supeielections` ineitia cieates a lag between theii motion and that of an
applied electiic feld. As a iesult, a supeiconductoi will suppoit a time-vaiying voltage diop. The impedance
associated with the supeicuiient is theiefoie inductive and it will be useful to think of A as a kinetic inductance
cieated by the coiielated motion of the Coopei paiis.
If the fist London equation is substituted into Faiaday`s law, V E -(cB/c), and integiated with iespect
to time, the second London equation iesults:
(53.7)
wheie the constant of integiation has been defned to be zeio. This choice is made so that the second London
equation is consistent with the Meissnei effect as we now demonstiate. Taking the cuil of the quasi-static foim
of Ampie`s law, V H J
s
, iesults in the expiession V
2
B -
o
V J
s
, wheie a vectoi identity, V V C
V(V C) - V
2
C; the constitutive ielation, B
o
H; and Gauss`s law, V B 0, have been used. By now appealing
to the second London equation, we obtain the vectoi Helmholtz equation
(53.8)
wheie the penetiation depth is defned
(53.9)
Fiom Eq. (53.8), we fnd that a ux density applied paiallel to the suiface of a semi-infnite supeiconductoi
will decay away exponentially fiom the suiface on a spatial length scale of oidei X. In othei woids, a bulk
supeiconductoi will exclude an applied ux as piedicted by the Meissnei effect.
The London equations ieveal that theie is a chaiacteiistic length X ovei which electiomagnetic felds can
change inside a supeiconductoi. This penetiation depth is diffeient fiom the moie familiai skin depth of
electiomagnetic theoiy, the lattei being a fiequency-dependent quantity. Indeed, the penetiation depth at zeio
tempeiatuie is a distinct mateiial piopeity of a paiticulai supeiconductoi.
Notice that X is sensitive to the numbei of coiielated elections (the supeielections) in the mateiial. As
pieviously discussed, this numbei is a function of tempeiatuie and so only at T 0 do a|| the elections that
usually conduct ohmically paiticipate in the Coopei paiiing. Foi inteimediate tempeiatuies, 0 < T < T
t
, theie
V
, ,

[ [
J
w

J
V V
o
o

, ,
o
o
s
A
V
, ,
A
s
V
2
2
1
0
i
i


, ,

A
o
o
m
n q

2
2000 by CRC Press LLC
aie actually two sets of inteipenetiating election uids: the uncoiielated elections pioviding ohmic conduction
and the coiielated ones cieating supeicuiients. This two-uid model is a useful way to build tempeiatuie effects
into the London ielations.
Undei the two-uid model, the electiical cuiient density, J, is caiiied by both the uncoiielated (noimal)
elections and the supeielections: J J
n
- J
s
wheie J
n
is the noimal cuiient density. The two channels aie
modeled in a ciicuit as shown in Fig. 53.2 by a paiallel combination of a iesistoi (iepiesenting the ohmic
channel) and an inductoi (iepiesenting the supeiconducting channel). To a good appioximation, the iespective
tempeiatuie dependences of the conductoi and inductoi aie
(53.10)
and
(53.11)
wheie o
o
is the dc conductance of the noimal channel. (Stiictly speaking, the noimal channel should also
contain an inductance iepiesenting the ineitia of the noimal elections, but typically such an inductoi contiib-
utes negligibly to the oveiall electiical iesponse.) Since the tempeiatuie-dependent penetiation depth is defned
as X(T) , the effective conductance of a supeiconductoi in the sinusoidal steady state is
(53.12)
wheie the explicit tempeiatuie dependence notation has been suppiessed.
It should be noted that the tempeiatuie dependencies given in Equations (53.10) and (53.11) aie not piecisely
coiiect foi the high-T
t
mateiials. It has been suggested that this is because the angulai momentum of the
elections foiming a Coopei paii in high-T
t
mateiials is diffeient fiom that in low-T
t
ones. Neveitheless, the
two-uid pictuie of tianspoit and its associated constitutive law, Eq. (53.12), aie still valid foi high-T
t
supei-
conductois.
Most of the impoitant physics associated with the classical model is embedded in Eq. (53.12). As is cleai
fiom the lumped element model, the ielative impoitance of the noimal and supeiconducting channels is a
FIGURE 53.2 A lumped element model of a supeiconductoi.
o o
o o t
t
t
T T
T
T
T T
, ,

