1D Modeling of Solar Cells

ELEN E9501 Course Project

Columbia University Department of Electrical Engineering Master Student: Zibo Zhao zz2221

CONTENTS
Project Summary............................................................................................................................... 3 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4 2 Previous Work in This Area ........................................................................................................... 4 3 Detailed Project Scope ................................................................................................................... 5 3.1 Specific Targets ....................................................................................................................... 5 3.2 Novelty of the Project ............................................................................................................. 6 4 Work Completed ............................................................................................................................ 6 4.1 One-dimensional Drift Diffusion Model for P-N Diodes ....................................................... 6 4.2 Working Mechanisms.............................................................................................................. 7 4.2.1 SRH Generation-recombination ......................................................................................... 7 4.2.2 Auger Generation-recombination ....................................................................................... 8 4.2.3 Radiative Generation-recombination ................................................................................. 8 4.2.4 Optical Generation ............................................................................................................. 8 4.3 Simulation Results of the Solar Cell Model ............................................................................ 9 4.4 GUI in MATLAB .................................................................................................................. 10 5 Summary of the work................................................................................................................... 11 5.1 EC2000 Criterion 4 Considerations ........................................................................................ 11 5.1.1 Economics .......................................................................................................................... 11 5.1.2 Environment....................................................................................................................... 11 5.1.3 Sustainability...................................................................................................................... 12 5.2 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 12 References13

ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1. IV Characteristic of the solar cell ...................................................................................... 9 Figure 2. Power vs Voltage ............................................................................................................... 9 Table 1. Efficiency and Fill Factor of Different Solar Cell Structures ............................................ 10 Figure 3. The interface of the solar cell simulator .......................................................................... 11

Project Summary
Solar energy is in abundance but only a small amount is used to directly power human activities. About 80%-85% of our total energy comes from fossil fuels. These resources are non-renewable, fast depleting, and produce greenhouse gases and other harmful environmental pollutants. Therefore, the abundant solar energy would be the promising fuel for humanitys future. The purpose of this project is to develop a simulator for crystalline solar cells and help in the design process of these device structures. To implement this project, some important knowledge of semiconductor fundamentals was essential, such as the Generation-Recombination Processes, Poisson Equation, continuity equations of both holes and electrons and LU Decomposition method for the solution of the 1D Poisson and 1D continuity equations. Besides, it was significant to understand the principles of operation of a solar cell. In addition, the abilities to implement the MATLAB program, design a GUI (Graphical User Interface) by MATLAB for users. The report is organized as follows. Section 1 is an introduction of the project. Section 2 describes the previous work in this area. The detailed project scope is discussed in Section 3. The work completed is presented in Section 4. A summary of the work accomplished is given in Section 5.

1. Introduction
A solar cell is a solid state device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar modules, also known as solar panels. The energy generated from these solar modules, referred to as solar power, is an example of solar energy. Solar energy is abundant but only a little is used to directly power human activities. About 80%-85% of humans total energy consumption comes from fossil fuels which are depletable and produce greenhouse gases and other pollutants that are harmful to the environment. Therefore, shifting the focus on renewable energy resources is an ideal choice and so far solar is the most prominent one owning to its versatility, and inexhaustible and environmentally friendly merits. High costs and low conversion efficiency have been the major bottlenecks in the development of the solar power to become a primary source of energy. Nowadays new methods of harnessing the full spectrum of the suns wavelength, multi-junction solar cells (homojunctions and heterojunctions), and new materials for making solar cells are focused on improving the efficiency of solar cells. The final objective of the project is to develop a 1D Solar Cell program, written in MATLAB capable of analyzing the properties of crystalline Si solar cells. By using this tool, the users can easily get better solar cell designs. The project was started by first building the theoretical background, followed by understanding of solar cell modeling, after which programming in MATLAB took place. GUI was created for users to easily operate the tool.

