UNIT 2: 2.

1 CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

CPU is the brain of the computer All major calculations and comparisions performed by the computer are carried out inside the its CPU. CPU is responsible for activating can controlling the operation of other units of the computer system. In order to understand the capability of a computer it is important to understand how CPU is structured internally. How CPU differ from each other How CPU speed is evaluated

Two basic components of CPU are the control unit and arithmetic logic unit. C !T" # U!IT It has a number of registers$ %. Instruction register which holds the current instruction that is being e&ecuted. '. Program Control register holds the ne&t instruction to be e&ecuted. (. )ecoder has the circuitry to decode and interpret the meaning of each and every instruction. A#U *A"ITH+,TIC # -IC U!IT. The A#U is the place where actual e&ecution of the instruction ta/es place during the data processing operation. 0hen the control unit encounters an instruction that involves an arithmetic operation *such as add1 subtract1 multiply1divide.or logic operation *213 14 etc. In case of a microcomputer 1 the entire CPU *both the control unit and the A#U. is contained on a single tiny silicon chip called a microprocessor. Instruction set: ,very CPU has a built in ability to e&ecute a particular set of machine instructions calledits instruction set. +ost CPUs have '55 or more instructions in their instruction set. CPU made by different manufacturers have different instruction set. Also1 different CPU model of the same manufacturer also often have different instruction set.

To speed up the rate of information transfer1 the computer uses a number of special registers

*a. +A" 6 +emory address register7 it holds the address of the active memory location *b. +8"7 +emory buffer register 6 it holds the contents of the memory word read from or written in memory. 9 PC7 Program Control 6 it holds the address of the ne&t instruction to be e&ecuted. A branch address is an operation that calls for a transfer to a non consecutive memory location. *c. AC7 accumulator register7 This register holds the initial data to be operated on1 the intermediate result and also the final result of the processing operations. The result of the arithmetic operations are returned of AC for transfer to main memory . *d. I" 6Instruction register 6 It holds the current instruction that is being e&ecuted. *e. I: 7 Input : utput "egister7 this register is used to communicate with the input :output devices.All input information such as instructions and data are transferred to this register by an input device. Also1 all output information to be transferred to an output device is found in this register. The e&ecution of an instruction by the CPU during program e&ecution normally involves the following steps$ %. The control unit ta/es the address of the ne&t instruction to be e&ecuted by the PC*program control. register and reads the instruction from the memory address into the I"*instruction register. of the control unit. '. The control unit then sends the operation part and the address part of the instruction to the decoder and the memory address register respectively. (. The decoder interprets the instruction and accordingly the control unit sends signals to the unit needed to carry out the specific ta/s. ;. As the instruction is e&ecuted 1 the address of the ne&t instruction to be e&ecuted automatically gets loaded into the PC*program control. register.

PROCESSOR SPEE
The operation of the A#U and the control unit are performed with incredible speed. These operations are usually synchroni<ed by a built in electronic cloc/ */now as system cloc/. that emits millions of regularly spaced electric pulses per second*/now as cloc/ cycles.. ne cycle is the time it ta/es to perform one operation such as moving a byte of data from one memory location to another =everal cloc/ cycles are re>uired to fetch1 decode and e&ecute single program instruction. The speed with which an instruction is e&ecuted is directly related to the computer?s built in cloc/ speed1 which is the number of pulses produced per second. This cloc/ speed is measured in meghahert< or +H< 1 where mega means million and hert< means produced cycles per second. +ost computer have the speed of %55 to %555 +H<..

The processing speed of the wor/stations1 minicomputers and main frames are measured in +IP=*million of instructions per second. or 8IP=*billion instrcutiono per second. and that of super computer in +@# P=* millions of floating point operations per second. and -@# P=*gigaflops 4 billion @# P=. C=IC and "I=C processor C=IC*Comple& instruction set computer. has CPU with a large instruction set1 variable length instructions and a variety of addressing modes. C=IC processors possess so many processing features that they ma/e the job of the programmer easy. However1 they are comple& and e&pensive to produce. +ost of the CPU today use C=IC processor. "=IC*"educed Instruction =et Computer. have a small instruction set1 they place e&tra demand on the programmer1 who must consider how to implement comple& calculations by combining simple instructions. )ue to simple design 1 "I=C processor are faster for most applications1 less comple& and less e&pensive to produce than CI=C processors. CACH, Cache memory is an e&tremely fast1 small memory between CPU and main memory whose access s closer to the processing speed of the CPU. It acts as a high speed buffer between the CPU and main memory and is used to temporarily store very active data and instructions during processing. =ince the cache is faster than main memory1 the processing speed is increased by ma/ing data and instruction needed in present processing available in the cache. Loc!"it# o$ re$erence 6 )uring a course of e&ecution of most programs 1 memory references by the processor 1 both instructions and data tend to cluster. That is if an any instruction is e&ecuted 1 there is a li/elihood of the same instruction being e&ecuted again soon. Hence such program and data are /ept in the cache memory. 8 TI!-

The process of switching on the computer is referred as the AbootingB of the computer. It is also called the startup of the computer. The dis/ from which the startup of booting is done is called a %oot!%"e &is' or st!rtup &is' or s#stem &is' 0e can define booting as AIt is the loading of set of programs form the " + *read only memory. into the "A+*random access memory. so that it creates an environment for the e&ecution of commands . )uring booting1 three files are loaded into memory*"A+.. These are I .=C=1 +=) =.=C= and C ++A!).C + =T,P @ 8 TI!- A =C=T,+$

%. The P =T *power on self test. routine performs a reliability test on the other " + programs to find whether they are in order or not '. The " + startup routines set up addresses of " + 68I = routine in IDT*interrupt vector table. at the low end of memory. It also performs "A+ test and store the memory si<e of at some location in memory. (. " + starts routines chec/s and initiali<e the standard e>uipments li/e /eyboard1 D)U1 floppy dis/1 mouse1 joystic/ etc. ;. " + startup routines reads from 8I = *basic input output system. and loads into "A+. E. A " + startup routine called %ootstr!p "o!&er loads the contents of side 51 trac/ 5 and sector % of the first drive in the system boot up se>uence. F. The &is' %ootstr!p program loads the file I .=C= from the dis/ into memory which contains two modules. ne is dis/ 8I = and other is =C=I!T. The =C=I!T modules loads the file +=) =.=C= from the dis/ into memory.. @urther +=) =.=C= loads CO((AN .CO( into memory. C ++A!).C + contains two modules one is the resi&ent portion and other is the tr!nsient portion o$ memor#. G. The transient portion of C ++A!).C + e&ecutes the file AUT ,H,C.8AT *batch file. and it displays the ) = prompt C$I2 J. The resident portions of the memory stores all the internal commands of ) =. TCP,= @ 8 TI!-

There are two types of booting %. Cold booting7 0hen the PC is switched on 1 it loads the 8ootable ) = program form the dis/ to the memory. It can be done from the !: @@ switch button on the cabinet and so called a switch booting. '. Hot 8ooting 6 This is called warm booting. It is faster than cold booting. If the computer hangs or halts or crashes we can reboot by crtlKaltKdel /ey.