, ,

_
,

s
4
foi
A A T
T T
T T
t
t
, ,

, ,

, ,

_
,

s 0
1
1
4
foi
A , ,

'
o o
u i
+

o
o
,
1
2
2000 by CRC Press LLC
function not only of tempeiatuie but also of fiequency. The familiai L/R time constant, heie equal to Ao
~
o
,
delineates the fiequency iegimes wheie most of the total cuiient is caiiied by J
n
(if eAo
~
o
>> 1) oi J
s
(if
eAo
~
o
<< 1). This same iesult can also be obtained by compaiing the skin depth associated with the noimal
channel, o , to the penetiation depth to see which channel piovides moie feld scieening. In
addition, it is stiaightfoiwaid to use Eq. (53.12) to iedeiive Poynting`s theoiem foi systems that involve
supeiconducting mateiials:
(53.13)
Using this expiession, it is possible to apply the usual electiomagnetic analysis to fnd the inductance (L
o
),
capacitance (C
o
), and iesistance (R
o
) pei unit length along a paiallel plate tiansmission line. The iesults of such
analysis foi typical cases aie summaiized in Table 53.1.
53.3 Supercunducting E!ectrunics
The macioscopic quantum natuie of supeiconductivity can be usefully exploited to cieate a new type of
electionic device. Because all the supeielections exhibit coiielated motion, the usual wave-paiticle duality
noimally associated with a single quantum paiticle can now be applied to the entiie ensemble of supeielections.
Thus, theie is a spatiotempoial phase associated with the ensemble that chaiacteiizes the supeicuiient owing
in the mateiial.
If the oveiall election coiielation is bioken, this phase is lost and the mateiial is no longei a supeiconductoi.
Theie is a bioad class of stiuctuies, howevei, known as weak links, wheie the coiielation is meiely peituibed
locally in space iathei than outiight destioyed. Coloquially, we say that the phase slips" acioss the weak link
to acknowledge the peituibation.
The unusual piopeities of this phase slippage weie fist investigated by Biian Josephson and constitute the
cential piinciples behind supeiconducting electionics. Josephson found that the phase slippage could be defned
as the diffeience between the macioscopic phases on eithei side of the weak link. This phase diffeience, denoted
as , deteimined the supeicuiient,
s
, thiough and voltage, , acioss the weak link accoiding to the Josephson
equations,
(53.14)
and
(53.15)
wheie I
t
is the ciitical (maximum) cuiient of the junction and 4
o
is the quantum unit of ux. (The ux
quantum has a piecise defnition in teims of Planck`s constant, |, and the election chaige, e : 4
o
|/(2e) -
2.068 10
-15
Wb). As in the pievious section, the coiielated motion of the elections, heie iepiesented by the
supeielection phase, manifests itself thiough an inductance. This is stiaightfoiwaidly demonstiated by taking
the time deiivative of Eq. (53.14) and combining this expiession with Eq. (53.15). Although the iesulting
inductance is nonlineai (it depends on cos ), its ielative scale is deteimined by
(53.16)
2 u

o
`

, , '
V
, ,
+ +
, ,

_
,

+
, ,
[ [
[

J
J
J
T J
T
J
V
o s
V
o
n
V
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
r
o
A

I
s t
sin o

J
J
o

d
2r
o
L
I
,
o
t

d
2r
2000 by CRC Press LLC
a useful quantity foi making engineeiing estimates. Foi example, the eneigy scale associated with Josephson
coupling is L
,
I
t
2
(I
t
d
o
)/2r.
A common weak link, known as the Josephson tunnel junction, is made by sepaiating two supeiconducting
flms with a veiy thin (typically 20 A) insulating layei. Such a stiuctuie is conveniently analyzed using the
iesistively and capacitively shunted junction (RCSJ) model shown in Fig. 53.3. Undei the RCSJ model an ideal
lumped junction desciibed by Eqs. (53.14) and (53.15)] and a iesistoi R
,
iepiesent how the weak link stiuctuie
inuences the iespective phases of the supei and noimal elections. A capacitoi C
,
iepiesents the physical
capacitance of the sandwich stiuctuie. Paiasitic capacitance cieated by the felds aiound a device inteiacting
with a dielectiic substiate is also included in this lumped element. If the ideal lumped junction poition of the
ciicuit is tieated as an inductoi-like element, many Josephson tunnel junction piopeities can be calculated with
the familiai ciicuit time constants associated with the model. Foi example, the quality factoi Q of the RCSJ
ciicuit can be expiessed as
TABLE 53.1 Lumped Ciicuit Element Paiameteis Pei Unit Length foi Typical
Tiansveise Electiomagnetic Paiallel Plate Waveguides
Tiansmission Line Geometiy Lo Co Ro
The subsciipt n iefeis to paiameteis associated with a noimal (ohmic) plate. Using
these expiessions, line input impedance, attenuation, and wave velocity can be calculated.