2. Previous Work in This Area

Very soon solar energy will be one of the main sources of energy on the planet earth. For now conventional, silicon-based, crystalline solar cells are doing a great job. But thin film technology is a big competitor, and research has been very promising for other technologies such as nano and organic solar cells. Which of the three generations of solar cells will dominate? That will depend mainly on two factors: the cost and conversion rate for each solar cell. Scientists and researchers in all areas of the solar industry are scrambling to improve and reinvent the solar cells, in the hopes of developing the solar industrys dream: a low-cost, high-efficiency solar panel. The traditional one is a single-junction, crystalline silicon photovoltaic solar cell. The solar cells easily have the highest conversion efficiency, averaging from 15-20% in most cases. While developers of this first generation of photovoltaic (PV) cells are always working to improve efficiency, their main obstacle has been production cost. The extremely pure silicon needed to manufacture the cells is the primary driver behind the high costs. It has taken a good deal of government subsidizing to bring the first generation solar systems down to a reasonable price. Second generation cells utilize thin film
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technology, involving amorphous or micromorphous silicon, or ignoring silicon altogether. First Solar, the largest thin film manufacturer in the nation, uses cadmium telluride based cells. Second generation solar cells are smaller and much cheaper than their first generation counterparts. Unfortunately they are also much less efficient, with conversion rates peaking at 15% but usually hovering more around 10% or less. Because the panels and cells are so thin, they can be produced very fast and relatively cheaply. This is compensating for lower efficiency, and second generation solar materials are closing in on, and will likely surpass, first generation panels in the next few years. Many hope that third generation solar cells will be the future for the solar industry [1][2][3]. Unfortunately they are still in the research phase and dont even exist on any commercial scale. The whole idea is to produce a low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell, which is the epitome of solar technologies. Although the third generation is still at its infancy, results have been very promising [4]. Organic solar cells promise cheap, clean, and abundant production resources. Nano-solar cells promise strong yet tiny cells that could thrive in paint or be embedded in a window or anywhere. The issue, as one might expect, comes down to conversion rates. Recently, scientists broke a record by producing dye-sensitized solar cells with 10% conversion efficiency. While this is an exciting development, it is still just a record and most third generation innovations remain well below that threshold. Still, innovations are moving relatively fast in the world of third generation solar cells, and they could begin seeing commercial adaptation within 5-10 years.

3. Detailed Project Scope

3.1 Specific Targets
The purpose of this project is to develop and implement a 1D Solar Cell program written in MATLAB and capable of analyzing the properties of crystalline silicon solar cells. The various tasks that have to be implemented for full completion of the project include: First, understand the drift-diffusion model (Poisson and continuity equations) and the operation of a solar cell, and then understand linearization of the Poisson equation and finite-difference discretization of both the Poisson and the continuity equations through reading related sections in Principles of Semiconductor Devices by Bart Van Zeghbroeck [5]. Second, solve the matrix equation Ax=b (LU decomposition method). Finally, implement the generation and recombination processes in the code, i.e. Shockley-Read-Hall generation-recombination, Auger generation-recombination, optical generation, radiative generation-recombination. Then, perform the simulations of various types of solar cells. Next, implement the MATLAB GUI. At last, prepare for demonstration of the project.
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3.2Novelty of the Project

Every theory has to be proven through experiments. Computational science, which bridges theory and experiment, is labeled as a third branch of science. This project, which is based on computational science, is mainly focusing on designing a software for researchers to run the simulation taking real conditions into consideration to get the wanted results instead of trying different groups of experiments in reality. As such, this project will allow us to design and provide a simulation tool with a friendly interface for users to simulate, and easily analyze crystalline silicon solar cells.

4. Work Completed
4.1 One-dimensional Drift Diffusion Model for P-N Diodes
The drift-diffusion (DD) model is frequently used to describe operation of a variety of semiconductor devices. In the DD model used in this work, all dopants are assumed to be ionized (shallow dopants). The following assumptions have been made: non-degenerate Fermi-Dirac statistics (which is not really true under high injection conditions), steady-state conditions are assumed and the temperature is assumed to be constant throughout the device. The governing equations of the one-dimensional(1D) DD model are the following ones: 1D Poisson equation is given by . (1)

The 1D Poisson equation is self-consistently coupled with the electron and hole continuity equations which are, in their most general form, given by (2a) (2b) In equations (2a) and (2b), the current density equations are given by (3a) (3b) In equations (1)-(3), is the electrostatic potential, is the charge density, is the permittivity of is

the material, n is the electron density, p is the hole density, the donor concentration, and

is the acceptor concentration,

are the electron and hole current densities respectively, G-R is

the net Generation-Recombination Rate, respectively, and

and

are the electron and hole mobilities

are the diffusion constants for electrons and holes, respectively.