+

o
|
J J|
2
2
i r

J
|
8
4
J|
o
o
i
o

_
,

+

o
|
J J
2 i r

J
|
4
3
J
o
oo
i
o

_
,

+

+

o n n
|
J J J
i o
2
r

J
|
1
J
n o n
o o
,
2000 by CRC Press LLC
(53.17)
wheie is known as the Stewait-McCumbei paiametei. Cleaily, if >> 1, the capacitive time constant R
j
C
j
dominates the dynamics of the ciicuit. Thus, as the bias cuiient is iaised fiom zeio, no time-aveiage voltage
is cieated until the ciitical cuiient I
c
is exceeded. At this point, the junciton switches to a voltage consistent
with the bieaking of the Coopei paiis, 2A/e, with a time constant . Once the junction has latched in the
voltage state, howevei, the capacitoi has chaiged up and the only way foi it to dischaige is to lowei the bias
cuiient to zeio again. As a iesult, a device with >>1 will have a hysteietic cuiient-voltage cuive as shown in
Fig. 53.4a. Conveisely, << 1 implies that the capacitance of the device is unimpoitant and so the cuiient-
voltage cuive is not hysteietic (see Fig. 53.4b). In fact, the time-aveiaged voltage (v) foi such an RSJ device is
(53.18)
In othei woids, once the supeicuiient channel caiiies its maximum amount of cuiient, the iest of the cuiient
is caiiied thiough the noimal channel.
Just as the coiielated motion of the supeielections cieates the fiequency-independent Meissnei effect in a
bulk supeiconductoi thiough Faiaday`s law, so too the macioscopic quantum natuie of supeiconductivity
FIGURE 53.3 A ieal Josephson tunnel junction can be modeled using ideal lumped ciicuit elements.
FIGURE 53.4 The - cuives foi a Josephson junction: (a) >> 1, and (b) << 1.
Q
R C
L R
I R C
, ,
, ,
t , ,
o
2
2
2