E is the electrical field, which is calculated using (4) Under equilibrium conditions, the carrier density equations are given by (5a) (5b) where level, is the intrinsic carrier concentration, is the intrinsic level, is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. is the equilibrium Fermi

4.2 Working Mechanisms

Generation-recombination mechanisms are important in explaining the operation of solar cells. They are Shockley-Read-Hall(SRH) generation-recombination, Auger generation-recombination, radiative generation-recombination and optical generation. And the net-generation rate relevant for solar cells is given by + 4.2.1 SRH Generation-recombination SRH recombination occurs when an electron from its conduction band falls into an energy level within the bandgap, between conduction band and valence band, created by the presence of a foreign atom or a structural defect. Once the energy level is filled it cannot accept another electron. In a second step, the electron which is occupying the energy level moves into an empty valence band state, thereby completing the recombination process. The recombination mechanism can be reversed leading to carrier generation rather than recombination. A single expression is used to describe recombination as well as generation. The net recombination rate for SRH recombination is given by: (7) where and are the minority carrier lifetimes for electrons and holes and it is assumed that the (6)

trap level coincides with the intrinsic level.

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4.2.2 Auger Generation-recombination Auger recombination is a process in which an electron and a hole recombine in a band-to-band transition, but now the resulting energy is given off to another electron or hole. The involvement of a third particle affects the recombination rate so that is why we need to treat Auger recombination differently from band-to-band recombination. [5] The generation process is a reversal of the recombination mechanism. Three particles are involved in Auger recombination: an electron and a hole, which recombine in a band-to-band transition and emit the resulting energy to another electron or hole. The expression for the net recombination rate includes the density of the electrons or holes, which receive the released energy from the electron-hole annihilation: (8) 4.2.3 Radiative Generation-recombination Radiative recombination occurs when an electron moves from its conduction band state into the empty valence band state associated with the hole. This band-to-band transition is also a radiative transition in direct bandgap semiconductors. [5] When the process is reversed, the generation mechanism occurs. Radiative recombination depends on the density of available electrons and holes. Both carrier types need to be available in the recombination process. Therefore, the rate is expected to be proportional to the product of n and p. Also, in thermal equilibrium, the recombination rate must equal the generation rate since there is no net recombination or generation. As the product of n and p equals ni2 in thermal equilibrium, the net recombination rate can be expressed as: (9) where b is the bimolecular recombination constant [5]. 4.2.4 Optical Generation Optical generation within a diode occurs when a photon with energy greater than the diode bandgap energy is absorbed in the diode, generating an electron-hole pair. This generation rate is described by the following equation: (10) where, is the materials absorption coefficient at the energy of the incoming photon; A is the device area; Eph is the energy of the incoming photon; Popt(x) is power at a given depth into the device, according to the following equation:
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(11) For a diode exposed to N different wavelengths of light, the total optical generation rate can be described as follows: (12)

4.3 Simulation Results of the Solar Cell Model

Using the one-dimensional drift diffusion model, described in section 5.1, Si crystalline solar cell was simulated The IV characteristics of the solar cell under illumination are shown in Figure 1, and the generated power density vs. applied bias in Figure 2, when the doping densities are = / , = / . Total thickness of the solar cell is . =10um, and the width

of the N region is

=100nm. Carrier lifetimes are

Figure 1. IV Characteristic of the solar cell under illumination.

Figure 2. Power density vs voltage.

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From Figures 1 and 2, the following parameters were determined: Isc=18.52 mA/cm , Voc=0.57 V and =7.93 mW/cm. The fill factor (FF) of a solar cell is calculated as follows: (13) Finally, the efficiency of the solar cell is calculated as follows: (14) In the above calculations, Pin is calculated by summing the input power supplied through optical generation. Multiple simulations were then run to determine the effect of length of p and n regions on cell performance. These are summarized in the Table 1.
Table 1. Efficiency and Fill Factor of Different Solar Cell Structures.