r

d
L C
, ,
R
I

I
,
t
t

_
,

> 1
2
. foi
2000 by CRC Press LLC
allows the possibility of a device whose output voltage is a function of a static magnetic feld. If two weak links
aie connected in paiallel, the lumped veision of Faiaday`s law gives the voltage acioss the second weak link as
v
2
v
1
- (Jd/J), wheie d is the total flux thieading the loop between the links. Substituting Eq. (53.15),
integiating with iespect to time, and again setting the integiation constant to zeio yields
(53.19)
showing that the spatial change in the phase of the macioscopic wavefunction is piopoitional to the local
magnetic ux. The stiuctuie desciibed is known as a suertonJutng quanum ner[erente Jete (SQUID) and
can be used as a highly sensitive magnetometei by biasing it with cuiient and measuiing the iesulting voltage
as a function of magnetic ux. Fiom this discussion, it is appaient that a duality exists in how felds inteiact
with the macioscopic phase: electiic felds aie coupled to its iate of change in time and magnetic felds aie
coupled to its iate of change in space.
53.4 Types ul Supercunducturs
The macioscopic quantum natuie of supeiconductivity also affects the geneial electiomagnetic piopeities
pieviously discussed. This is most cleaily illustiated by the inteiplay of the chaiacteiistic lengths (, iepiesenting
the scale of quantum coiielations, and X, iepiesenting the scale of electiomagnetic scieening. Considei the
scenaiio wheie a magnetic feld, H, is applied paiallel to the suiface of a semi-infnite supeiconductoi. The
coiielations of the elections in the supeiconductoi must lowei the oveiall eneigy of the system oi else the
mateiial would not be supeiconducting in the fist place. Because the ciitical magnetic feld H
t
destioys all the
coiielations, it is convenient to defne the eneigy density gained by the system in the supeiconducting state as
(1/2)
o
H
t
2
. The elections in a Coopei paii aie sepaiated on a length scale of (, howevei, and so the coiielations
cannot be fully achieved until a distance ioughly ( fiom the boundaiy of the supeiconductoi. Theie is thus an
eneigy pei unit aiea, (1/2)
o
H
t
2
(, that is lost because of the piesence of the boundaiy. Now considei the effects
of the applied magnetic feld on this system. It costs the supeiconductoi eneigy to maintain the Meissnei effect,
B 0, in its bulk; in fact the eneigy density iequiied is (1/2)
o
H
2
. Howevei, since the feld can penetiate the
supeiconductoi a distance ioughly X, the system need not expend an eneigy pei unit aiea of (1/2)
o
H
2
X to
scieen ovei this volume. To summaiize, moie than a distance ( fiom the boundaiy, the eneigy of the mateiial
is loweied (because it is supeiconducting), and moie than a distance X fiom the boundaiy the eneigy of the
mateiial is iaised (to shield the applied feld).
Now, if X < (, the iegion of supeiconducting mateiial gieatei than X fiom the boundaiy but less than ( will
be highei in eneigy than that in the bulk of the mateiial. Thus, the suiface eneigy of the boundaiy is positive
and so costs the total system some eneigy. This class of supeiconductois is known as type I. Most elemental
supeiconductois, such as aluminum, tin, and lead, aie type I. In addition to having X < (, type I supeiconductois
aie geneially chaiacteiized by low ciitical tempeiatuies (5 K) and ciitical felds (0.05 T). Typical type I
supeiconductois and theii piopeities aie listed in Table 53.2.
TABLE 53.2 Mateiial Paiameteis foi Type I Supeiconductois
Mateiial T
t
(K) X
o
(nm) (
o
(nm) A
o
(meV)
0
H
to
(mT)
Al 1.18 50 1600 0.18 110.5
In 3.41 65 360 0.54 123.0
Sn 3.72 50 230 0.59 130.5
Pb 7.20 40 90 1.35 180.0
Nb 9.25 85 40 1.50 198.0
The penetiation depth X
o
is given at zeio tempeiatuie, as aie the cohei-
ence length (
o
, the theimodynamic ciitical feld H
to
, and the eneigy gap A
o
.
Sourte. R.J. Donnelly, Ciyogenics," in P|ysts VaJe Metum, H.L. Andei-
son, Ed., New Yoik: Ameiican Institute of Physics, 1981. With peimission.
o o r
2 1
2
, ,
d d
o
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Conveisely, if X > (, the suiface eneigy associated with the boundaiy is negative and loweis the total system
eneigy. It is theiefoie theimodynamically favoiable foi a noimal-supeiconducting inteiface to foim inside these
type II mateiials. Consequently, this class of supeiconductois does not exhibit the simple Meissnei effect as do
type I mateiials. Instead, theie aie now two ciitical felds: foi applied felds below the lowei ciitical feld, H
t1
,
a type II supeiconductoi is in the Meissnei state, and foi applied felds gieatei than the uppei ciitical feld,
H
t2
, supeiconductivity is destioyed. The thiee ciitical feld aie ielated to each othei by H
t
- .
In the iange H
t 1
< H < H
t2
, a type II supeiconductoi is said to be in the voitex state because now the applied
feld can entei the bulk supeiconductoi. Because ux exists in the mateiial, howevei, the supeiconductivity is
destioyed locally, cieating noimal iegions. Recall that foi type II mateiials the boundaiy between the noimal
and supeiconducting iegions loweis the oveiall eneigy of the system. Theiefoie, the ux in the supeiconductoi
cieates as many noimal-supeiconducting inteifaces as possible without violating quantum ciiteiia. The net
iesult is that ux enteis a type II supeiconductoi in quantized bundles of magnitude 4
o
known as voitices oi
uxons (the foimei name deiives fiom the fact that cuiient ows aiound each quantized bundle in the same
mannei as a uid voitex ciiculates aiound a diain). The cential poition of a voitex, known as the coie, is a
noimal iegion with an appioximate iadius of (. If a defect-fiee supeiconductoi is placed in a magnetic feld,
the individual voitices, whose coies essentially follow the local aveiage feld lines, foim an oideied tiiangulai
aiiay, oi ux lattice. As the applied feld is iaised beyond H
t 1
(wheie the fist voitex enteis the supeiconductoi),
the distance between adjacent voitex coies decieases to maintain the appiopiiate ux density in the mateiial.
Finally, the uppei ciitical feld is ieached when the noimal coies oveilap and the mateiial is no longei
supeiconducting. Indeed, a piecise calculation of H
t2
using the phenomenological theoiy developed by Vitaly
Ginzbuig and Lev Landau yields
(53.20)
which veiifes oui simple pictuie. The values of typical type II mateiial paiameteis aie listed in Tables 53.3 and
53.4.
Type II supeiconductois aie of gieat technical impoitance because typical H
t2
values aie at least an oidei of
magnitude gieatei than the typical H
t
values of type I mateiials. It is theiefoie possible to use type II mateiials
to make high-feld magnet wiie. Unfoitunately, when cuiient is applied to the wiie, theie is a Loientz-like foice
on the voitices, causing them to move. Because the moving voitices caiiy ux, theii motion cieates a static
voltage diop along the supeiconducting wiie by Faiaday`s law. As a iesult, the wiie no longei has a zeio dc
TABLE 53.3 Mateiial Paiameteis foi Conventional Type II Supeiconductois
Mateiial T
t
(K) X
CL
(0) (nm) (
CL
(0) (nm) A
o
(meV)
0
H
t2,o
(T)
Pb-In 7.0 150 30 1.2 0.2
Pb-Bi 8.3 200 20 1.7 0.5
Nb-Ti 9.5 300 4 1.5 13.0
Nb-N 16.0 200 5 2.4 15.0
PbMo
6
S
8
15.0 200 2 2.4 60.0
V
3
Ga 15.0 90 2-3 2.3 23.0
V
3
Si 16.0 60 3 2.3 20.0
Nb
3
Sn 18.0 65 3 3.4 23.0
Nb
3
Ge 23.0 90 3 3.7 38.0
The values aie only iepiesentative because the paiameteis foi alloys and compounds
depend on how the mateiial is fabiicated. The penetiation depth X
CL
(0) is given as the
coeffcient of the Ginzbuig-Landau tempeiatuie dependence as X
CL
( T) i
CL
(0)(1 - T/T
t
)
-1/2
;
likewise foi the coheience length wheie (
CL
(T) (
CL
(0)(1 - T/T
t
)
-1/2
. The uppei ciitical feld
H
c2,o
is given at zeio tempeiatuie as well as the eneigy gap A
o
.
Sourte. R.J. Donnelly, Ciyogenics," in P|ysts VaJe Metum, H.L. Andeison, Ed., New Yoik:
Ameiican Institute of Physics, 1981. With peimission.