Voc
( ) ( ) (um) (nm) (V)

Isc
(mA/ ) (mW/ ) Fill Factor Efficiency

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 17 16

15 15 15 15 13 14 16 15 15

10 10 1 20 1 1 1 1 1

100 200 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

0.571 0.92 0.502 0.581 0.362 0.423 0.562 0.501 0.495

18.52 15.81 7.9 19.53 8.1 8.15 6.6 7.556 7.547

7.933 8.463 2.8 7.453 2.021 2.47 2.876 2.638 2.518

0.75 0.58 0.70 0.65 0.68 0.712 0.77 0.69 0.67

17.62% 18.80% 6.22% 16.56% 4.49% 5.49% 6.39% 5.86% 5.59%

Other factors should also be considered when optimizing the performance of the cell, such as doping densities, minority carries lifetime, solar cell thickness, etc.

4.4 GUI in MATLAB

In computing, a graphical user interface (GUI, sometimes pronounced gooey) is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices with images rather than text commands. GUIs can be used in computers, hand-held devices such as MP3 players, portable media players or gaming devices, household appliances and office equipment. A GUI represents the information and actions available to a user through graphical icons and visual indicators such as secondary notation, as opposed to text-based interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation. The actions are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. [6] MATLAB owns function to design GUI. Users simply need to choose the graphical model needed and then setup the interface. By creating the GUI file and then combining the interface with the
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calculation program, an operator window shown in Figure 3 for the solar-cell simulator is established. Users set the initial values for parameters of the p-n junction which stands for a solar cell by typing in wanted numbers in the labeled spaces.

Figure 3. The interface of the solar cell simulator.

5. Summary of the work

5.1 EC2000 Criterion 4 Considerations
In recent years the utilization of solar energy has been greatly optimized and generalized. Such a trend is continuing. The project, 1D Modeling of Solar Cells, addresses the following 3 specific EC2000 Criterion 4 Considerations. 5.1.1 Economics Until now, the costs of utilizing solar cells were still high. However, with the improvement of related technologies, the ratio of output to input of solar cells will be high. Since solar energy is considerable and the fuel is free, the solar cell technology may create many economic benefits; even contribute to the steadiness of energy economy. 5.1.2 Environment The energy that solar cells provide is relatively pollution-free. It does not produce harmful environmental pollutants, such as greenhouse gases, as fossil fuels and nuclear power do. However,
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the strong light reflected from solar panels may affect migration of birds. Generally speaking, solar cells technology is comparably environmentally friendly. 5.1.3 Sustainability As is well known, the solar energy is in abundance. As long as the suns rays reach the earth, humans can utilize solar cell technology. Under these circumstances, when the world encounters shortage of fuels, such as oil, coal, or available uranium, solar cell technology could be dependable and solve the shortage of fuels.

5.2 Conclusion
The projects production is a prospective useful innovation for its low investment and high productivity. After the work of one academic year, involving basic knowledge learning, MATLAB coding, and designing GUI operation window, the simulator has been created. This simulator will be a promising and efficient tool for researchers to run related simulation, because it will greatly simplify the process of design by providing a friendly interface and an accessible approach. The key of the project is developing first an equilibrium p-n diode solver and extending it to a non-equilibrium solar cell simulator. The simulator allows for properties of solar cells, such as voltage, current and power, to be calculated. For easy use of the tool by non-experts, a MATLAB GUI was created. The solar cells related values, such as the width of p-n junction, are set up in the window and then transmitted into the solver program for calculation. The programs calculation results are clearly displayed.

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Reference
[1] Green, M.A., Third generation photovoltaics: Ultra-high conversion efficiency at low cost, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 9(2), 123(2001) [2] A. Marti and A. Luque (Eds.), Next generation photovoltaics: high efficiency through full spectrum utilization, Series in Optics and Optoelectronics, Institute of Physics Publishing, Bri stol (2003) [3] G. Conibeer, Third generation photovoltaics, Materials today 10(11), 42(2007) [4] Shockley W. and Queisser H.J., J. Appl. Phys. 32 p. 510 (1961). [5] B. V. Zeghbroeck, Principles of Semiconductor Devices, http://ecee.colorado.edu/~bart/book /book/title.htm [6] Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface

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