1
H
2
H
t
o
o
2 2
2

d
r
2000 by CRC Press LLC
iesistance, even though the mateiial is still supeiconducting. To fx this pioblem, type II supeiconductois aie
usually fabiicated with intentional defects, such as impuiities oi giain boundaiies, in theii ciystalline stiuctuie
to pin the voitices and pievent voitex motion. The pinning is cieated because the defect locally weakens the
supeiconductivity in the mateiial, and it is thus eneigetically favoiable foi the noimal coie of the voitex to
oveilap the nonsupeiconducting iegion in the mateiial. Ciitical cuiient densities usually quoted foi piactical
type II mateiials, theiefoie, ieally iepiesent the depinning ciitical cuiient density wheie the Loientz-like foice
can oveicome the pinning foice. (The depinning ciitical cuiient density should not be confused with the
depaiiing ciitical cuiient density, which iepiesents the cuiient when the Coopei paiis have enough kinetic
eneigy to oveicome theii coiielation. The depinning ciitical cuiient density is typically an oidei of magnitude
less than the depaiiing ciitical cuiient density, the lattei of which iepiesents the theoietical maximum foi J
t
.)
By caieful manufactuiing, it is possible to make supeiconducting wiie with tiemendous amounts of cuiient-
caiiying capacity. Foi example, standaid coppei wiie used in homes will caiiy about 10
7
A/m
2
, wheieas a
piactical type II supeiconductoi like niobium-titanium can caiiy cuiient densities of 10
10
A/m
2
oi highei even
in felds of seveial teslas. This piopeity, moie than a zeio dc iesistance, is what makes supeiconducting wiie
so desiiable.
Dehning Terms
Superconductivity: A state of mattei wheieby the coiielation of conduction elections allows a static cuiient
to pass without iesistance and a static magnetic ux to be excluded fiom the bulk of the mateiial.
Re!ated Tupic
35.1 Maxwell Equations
Relerences
A. Baione and G. Pateino, P|ysts anJ |taons o[ |e Jose|son E[[et, New Yoik: Wiley, 1982.
R. J. Donnelly, Ciyogenics," in P|ysts VaJe Metum, H.L. Andeison, Ed., New Yoik: Ameiican Institute of
Physics, 1981.
S. Fonei and B. B. Schwaitz, SuertonJutng Mat|nes anJ Detes, New Yoik: Plenum Piess, 1974.
S. Fonei and B. B. Schwaitz, SuertonJutng Maera|s Stente, New Yoik: Plenum Piess, 1981.
J. Knuutila, M. Kajola, H. Sepp, R. Mutikainen, and J. Salmi, Design, optimization, and constiuction of a DC
SQUID with complete ux tiansfoimei ciicuits, J. Low. Tem. P|ys., 71, 369-392, 1988.
K. K. Likhaiev, Dynamts o[ Jose|son Juntons anJ Crtus, Philadelphia, Pa.: Goidon and Bieach Science
Publisheis, 1986.
T. P. Oilando and K. A. Delin, FounJaons o[ |eJ SuertonJuty, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1991.
S. T. Ruggieio and D. A. Rudman, SuertonJutng Detes, Boston: Academic Piess, 1990.
B. B. Schwaitz and S. Fonei, SuertonJutng |taons. SQUIDs anJ Mat|nes, New Yoik: Plenum Piess, 1977.
T. Van Duzei and C. W. Tuinei, Prnt|es o[ SuertonJute Detes anJ Crtus, New Yoik: Elseviei Noith
Holland, 1981.
TABLE 53.4 Type II (High-Tempeiatuie Supeiconductois)
Mateiial T
t
(K) X
a,|
(nm) X
t
(nm) (
a,|
(nm) (
t
(nm)
LuNi
2
B
2
C 17 71 6
Rb
3
C
60
33 300 3
YBa
2
Cu
3
O
7
95 150 1350 3 0.2
Bi
2
Si
2
CaCu
2
O
8
85 25 500 4.5 0.2
Bi
2
Si
2
Ca
2
Cu
3
O
10
110
Tl
2
Ba
2
Ca
2
Cu
3
O
10
125
HgBaCaCu
2
O
6
115 150 2.5
HgBa
2
Ca
2
Cu
3
O
8
135
2000 by CRC Press LLC
H. Weinstock and R. W. Ralston, T|e New SuertonJutng E|etronts, Boston, Mass: Kluwei Academic Pub-
lisheis, 1993.
J. P. Wikswo, SQUID magnetometeis foi biomagnetism and non-destiuctive testing: impoitant questions and
initial answeis, IEEE Trans. |. SuertonJ., 5, 74-120, 1995.
M. N. Wilson, SuertonJutng Magnes, Oxfoid: Oxfoid Univeisity Piess, 1983.
Further Inlurmatiun
Eveiy two yeais an Applied Supeiconductivity Confeience is held devoted to piactical technological issues. The
pioceedings of these confeiences have been published eveiy othei yeai fiom 1977 to 1991 in the IEEE Trans-
atons on Magnets.
In 1991, the IEEE Transatons on |eJ SuertonJuty began publication. This quaiteily jouinal focuses
on both the science and the technology of supeiconductois and theii applications, including mateiials issues,
analog and digital ciicuits, and powei systems. The pioceedings of the Applied Supeiconductivity Confeience
now appeai in this jouinal.